learn c# marathi transliteration

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सी शाप�अगद सोप ंभाषेत

कौसरकौसरकौसरकौसर चुनावालाचुनावालाचुनावालाचुनावाला

शाप� �शकुयाभाषेत

See the output for yourself

Write the

program

Get the gist of the concept

�शकुया

2 | P a g e

Learn C# - do it yourself way... 2008

संगणकशा�ा�या �व ा!या"साठ$

These notes were compiled by me, while serving NIIT Training

Institute, Mumbai – India as a faculty member. This text would

facilitate the learning process of the students when they learn an

Object-Oriented Programming language like C#. It starts from scratch

and takes you upto the depth required at an undergraduate school. I

appreciate the contribution made by my students – Farzan, Mario,

Swapnil, Geetashree, Swati, Pooja, Shraddha, Chaitali, Snehal,

Sushil, Anand, Sadiq, Rama, Tausif, Ameya and all other students and

colleagues.

Program Listing

Chapter Name Pages

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1 Introduction to C#

2 C# Fundamentals

3 Decision Making and Looping Constructs

4 Classes, Objects and Methods

5 Collections in C#

6 Polymorphism, Constructors and

Destructors

7 Inheritance – Our objects’ family tree

8 Advanced C# Language Concepts

9 File Input and Output

10 Exception Handling

11 Threads

12 Attributes and Reflections

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1

Introduction to C#

1.1 Hello World C# Style

using System;

class Greeting

{

public static void Main(string[] args)

{

Console.WriteLine("Hello World");

}

}

Output :

1. Open the Notepad and type

the following

program.

2. Save the file as Hello.cs

3. Go to Visual Studio Command

Prompt from Start->

All Programs - >Visual

Studio 2008 -> Visual

Studio Tools

4. On the command prompt, go

to the directory,

where you saved the

file.

5. Type cs Hello.cs to compile

the program.

6. Type Hello to run the

program.

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Dissecting the Hello World Program

using System;

class Greeting

{

public static void Main(string[] args)

{

Console.WriteLine("Hello World");

}

}

The program starts with the using statement. Wait for a while, till I

tell you what it means. Then, we declare a class called Greeting. All

code in C# must be written inside a class.

Next, we have written Main(). The word Main() indicates this is the

start of the program. This is where the C# system start the

executing(running) the program. Thus, Main() is the entry

point(starting point) of any program. All statements written inside

Main() are executed line by line. The Main() block is started using a

starting curly brace { and terminated using an ending curly brace }.

Whatever you want to write inside Main() must be enclosed within

this pair of curly braces. On the same lines, whatever you write inside

the class, must be enclosed within { ... }.

In the above program, we have written just one command/statement –

Console.WriteLine().This command is used display text on the VDU

screen. Whatever you put inside Console.WriteLine() gets printed on

the screen, when you run the program. In this case, it is Hello World.

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What are Classes and Objects?

C# is an object-oriented programming language. All the C# code you

write will appear in a class.

In early days of programming, programs were designed using

flowcharts and a sort of top-down design. With this type of design, a

large problem was solved step-by-step. Thus, the solution to a

problem was visualised as a series of steps or operations. To arrive at

the solution, you follow the sequence of steps or procedure. This form

of programming is called Procedural Programming.

The new paradigm of programming is Object-Oriented Programming.

In Object-Oriented Programming, to find the solution, we decompose

a large problem in terms of objects.

So, what really are objects. Any real world entity or thing, say for

example a car, a person, a flight, a ticket-booking, an employee, a

college can be an object in C#. To model real world things, in C# we

create objects.

Just like in the real – world, each object has some features or

characteristics that describe the object, our C# objects also have

features that describe the object. For example, every car has some

name, brand, year of manufacture, price, color which describe it. In

C#, to model this concept, C# car object will also have attributes

name, brand, yearOfManufacture, price, color etc. Every car object

will have its own values of these attributes. Consider the following

two car objects –

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6

Polymorphism, Constructors

and Destructors

6.1 Function Overloading

class Test

{

public int Multiply(int a, int b)

{

return a * b;

}

public double Multiply(double a, double b)

{

return a * b;

}

public double Multiply(int a, double b)

{

return a * b;

}

public double Multiply(double a, int b)

{

return a * b;

}

public int Multiply(int a, int b, int c)

{

return a * b * c;

}

}

class OverloadDemo

{

public static void Main()

{

Test t = new Test();

double res1 = t.Multiply(4.2, 5.5);

int res2 = t.Multiply(3, 5);

double res3 = t.Multiply(4.2, 5);

There are 6 different versions of the

Multiply() method in the Test class.

The 1st

version multiplies two ints

and returns an int as the answer.

The 2nd

version accepts 2 doubles as

input parameters and returns a

double result as the answer. The 3rd

version accepts an integer and a

double number as an argument, and

returns their product as the answer.

Every time, we are assigning a new

extra meaning to the Multiply()

function. Thus, we have overloaded

the Multiply() method.

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double res4 = t.Multiply(5, 3.8);

int res5 = t.Multiply(3, 4, 5);

}

}

In method overloading, we assign a new extra meaning to the method.

For example suppose, we have written the Multiply() method as

follows :

public int Multiply(int x, int y)

{

int result = x * y;

return result;

}

The Multiply() method is designed to accept 2 integers as input

parameters. It multiplies the two integers x and y, and returns an

integer result as the answer.

Suppose, we now define one more Multiply() method as follows -

public double Multiple(double x, double y)

{

double result = x * y;

return result;

}

This Multiply() method multiplies two double numbers and returns a

double result as the answer. Thus, the Multiply() method now has two

different versions. The first version can multiply two integers,

whereas the second version can multiply 2 doubles. Thus, we have

assigned a new extra meaning to the Multiply() method, so that it can

now no longer multiply just two ints, but it can as well multiply two

doubles.Hence, we have overloaded the Multiply() method. Thus, this

is method overloading.

Let us define one more Multiply() method as follows -

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public double Multiply(int x, double y){

double result;

result = x * y;

return result;

}

This time round, the Multiply() method can multiply one int with one

double value, and returns a double result as the answer. Thus, we are

again assigning a new extra meaning to the Multiply() method. So,

once again we have overloaded the Multiply() function.

If we define one more Multiply() method as :

public double Multiply(double x, int y)

{

double result;

result = x * y;

return result;

}

This new version of the Multiply() method can now multiply a double

with an integer. Mutiplying a double with an int, is different from

multiplying an int with a double.

Thus, we are again assigining a new meaning to the Multiply()

method. Hence, we have again overloaded the Multiply() method.

Consider another version of the Multiply method -

public int Multiply(int x, int y, int z){

return x * y * z;

}

This version of the Multiply() method computes the product of 3 ints

instead of 2. Once again we have assigned extra meaning to

Multiply(). So, it is an overloaded function.

A function is said to be overloaded if -

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1. When two or more methods in the same class have the same name

2. They have different Parameter Lists

Parameter list is different if -

- Type of parameters differs.

- No of parameters is different.

- Order of parameters is different.

6.2 Operator Overloading

class Date

{

public int day;

public int month;

public int year;

public static Date operator +(Date d1, Date d2)

{

Date result = new Date();

result.day = d1.day + d2.day;

result.month = d1.month + d2.month;

result.year = d1.year + d2.year;

if(result.day>30){

result.day -= 30;

result.month++;

}

if (result.month > 12)

{

result.month -= 12;

result.year++;

}

return result;

}

public static bool operator <(Date d1, Date d2)

{

bool ans;

int days1 = d1.day + d1.month * 30 + d1.year *

365;

int days2 = d2.day + d2.month * 30 + d2.year *

365;

if (days1 < days2)

ans = true;

else

ans = false;

return ans;

}

public static bool operator >(Date d1, Date d2)

A Date class is used to represent the

date in the form of days, months

and years.

The + operator is overloaded, so that

it can add two Date class objects.

The two Date objects are passed as

arguments into d1 and d2. To store

the sum of Date objects, we take a

result Date object. We set the day,

month and year of the result Date

object as the sum of the

corresponding day, month and year

of d1 and d2.

We also need to check for overflow.

Overflow happens when the no of

resulting days exceeds 30. For

example, we treat 35 days as 1

month and 5 days. So, when an

overflow occurs we add 1 to the

months, and the balance days are 35

– 30 = 5.

The < operator is overloaded, so that

it can compare 2 Date objects and

find out which is smaller. Comparing

2 Date objects for the no. Of days,

months and years can be tricky, so a

simple way would be to find the

total no of days of each Date object

and then just compare them. If

days1 turns out to be less than

days2 as assumed, return true else

return false. We also overload >

operator, since they must be

overloaded in pairs.

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Learn C# - do it yourself way...

{

bool ans;

int days1 = d1.day + d1.month * 30 + d1.year * 365;

int days2 = d2.day + d2.month * 30 + d2.year * 365;

if (days1 > days2)

ans = true;

else

ans = false;

return ans;

}

public void GetDate()

{

Console.WriteLine(

Console.WriteLine(

Console.WriteLine(

Console.WriteLine();

}

}

class DateDemo

{


{

Date d1 = new Date

Date d2 = new Date

Date result;

bool ans;

d1.day = 2;

d1.month = 7;

d1.year = 5;

d2.day = 29;

d2.month = 6;

d2.year = 4;

result = d1 + d2;

d1.GetDate();

d2.GetDate();

result.GetDate();

ans = (d1 > d2);

Console.WriteLine(

}

}

Suppose we write the instruction 2 + 3.

days1 = d1.day + d1.month * 30 + d1.year * 365;

days2 = d2.day + d2.month * 30 + d2.year * 365;

(days1 > days2)

;

GetDate()

.WriteLine("Day : " + day);

.WriteLine("Month : " + month);

.WriteLine("Year : " + year);

.WriteLine();

Main()

Date();

Date();

result = d1 + d2;

result.GetDate();

s = (d1 > d2);

.WriteLine("d1 > d2 : " + ans);

Suppose we write the instruction 2 + 3.

2008

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When the C# system encounters this line, it does not directly add the

2 + 3. Instead, the C# system calls a function with the name + and

passes 2 and 3 as the arguments.

+(2,3)

When this function is called, the control jumps to the function

definition. The + function looks like this

public int operator +(int a, int b)

{

___________________;

___________________;

___________________;

}

Since, the computer gives us the answer of 2 + 3 = 5, this function +

is already defined in C#. Now, suppose we would like to assign extra

meaning to the + operator.

Let's say we have the following objects -

MyClass obj1 = new MyClass();

MyClass obj2 = new MyClass();

Suppose, we now write

obj1 + obj2

Thus, the following function is called -

+(obj1,obj2)

But, since these our own objects, we have created them, we have

made their class design, the + operator does not know how to add

these custom made objects. To be able to add them, we need to define

the following function -

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public MyClass operator + (MyClass obj1, MyClass obj2){

MyClass result;

//Code for adding the 2 objects..

_______________________________;

_______________________________;

return result;

}

By defining this function, the + operator will also be able to add

objects. Hence, we are assigning extra meaning to the + operator, so

that it is able to add our own objects. Hence, it is called Operator

Overloading.

Syntax for Overloading Binary Arithmetic Operator

public static MyClass operator + (MyClass obj1, MyClass obj2)

{

MyClass result;

______________

______________

return result;

}

Syntax for Overloading Unary Arithmetic Operator

public static MyClass operator -(MyClass obj)

{

MyClass result;

______________

______________

return result;

}

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Syntax for Overloading Relational Operators

public static bool operator <(MyClass obj1, MyClass obj2){

bool ans;

//Compare the two objects

______________

______________

return ans;

}

Note : Relational operators are always overloaded in pairs.

If we overload < operator, then we must also overload > operator.

Similarly, if we overload <= or == operator, we must also overload

their corresponding complementary operators >= and !=.

6.3 Constructors

class Box

{

double width;

double height;

double depth;

public Box()

{

width = height = depth = 1;

}

public Box(int l)

{

width = height = depth = l;

}

public Box(int w, int h, int d)

{

width = w;

height = h;

depth = d;

}

public void GetBox()

{

Console.WriteLine("w : " + width + " h : " + height + " d :

"+depth);

}

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public void Volume()

{

Console.WriteLine(

}

}

class BoxDemo

{


{

Box myBox1 = new

Box myBox2 = new

Box myBox3 = new

myBox1.GetBox();

myBox2.GetBox();

myBox3.GetBox();

myBox1.Volume();

myBox2.Volume();

myBox3.Volume();

}

}

A constructor is a special method that is called automatically, when

an object is created.

Why Constructors?

When we first create an object, all its fields are initialised to 0. In

other words, the memory is zeroed out.

Box myBox;

myBox = new Box();

To be able to use this Box object, we must put in meaningful values in

the width, height and depth of myBox. Thus, we must assign values to

myBox’s instance variables.

To do so, we must manually go in and initialise all the fields of the

myBox object.

Volume()

.WriteLine("Volume : " + width * height * depth);

Main()

new Box();

new Box(5);

new Box(10, 20, 30);

myBox1.GetBox();

myBox2.GetBox();

myBox3.GetBox();

myBox1.Volume();

myBox2.Volume();

myBox3.Volume();


Why Constructors?


other words, the memory is zeroed out.

Box myBox;

myBox = new Box();



myBox’s instance variables.


2008

+ width * height * depth);






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myBox.width = 10;

myBox.height = 20;

myBox.depth = 30;

All of this seems rosy-

object. But, consider a real

keep track of thousands of orders and consignments. Each

consignment is shipped in Box object. So, if we typically have 1000

Box objects; myBox1, myBox2, myBox3,... this process of manually

initialising all the fields becomes very tedious and cumbersome.

Well, you can use convenience methods like SetBox(). Bu

have a thousand objects, you have explicitly call/invoke SetBox()

method on each Box object. Once again, it calls for a lot of work.

How can Constructors help me?

myBox.width = 10;

myBox.height = 20;

myBox.depth = 30;

-rosy till we have to work with just 1 Box

object. But, consider a real-time shipping application, where we to


ignment is shipped in Box object. So, if we typically have 1000



Well, you can use convenience methods like SetBox(). Bu



How can Constructors help me?

2008

rosy till we have to work with just 1 Box

time shipping application, where we to


ignment is shipped in Box object. So, if we typically have 1000



Well, you can use convenience methods like SetBox(). But, when you



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Constructor is a special method that is invoked automatically, when

an object is created. So, you don’t have to call a constructor method

explicitly.

Thus, constructor can be used to automatically initialise an object,

right at the time when the object is born/created.

1. A constructor has the same name as the class.

2. Like methods, constructors can also accept input parameters.

3. Unlike methods, constructors do not have a return type, not even

void.

4. Like methods, constructors can also be overloaded. Depending

upon the call, different versions of the constructor will be invoked.

Note – Adding constructors to a class is compulsory.

Q. But, the classes that we have written till now seemed to work fine

without a constructor.

A. If you do not write your own constructor, the C# Compiler adds a

constructor method for you for free. Such a constructor is called the

default constructor.

Q. But how does the default constructor know, what I want it to do?

A. It does not! That’s why, it does not accept any parameters and has

empty body. It looks like this –

public Box()

{

}

Thus, the free constructor that C# compiler adds for you, is a do-

nothing constructor.

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6.4 Destructors, Finalize() and

Dispose()

We know that when, objects are created, constructors are called, but

when objects are destroyed what happens?

Unlike C C++, in C# you don’t have to manually destroy objects.

Objects which are no longer needed are automatically destroyed by

the Garbage Collector(GC).

In C#, you can have two kinds of resources in the programs you write.

The Objects of a class, primitive data-types etc. are supported by C#,

and the space occupied by them is automatically release by the GC,

when it finds they are no longer in use. Such resources are called

Managed Resources.

But, there are other resources, like a Database Connection, a File

Stream, a Network Stream, a pipe etc. which are not supported by C#.

This means, when they are no longer in use, the responsibility of their

clean-up does not lie with the GC. You have to make sure, you clean

up these resources. Such resources are called unmanaged resources.

If your program/class uses unmanaged resources, you can clean up

these resources in two ways –

1)Write a destructor or finalizer method.

2)Override the Dispose() method.

If you write a destructor in the class, it is called just before the objects

of this class are destroyed by GC. There are two ways to write a

destructor –

class MyClass

{

~MyClass()

{

Console.WriteLine("You can free up an unmanaged resources here.");

}

}

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class DestroyDemo

{


{

MyClass obj = new MyClass();

obj = null;

}

}

A destructor has the same name as the class, but prefixed with a ~

tilde sign. Internally, this Destructor is translated to a call to the

Finalize() method –

class MyClass

{

protected override void Finalize()

{

try

{

Console.WriteLine("You can free up any unmanaged resources

here");

}

finally

{

base.Finalize();

}

}

}

Now, when you have a number of objects, the order in which these

objects will be destroyed/finalized is not fixed or known. Say, if we

have five objects obj1, obj2, obj3, obj4, obj5 of a class MyClass. The

GC may decide to destroy the objects in any random order say, for

example obj3, obj5,obj1, obj4, obj2. The GC maintains a queue of all

the objects that are to be finalized. This is called Finalization Queue.

In other words, finalization is non-deterministic(random). When we

want to exercise control over the finalization process, we can override

the Dispose() method (whose interface is IDisposable). The Dispose()

method differs from the Finalize() method, in that, we need to

explicitly call the Dispose() method. A finalizer is implicitly called,

and cannot be explicitly called, even if you wanted to.

Implicit Resource Cleanup Destructor or Finalize() method

Explicit Resource Cleanup Dispose()

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7

Inheritance – Our objects’

family tree

7.1 Overview of Inheritance

Kathy is assigned the task of building an Employee Management

System. She starts by thinking, “I am gonna take Employee objects

for every Employee” in the organisation. So, she begins by writing an

Employee class as follows –

class Employee

{

public string name;

public string address;

public int SSN;

public int number;

public float salary;

public float computePay()

{

return salary / 12.0F;

}

}

The design of an Employee class seems fine to her initially. An

employee has a name, address, and number and so on... We want the

compute the pay of different Employee objects.

But, Kathy questions herself, does every Employee have a salary? Is it

true that every Employee object has a salary. By studying the problem

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domain, she finds out that there are Employees which are paid on an

hourly basis, or employees which are on contract basis.

The first mistake Kathy made was to add a field of type salary to

Employee. She discovers although employees are the objects in our

problem domain, there are actually two different types of Employee

objects : Salaried Employees and Hourly Employees. Therefore, we

should write two classes : Salary and Hourly.

The Salary class should have a field to represent the employee’s

annual salary because a Salaried Employee has a salary. The Hourly

class should have fields to represent the employee’s hourly pay rate

and the no of hours for which he worked.

The Salary and Hourly classes look like this –

class Salary

{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;

public int salary;


{


}

}

class Hourly

{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;

public int hoursWorked;

public int hourlyRate;

public int computePay()

{

return hoursWorked*hourlyRate;

}

}

Although Salary and Hourly classes are different types, they are not

entirely different. In fact, the two types of employees have a lot in

common, as seen by the repetition of fields and methods in these two

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classes. So, we can take the common elements from both the classes,

and put them in a parent class leaving the unique elements behind in

the child class. We can simply make the Salary and Hourly classes

inherit the elements of the Employee class.

Employee class is called Parent class/Base class/Super class.

Salary and Hourly classes are called child class/Derived class/sub-

class.

If you want to make Salary and Hourly the child classes of Employee,

we write them as follows :

class Employee

{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;

}

class Salary : Employee

{

public int salary;


{


}

}

class Hourly : Employee

{




{

return hoursWorked*hourlyRate;

}

} When your classes use inheritance, you only need to write your code once.

In the above scenario, Salary class and the Hourly class have a lot of

same code.

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Salary Employee and Hourly Employee are both employees.

When you have two classes which are more specific cases of

something more general, you can set them up to inherit from the same

base class.

Build up your class model, by starting General and getting more Specif

7.2 Method Overriding

class Employee

{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;

Salary

salary

computePay()

and Hourly Employee are both employees.



Build up your class model, by starting General and getting more Specif

7.2 Method Overriding

address;

Employee

name

address

SSN

number

GetEmployee()

Hourly

hourlyRate

hoursWorked

computePay()

2008

and Hourly Employee are both employees.



Build up your class model, by starting General and getting more Specific

hoursWorked

computePay()

21 | P a g e


public void GetEmployee()

{

Console.WriteLine("Name : " + name);

Console.WriteLine("Address : " + address);

Console.WriteLine("SSN : " + SSN);

Console.WriteLine("Number : " + number);


}

}


{

public int salary;


{


}


{





Console.WriteLine("Salary : " + salary);


}

}


{




{

return hoursWorked * hourlyRate;

}


{





Console.WriteLine("Hours Worked : " + hoursWorked);

Console.WriteLine("Hourly Rate : " + hourlyRate);


}

}

class EmployeeDemo

{


{

Employee e = new Employee();

e.name = "Robert Smith";

e.address = "111 Palm street";

e.SSN = 999901111;

e.number = 1;

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Salary s = new Salary();

s.name = "Jane Smith";

s.address = "Oak Drive";

s.SSN = 111009999;

s.number = 2;

s.salary = 10000;

Hourly h = new Hourly();

h.name = "George Washington";

h.address = "333 Espresso Lane";

h.SSN = 111990000;

h.number = 3;

h.hoursWorked = 200;

h.hourlyRate = 30;

e.GetEmployee();

s.GetEmployee();

h.GetEmployee();

}

}

7.3 Use of base keyword

using System;

class Employee

{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;


{






}

}


{

public int salary;


{


}


{

base.GetEmployee();



}

}

23 | P a g e



{




{

return hoursWorked * hourlyRate;

}


{

base.GetEmployee();

Console.WriteLine("Hours Worked : " + hoursWorked);

Console.WriteLine("Hourly Rate : " + hourlyRate);


}

}

class EmployeeDemo

{


{

Employee e = new Employee();

e.name = "Robert Smith";

e.address = "111 Palm street";

e.SSN = 999901111;

e.number = 1;

Salary s = new Salary();

s.name = "Jane Smith";

s.address = "Oak Drive";

s.SSN = 111009999;

s.number = 2;

s.salary = 10000;

Hourly h = new Hourly();

h.name = "George Washington";

h.address = "333 Espresso Lane";

h.SSN = 111990000;

h.number = 3;

h.hoursWorked = 200;

h.hourlyRate = 30;

e.GetEmployee();

s.GetEmployee();

h.GetEmployee();

}

}

7.4 Adding Constructors

using System;

public class Employee

{

public string name;


public int SSN;

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public int number;

public Employee()

{

Console.WriteLine("Inside Grandparent");

}


{






}

}

public class Salary : Employee

{

public int salary;

public Salary()

{

Console.WriteLine("Inside Parent");

}


{


}


{







}

}

public class PartTimeSalary : Salary

{

public PartTimeSalary()

{

Console.WriteLine("Inside PartTimeSalary");

}

}

class EmployeeDemo

{


{

PartTimeSalary pts = new PartTimeSalary();

}

}

7.5 Calling Parent class Constructors

25 | P a g e


using System;


{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;

public Employee(string n, string a, int S, int num)

{

name = n;

address = a;

SSN = S;

number = num;

}


{






}

}


{

public int salary;

public Salary(string n,string a, int S, int num, int

sal):base(n,a,S,num)

{

salary = sal;

}


{


}


{







}

}

class EmployeeDemo

{


{

Salary s = new Salary("Jane Smith", "222 Oak Drive", 111009999, 3,

10000);

s.GetEmployee();

}

}

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8

Advanced C# Language

Concepts

8.1 Using Parent class references to

Child Objects

An object reference can refer to an object of its class, or to an object

of any class derived from it by Inheritance. Suppose, we have the

following class hierarchy.

For example, if Animal class is the parent, and Bird is its child,

SongBird is the child of Bird and so on,... Animal reference can refer

to a Bird object or a SongBird object.

Animal a;

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a = new Animal();

a = new Bird();

a = new SongBird();

Assigning an object to an ancestor reference is considered to be a

widening conversion, and can be performed using simple assignment.

Animal a = new MockingBird();

Assigning an ancestor object to a child reference can also be done, but

it is considered to be a narrowing conversion and must be done with a

cast.

MockingBird m = (MockingBird)new Bird();

The widening conversion is the most useful for implementing

polymorphism.

8.2 Polymorphism via Inheritance

A polymorphic reference is the one which can refer to different types

of objects at different times. Such an object reference can refer to one

object at one time, and can refer to another object(related by

inheritance) at another time.

It is the type of object being reference, not the reference type, which

determines which method is invoked. Polymorphic references are

therefore resolved at run-time, not during compilation; hence it is

called dynamic binding.

class Shape

{

public virtual void Area()

{

}

}

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class TwoDimShape : Shape

{

public int a;

public int b;

}

class ThreeDimShape : Shape

{

public int a;

public int b;

public int c;

}

class Rectangle : TwoDimShape

{

public override void Area()

{

int area = a * b;

Console.WriteLine("Area : " + area);

}

public void SetRectangle(int x, int y)

{

a = x; b = y;

}

}

class Triangle : TwoDimShape

{


{

double area = 0.5 * a * b;


}

public void SetTriangle(int bas, int height){

a = bas;

b = height;

}

}

class Cube : ThreeDimShape

{


{

int area = 6 * a * a;


}

public void SetCube(int s)

{

a = b = c = s;

}

}

class Box : ThreeDimShape

{


{

int area = 2 * a * b + 2 * b * c + 2 * a * c;


29 | P a g e


}

public void SetBox(int x, int y, int z)

{

a = x;

b = y;

c = z;

}

}

class ShapeDemo

{


{

int choice;

Shape s = new Shape();

Triangle t = new Triangle();

t.SetTriangle(5,10);

Rectangle r = new Rectangle();

r.SetRectangle(10,10);

Cube c = new Cube();

c.SetCube(5);

Box b = new Box();

b.SetBox(10,20,30);

while (true)

{

Console.WriteLine("Enter a choice : ");

Console.WriteLine("1 - Rectangle");

Console.WriteLine("2 - Triangle");

Console.WriteLine("3 - Cube");

Console.WriteLine("4 - Box");

Console.WriteLine("5 - Exit");

choice = Convert.ToInt32(Console.ReadLine());

if (choice == 1)

s = r;

if (choice == 2)

s = t;

if (choice == 3)

s = c;

if (choice == 4)

s = b;

if (choice == 5)

break;

s.Area(); //Call is resolved at run-time

}

}

}

30 | P a g e


8.3 Abstract Classes and Abstract

Methods

Abstraction is the ability to make a class/method/property abstract in

C#. An abstract class is the one which cannot be instantiated. All

other functionalities of the class still exist, its fields, its methods and

constructors are all accessed in the same way. You just cannot create

objects of an abstract class.

An abstract class might initially seem like an odd design. Why write a

class and not allow anyone to create objects of it?

The Employee class that we have written in the previous programs is

an example where we do not want to create objects of Employee.

Notice, that the Employee class does not have any information about

salary and how much his pay comes to. It is safe to say, that no

employee of our organisation would like to be strictly an object of

Employee. This means, although we need the Employee class as a

parent of Salary and Hourly to support inheritance, we do not want to

create any objects of this class.

We can make it, so that no one can create objects of Employee class,

by declaring the Employee class abstract. The only result of making

the Employee class abstract is that we can no longer create objects of

Employee.

If the Employee class is made abstract, the following statement will

not compile –

Employee e;

e = new Employee(“George W.”,”Houston”,43); //Error

Just like you can make a class abstract, you can also make a method

abstract. For example, we could have a computePay() method in the

Employee class as abstract.

31 | P a g e


An abstract method is never called. Think about it. If computePay() is

abstract in the Employee() class, we really don’t care what

computePay() does in the Employee class, because it will never be

invoked/called. So, the abstract computePay() method in the

Employee class will be empty. Our assumption is that the child

classes of Employee will override the computePay().

This is where abstract methods are useful. If you want a class to

contain a particular method, but you want the actual implementation

to be determined by the child classes, you must declare the method in

the parent class as abstract. Abstract methods consist of a method

signature, but no method body.

public abstract class Employee

{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;

public abstract void computePay();

}

8.4 Sealed Keyword

Sealed keyword works exactly opposite to abstract.

- A Sealed class cannot be sub-classed.

- A Sealed method cannot be overridden.

8.5 Namespaces

Every class belongs to a namespace. Namespaces basically have two

purposes –

1. Namespace provides a mechanism for organising classes.

2. Namespace does compartmentalization.

When developing a C# program, you put classes that go together in

the same namespace. For example, in C# the classes that are used to

32 | P a g e


perform basic Input and Output are in System namespace. The classes

used for GUI applications are in System.Windows.Forms namespace.

The classes used for creating threads are in System.Threading

namespace.

Q. Why are namespaces necessary? What if I have a small program

that is only a dozen classes?

Namespace is more than just a mechanism for organising classes. A

more important aspect of namespaces is that they create

compartments. For example, suppose that your program contains a

class named Vehicle. What if I wrote a class Vehicle as well? How

would you be able to tell them apart. What if someone wanted to use

my Vehicle class and your Vehicle class in their program?

Q. I have seen this problem before. Why don’t you change the names

of the classes, such as Vehicle1 and Vehicle2?

No thanks. I would have to re-write and re-compile a bunch of code.

With namespaces, I don’t have to worry about it. If the two Vehicle

classes are in different namespace/compartments, my C# program can

distinguish between the two Vehicle classes.

8.6 Adding a class to a Namespace

To add a class to a namespace/compartment, we use the namespace

keyword.

namespace A{

...

}

For example, if you wanted to put Employee, Salary and Hourly

classes in the payroll namespace/compartment we can do it as follows

–

33 | P a g e


using System;

namespace payroll

{


{

//Body of the class

}


{

//Body of the class

}

public class Hourly : Employee

{

//Body of the class

}

}

The Employee, Salary and Hourly classes are now all in the same

namespace.

8.7 Compartments created by

Namespaces

Namespace creates a compartment for all classes. If we put a class

inside a namespace/compartment, the namespace becomes a part of

the name of the class. Say for example, when we put Employee class

inside payroll package, the name of the class now becomes

payroll.Employee

The Employee class can now no longer be accessed by the name

Employee. To refer to the Employee class, we must everytime call it

payroll.Employee. Similarly, we must refer to Salary and Hourly

classes as payroll.Salary and payroll.Hourly.

Suppose you have a written a Vehicle class, and I too have written a

Vehicle class. Kate wants to use both the Vehicle classes in their

program. So, I put my Vehicle class in a compartment quasar, and you

put your vehicle class in another compartment student. Kate will now

refer to both the Vehicle classes as,

34 | P a g e


quasar.Vehicle

student.Vehicle

To create objects of these classes, Kate would write

quasar.Vehicle v1 = new quasar.Vehicle();

student.Vehicle v2 = new student.Vehicle();

Here, v1 refers to a quasar.Vehicle object, whereas v2 refers to

student.Vehicle object.

Thus, from the above example, you can deduce the fact that,

namespaces help you to avoid naming conflicts by creating

compartments.

Note – Classes within the same namespace/compartment do not need

to use the <namespace>.<class-name> convention while referring to

each other. Thus, if write another class Test inside payroll namespace,

we can call Employee, Salary and Hourly classes directly without

using any special naming convention. Classes in the same

compartment find each other without any special syntax.

8.8 using Keyword

If a class wants to refer to another class within the same

namespace/compartment, the namespace need not be used. We could

refer to it directly.

However, outside the compartment, we must use the fully qualified

name of the class. Consider the following program :

using System;

namespace payroll

{


{

public string name;


public int SSN;

public int number;

35 | P a g e


public Employee(string n, string a, int ssn, int num)

{

name = n;

address = a;

SSN = ssn;

number = num;

}

}

}

There is another class Boss which would like create Employee

objects.

using System;

class Boss

{


{

payroll.Employee e = new payroll.Employee("Jane Smith", "111 Oak

drive", 999001111, 1);

}

}

Writing payroll.Employee everytime could become tedious or

cumbersome. To make things easy, we can use the using keyword.

using keyword specifies in which namespace to look for the given

classes. If you write using payroll, then we can refer to the Employee

class, simply as Employee without using the fully-qualified name.

using System;

using payroll;

class Boss

{


{

Employee e = new Employee("Jane Smith", "111 Oak street",

999001111, 1);

}

}

Note that, using keyword is just a convenience statement. During

compilation, the C# compiler will replace all instances of Employee

class with payroll.Employee(Fully-Qualified name).

36 | P a g e


8.9 Skeleton of a C# Executable

8.10 Interfaces

An interface is a collection of abstract

an interface thereby inheriting the abstract methods of the interface.

All the methods of an interface need to be defined in the class.

Syntactically, an interface is defined using the C# interface keyword.

public interface IName

{

void method1();

void method2();

}

In the .NET Framework, interfaces have a special naming convention.

All interface names begin with a capital I.

Interfaces can have properties as well.

Difference from a class

1. You cannot create an object

File1.cs

namespace A{....}

class A{//Body of class}

Skeleton of a C# Executable

Interfaces

An interface is a collection of abstract members. A class implements





All interface names begin with a capital I.

Interfaces can have properties as well.

Difference from a class –

1. You cannot create an object of an interface.

AssemblyMyProgram.exe

File1.cs File2.cs

namespace A namespace B{....}

//Body of class

class B{//Body of class}

class C{//Body of class}

namespace C{....}

File3.cs

2008

A class implements





37 | P a g e


2. An interface does not contain any constructor.

3. All methods in an interface are abstract.

4. An interface can inherit multiple interfaces.

An interface is like a contract – a promise that a class will implement

a specific set of functionalities. When a class implements an interface,

it signs a contract, a treaty and promises to provide

implementation/definition of all methods or functions declared in the

interface.

C# code can question an object to determine whether it supports an

interface. Interrogating an object is basically asking the question,”Do

you support this interface?”. If the object answers, “Yes, I do!”, than

you can call the methods defined in the interface on the object.

8.11 Exposing Methods through an

Interface

public class Employee : Payable,EmployeeInfo

{

string name, address;

double weeklyPay;

public Employee(string n, string a)

{

name = n;

address = a;

}

public string GetName()

{

return name;

}

public string GetAddress()

{

return address;

}

public void SetName(string n)

{

name = n;

}

public void SetAddress(string a)

{

address = a;

}

38 | P a g e


public double GetWeeklyPay()

{

return weeklyPay;

}

public void computePay(int hoursWorked)

{

weeklyPay = hoursWorked * 6.50;

Console.WriteLine("Weekly Pay for : " + name + " is Rs." +

weeklyPay);

}

public void MailCheck()

{

Console.WriteLine("Mailing check to : " + name + " at " + address);

}

}

An organisation has many employees working in it. The Employee of

an organisation is represented by an Employee class object.

Associated with every Employee is his personal information such as

his name, address. Every employee also has a salary and other pay-

related information. The organisation has two departments – Payroll

and Human Resource.

Different parts in an organisation have different data needs. For

example, the payroll department handles the payroll needs, but it does

not need access to or change the personal information of an employee.

On the same lines, the Human Resource department manages the

general information about Employees, but it does not need access to

the Employee’s pay details. How do we realise these business rules in

C#? The answer lies in the innovative use of Interfaces.

Although we cannot instantiate(create an object) an interface, we can

do the following –

39 | P a g e


interface MyInterface

{

void a();

void b();

}

class MyClass : MyInterface

{

void a(){

Console.WriteLine(“Inside A”);

}

void b(){

Console.WriteLine(“Inside B”);

}

void c(){

Console.WriteLine(“Inside C”);

}

}

Declare an interface reference

MyInterface iref;

Assign to it, an object of a class that implements this interface

iref = new MyClass();

Using iref, we can call the methods a() and b(), but we cannot call the

method c(). Thus, we can call only those methods on the object,

which are declared and exposed by the interface.

Thus, by assigning an object to an interface reference, we can restrict

access to the methods that can be called on the object.

In the Employee class example, we could take two different interfaces

payable and EmployeeInfo for the Payroll and HR departments. The

payable interface exposes and provides an interface to only those

40 | P a g e


methods that are needed by the payroll department. Through the

EmployeeInfo interface, the HR department can only access those

methods which help it to manage Employee Information like name

and address.

public interface Payable

{

void computePay(int hoursWorked);

void MailCheck();

double GetWeeklyPay();

}

public interface EmployeeInfo

{

string GetName();

void SetName(string name);

string GetAddress();

void SetAddress(string address);

}

To represent the Payroll and Human Resource Departments, we write

the Payroll and HumanResource classes.

public class Payroll

{

public void PayEmployee(Payable p)

{

p.computePay(10);

p.MailCheck();

}

}

public class HumanResource

{

public string GetInfo(EmployeeInfo e)

{

return e.GetName() + " " + e.GetAddress();

}

public void ChangeName(EmployeeInfo e, string n)

{

Console.WriteLine("Changing Name for : " + e.GetName());

e.SetName(n);

Console.WriteLine("New name is : " + e.GetName());

}

public void UpdateAddress(EmployeeInfo e, string a)

{

Console.WriteLine("Changing address for : " + e.GetName());

e.SetAddress(a);

Console.WriteLine("New address is :" + e.GetAddress());

}

}

41 | P a g e


Now, we write the Main Program, where we take a fictious

Employee, and the payroll and HR departments.

class EmployeeManagement

{


{

Employee e = new Employee("George Washington","Mt. Vernon");

Payroll payroll = new Payroll();

HumanResource hr = new HumanResource();

payroll.PayEmployee(e);

hr.GetInfo(e);

hr.ChangeName(e, "Bill Gates");

hr.UpdateAddress(e, "Redmond VA");

}

}

42 | P a g e


9

File Reading and Writing – I/O

9.1 Concept of Streams

Many applications which you would write, need to store data and

retrieve data from a file. For example, in an Employee Management

System, you would like the Employee details to be stored

permanently in a file on the disk. You would also want to read

Employee data from the file on disk. You might also need to update

an employee’s information in a file, say for example his salary is

raised, or his marital status changes from single to Married.

Reading or writing data to files is a functionality which you require

often while making your application. Thus, it is important that we

study, how we can read or write to files.

However, an application cannot directly read or write data to a file.

To connect an application to a file, we must use a virtual pipe. Just as

a real pipe carries water, the virtual pipe carries bytes of data to and

fro between the application and the file.

This virtual pipe in C# is called a Stream. If the stream connects to a

file, its called FileStream.

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To create a FileStream in C#,

FileStream class.

FileStream fs = new FileStream(<file

access>,<file-Share>)

The FileStream constructor accepts the FileName as the first

argument. This must be the absolute file path. Next,

must be specified. The file mode tells the C# system, which mode you

would like to operate the file in.

The FileMode enum looks like this

enum FileMode{

CreateNew,

Create,

Open,

OpenOrCreate,

Truncate,

Append

}

To create a FileStream in C#, we must create an object of the

FileStream fs = new FileStream(<file-name>,<file-mode>,<file


argument. This must be the absolute file path. Next, the file mode


would like to operate the file in.

The FileMode enum looks like this –

2008

we must create an object of the

mode>,<file-


the file mode


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