leadership and influence

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Chapter ElevenChapter ElevenChapter ElevenChapter Eleven

Leadership and Influence Processes

Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11–2

Chapter OutlineChapter OutlineChapter OutlineChapter Outline

• The Nature of Leadership– The Meaning of Leadership– Leadership and Management– Leadership and Power

• Generic Approaches to Leadership– Leadership Traits– Leadership Behaviors

• Situational Approaches to Leadership– LPC Theory– Path-Goal Theory– Vroom’s Decision Tree Approach– The Leader-Member Exchange Approach


Chapter Outline (cont’d)Chapter Outline (cont’d)Chapter Outline (cont’d)Chapter Outline (cont’d)

• Related Approaches Leadership– Substitutes for Leadership– Charismatic Leadership– Transformational Leadership

• Emerging Approaches to Leadership– Strategic Leadership– Cross-Cultural Leadership– Ethical Leadership

• Political Behavior in Organizations– Common Political Behaviors– Impression Management– Managing Political Behaviors


Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

• After studying this chapter, you should be able to:–Describe the nature of leadership and relate leadership

to management.–Discuss and evaluate the two generic approaches to

leadership.–Identify and describe the major situational approaches

to leadership.–Identify and describe three related approaches to

leadership.–Describe three emerging approaches to leadership.–Discuss political behavior in organizations and how it

can be managed.


The Nature of LeadershipThe Nature of LeadershipThe Nature of LeadershipThe Nature of Leadership

• Leaders– People who can influence the behaviors of others without having

to rely on force.– People who are accepted

as leaders by others.

• Process: what leaders actually do.– Use noncoercive influence to shape the group’s or organization’s

goals.– Motivate others’ behavior toward goals.– Help to define organizational culture.

• Property: who leaders are.– The set of characteristics attributed to

individuals perceived to be leaders.


Table 11.1Table 11.1Distinctions Between Management Distinctions Between Management

and Leadershipand Leadership

Table 11.1Table 11.1Distinctions Between Management Distinctions Between Management

and Leadershipand Leadership

Leadership Activity Management

Establishing direction and vision for the organization

Creating an agenda Planning and budgeting, allocating resources

Aligning people through communications and actions

that provide direction

Developing a human network for achieving the agenda

Organizing and staffing, structuring and monitoring

implementation

Motivating and inspiring by satisfying needs

Executing plans Controlling and problem solving

Produces useful change and new approaches to challenges

Outcomes Produces predictability and order and attains results

Source: Adapted from A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management by John P. Kotter. Copyright © 1990 by John P. Kotter, Inc. Reprinted with permission of The Free Press, a division of Simon & Schuster Inc.


Types of Power in OrganizationsTypes of Power in OrganizationsTypes of Power in OrganizationsTypes of Power in Organizations

Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson, Contemporary Management, Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.


Power and LeadershipPower and LeadershipPower and LeadershipPower and Leadership

• Power is the ability to affect the behavior of others.

– Legitimate power is granted through the organizational hierarchy.

– Reward power is the power to give or withhold rewards.

– Coercive power is the capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat.

– Referent power is the personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma.

– Expert power is derived from the possession of information or expertise.


Generic Approaches to LeadershipGeneric Approaches to LeadershipGeneric Approaches to LeadershipGeneric Approaches to Leadership

• Leadership Traits –Assumed that a basic set of personal traits that

differentiated leaders from nonleaders could be used to identify leaders and predict who would become leaders.

–The traits approach was unsuccessful in establishing empirical relationships between traits and persons regarded as leaders.


Generic Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)Generic Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)Generic Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)Generic Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)

• Leadership Behaviors–Assumed that effective leaders somehow behaved

differently from ineffective leaders.–The goal of the behaviors approach was to develop a

fuller understanding of leadership behaviors


Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)

• Identified two forms of leader behavior–Job-centered behavior—managers who pay close

attention to subordinates’ work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance.

–Employee-centered behavior—managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction.

• The two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum.


Ohio State StudiesOhio State StudiesOhio State StudiesOhio State Studies

• Did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional as did the Michigan State studies.

• Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited simultaneously:–Initiating-structure behavior—the leader clearly

defines the leader-subordinate role expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agenda.

–Consideration behavior—the leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate.


Ohio State Studies (cont’d)Ohio State Studies (cont’d)Ohio State Studies (cont’d)Ohio State Studies (cont’d)

• Initial assumption was that the most effective leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors. Subsequent research indicated that:–Employees of supervisors ranked high on initiating

structure were high performers, yet they expressed low levels of satisfaction and higher absenteeism.

–Employees of supervisors ranked high on consideration had low performance ratings, yet they had high levels of satisfaction and less absenteeism.

–Other situational variables make consistent leader behavior predictions difficult. There is no universal or “one best way” model of leadership.


Figure 11.1Figure 11.1Leadership Leadership

GridGrid®®

Figure 11.1Figure 11.1Leadership Leadership

GridGrid®®

Source: From Leadership Dilemmas—Grid Solutions by Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse. (Formerly the Managerial Grid by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.) Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, p. 29. Copyright © 1991 by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners.


Situational Models of Leader BehaviorSituational Models of Leader BehaviorSituational Models of Leader BehaviorSituational Models of Leader Behavior

• Assume that:–Appropriate leader behavior

varies from one situation to another.–Key situational factors that

are interacting to determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified.


Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler)Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler)Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler)Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler)

• The appropriate style of leadership varies with situational favorableness (from the leader’s viewpoint).– Leadership styles are fixed so the situation must be changed to

fit the leader’s style.

• Least preferred coworker (LPC) measure

– The measuring scale that asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work well.

– High LPC scale scores indicate a relationship orientation; low LPC scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leader.


Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler) Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler) (cont’d)(cont’d)

Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler) Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler) (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Contingency variables determining situational favorableness:–Leader-member relations—the nature of the

relationship between the leader and the work group. –Task structure—the degree to which the group’s task

is defined.–Position Power—the power vested in the leader’s

position.


Figure 11.2Figure 11.2The Least-Preferred Coworker The Least-Preferred Coworker

Theory of LeadershipTheory of Leadership

Figure 11.2Figure 11.2The Least-Preferred Coworker The Least-Preferred Coworker

Theory of LeadershipTheory of Leadership


Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)

• Assumes that the primary functions of a leader are to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards.


Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House) Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House) (cont’d)(cont’d)

Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House) Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House) (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Leader Behaviors:– Directive leader behavior—letting subordinates know what is

expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.

– Supportive leader behavior—being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.

• Leader Behaviors:– Participative leader behavior—consulting with subordinates,

soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.

– Achievement-oriented leader behavior—setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates.


The Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal Theory

• Situational Factors:WorkSituation

Follower lacks self-confidence

Supportive

Achievement-oriented

Participative

Directive

LeadershipStyle

Impact onFollowers

Expected Results

Lack of jobchallenge

Improperprocedures and poor decisions

Ambiguous job

Increases self-confidence to complete task

Encourages setting high but attainable goals

Clarifies followerneed for makingsuggestions andinvolvement

Clarifies path toget rewards

Increased effort. job satisfaction, and performance; fewer grievances

Improved performance and greater job satisfaction

Improved performance and greater satisfaction; less turnover

Improved performance and job satisfaction


Figure 11.3Figure 11.3 The Path-Goal Framework The Path-Goal Framework

Figure 11.3Figure 11.3 The Path-Goal Framework The Path-Goal Framework


Decision Tree Approach (Vroom)Decision Tree Approach (Vroom)Decision Tree Approach (Vroom)Decision Tree Approach (Vroom)

• Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation.

• Basic Premises–The degree to which subordinates should be

encouraged to participate in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation.

–No one decision-making process is best for all situations.


Decision Tree Approach (Vroom) (cont’d)Decision Tree Approach (Vroom) (cont’d)Decision Tree Approach (Vroom) (cont’d)Decision Tree Approach (Vroom) (cont’d)

• After evaluating the different problem attributes, a leader can choose a decision path on one of two decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation.– Decision significance—the degree to which the decision will

have an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high.

– Decision Timeliness—the degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates.


Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)

• Decision-Making Styles–Decide—manager makes decision alone and then

announces or “sells” it to the group.–Consult (individually)—manager presents program

to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision.

–Consult (group)—manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision.


Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)

• Decision-Making Styles (cont’d)–Facilitate—manager presents the problem to the

group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision.

–Delegate—manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution.


Figure 11.4Figure 11.4Vroom’s Vroom’s

Time-Driven Time-Driven Decision TreeDecision Tree

Figure 11.4Figure 11.4Vroom’s Vroom’s

Time-Driven Time-Driven Decision TreeDecision Tree

Source: Adapted and reprinted from A Model of Leadership Style by Victor H. Vroom, © Victor H. Vroom, 1998.


Figure 11.5Figure 11.5Vroom’s Development-Driven Decision TreeVroom’s Development-Driven Decision Tree

Figure 11.5Figure 11.5Vroom’s Development-Driven Decision TreeVroom’s Development-Driven Decision Tree

Source: Adapted and reprinted from A Model of Leadership Style by Victor H. Vroom, © Victor H. Vroom, 1998.


The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach (Graen and Dansereau)Approach (Graen and Dansereau)

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach (Graen and Dansereau)Approach (Graen and Dansereau)

• Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates.

• Leaders form unique independent relationships (“vertical dyads”) with each subordinate in which the subordinate becomes a member of the leader’s out-group or in-group.


Figure 11.6Figure 11.6 The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)

ApproachApproach

Figure 11.6Figure 11.6 The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)

ApproachApproach


Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

• A concept that identifies situations in which leader behavior is neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization.

Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership

Subordinate Task Organization

Ability

Experience

Need for independence

Professional orientation

Indifference towards

organizational goals

Routineness

The availability of feedback

Intrinsic satisfaction

Formalization

Group cohesion

Inflexibility

A rigid reward structure


Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic LeadershipCharismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership

• Charisma, an interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance, is an individual characteristic of a leader.–Charismatic persons are

more successful than noncharismatic persons.

–Charismatic leaders are self-confident, have a firm conviction in their beliefs and ideals, and possess a strong need to influence people.


Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)

• Charismatic leaders in organizations must be able to:–envision the future, set high expectations, and model

behaviors consistent with expectations.–energize others through a demonstration

of excitement, personal confidence, and patterns of success.

–enable others by supporting them, by empathizing with them, and by expressing confidence in them.


Transformational LeadershipTransformational LeadershipTransformational LeadershipTransformational Leadership

• Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations, by transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning, and inspiring new ways of thinking.

• Seven keys to successful leadership– Trusting one’s subordinates– Developing a vision– Keeping cool– Encouraging risk– Being an expert– Inviting dissent– Simplifying things


Emerging Approaches to LeadershipEmerging Approaches to LeadershipEmerging Approaches to LeadershipEmerging Approaches to Leadership

• Strategic Leadership–Top management’s capability to understand the

complexities of both the organization and its environment and to lead change in the organization in order to achieve and maintain a superior alignment between the organization and its environment.

• Cross-Cultural Leadership–The capability to provide purpose and direction that

encompasses both international and diversity-based differences in the organization.


Emerging Approaches to Leadership Emerging Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)

Emerging Approaches to Leadership Emerging Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Ethical Leadership–Providing a strong corporate governance model to the

organization that reflects the high ethical standards of its leaders.

–Holding those who lead the organization accountable for their actions and the consequences of their actions.


Political Behavior in OrganizationsPolitical Behavior in OrganizationsPolitical Behavior in OrganizationsPolitical Behavior in Organizations

• Political Behavior– The activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring,

developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one’s preferred outcomes.

– Common Political Behaviors• Inducement—offering to give something to someone else in return

for that person’s support.

• Persuasion—persuading others to support a goal on grounds that are objective and logical as well as subjective and personal.

• Creation of an obligation—providing support for another person’s position that obliges that person to return the favor at a future date.

• Coercion—using force to get one’s way.

• Impression management—making a direct and intentional effort to enhance one’s image in the eyes of others.


Political Behavior in Organizations (cont’d)Political Behavior in Organizations (cont’d)Political Behavior in Organizations (cont’d)Political Behavior in Organizations (cont’d)

• Managing Political Behavior– Be aware that even if actions are not politically motivated, others

may assume that they are.

– Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging in political behavior by providing them with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback.

– Avoid using power to avoid charges of political motivation.

– Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open so that subordinates have less opportunity to engage in political behavior.

– Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression of political intent even if none exists.

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