lanci snabdevanja - definisanje i per for manse

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SUPPLY CHAINS - DEFINING AND PERFORMANCES

LANCI SNABDEVANJA - DEFINISANJE I PERFORMANSE

Jelena VLAJIĆ, Milorad VIDOVIĆ, Momčilo MILJUŠ Faculty of transport and traffic engineering, Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro

Abstract: There are many papers in literature about supply chain, but these papers treated supply chain from several aspects. Describe supply chain as a system, network of organizations, sequence of activities, integrated process etc., which includes material and/or informational and financial flows. These aspects differ among themselves from several reasons – different philosophical or managerial approach, different view on activities, processes or flows through supply chain. Hence, right question is: what is the supply chain at all? Supply chain modeling, design or analysis depends on answer to previous question. Naturally, next question might be: what is most important performance of supply chain and how to measure it? Is there one important performance or there are several important performances? Many contradictory opinions can be found in relevant literature. Some authors pointed out financial performance, and some other criticizes this opinion as it is not enough. They say that financial performance can not show qualitative or some other elements of supply chain as customer service and flexibility are. Therefore, purpose of this paper is to give comprehensive overview of supply chain management, theirs characteristics, performances and typical performance measures for supply chain performance given in the relevant literature. Key words: supply chain, performance, performance measures

Apstrakt: U literaturi se mogu naći mnogobrojni radovi o lancima snabdevanja, ali, ti radovi tretiraju lanac snabdevanja sa različitih aspekata. Oni opisuju lanac snabdevanja kao sistem, mrežu organizacija, niz aktivnosti, integrisani proces itd. u kojem se sadrže materijalni i/ili informacioni i finansijski tokovi. Ovi različiti stavovi postoje iz mnogih razloga – usled različitih filozofskih ili menadžerskih pristupa, različitih shvatanja aktivnosti, procesa ili tokova u lancu snabdevanja. Sledi da bi pravo pitanje bilo : Šta je u stvari lanac snabdevanja? Modeliranje, projektovanje ili analiza lanca snabdevanja zavisi od odgovora na prethodno pitanje . Naravno, sledeće pitanje bi moglo biti: Koja je najvažnija performansa lanca snabdevanja i kako je meriti? Da li postoji samo jedna, najvažnija peformansa u pitanju ili je u pitanju skup performansi? U postojećoj literaturi moguće je naći mnogo suprstavljenih teorija. Neki autori ističu finansijsku komponentu, ali drugi kritikuju to stanovište ističući da ono samo za sebe nije dovoljno. Oni ističu da finansijske performance ne ističu kvalitet ili neke druge elemente lanca snabdevanja kao što su opsluga korisnika i fleksibilnost. Stoga, svrha ovog rada je da pruži širi pregled problematike upravljanja lancima snabdevanja, njihovih karakteristika, performansi i najćeščih mera performansi lanca snabdevanja u relevantnoj literaturi.

Ključne reči: lanac snabdevanja, performanse, mere performansi

UDC: 65.012.21:65.012.34

The International Journal of TRANSPORT & LOGISTICSMeđunarodni časopis TRANSPORT I LOGISTIKA

J. Vlajić, M. Vidović, M. Miljuš: SUPPLY CHAINS - DEFINING AND PERFORMANCES … T&L - 09/05

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1 INTRODUCTION A great popularity of supply chain management as well as fields that are covered by supply chain exists nowadays not only in scientific and professional community, but also in practical domains as well. In spite of that, the fact that this large field has not been jet defined clearly, makes difficult supply chains overview, which is a necessity for their design and analysis. Applying even the best methods and techniques can not give good results if the supply chain itself has not been defined at the very beginning (i.e. what participants, which resources, how big their potentials are, their locations, process types, the way in which goods, information and financial flows are realized etc): the way supply chain is managed (who makes decisions, which management strategies are used, what impact could be made on certain chain members etc), how to estimate efficiency of supply chain (which performances should be observed, how and where their quantification should be made, in which way final performances are settled, a manner in which benchmarking is carried out etc). Having in mind a great number of published scientific papers covering this domain, the importance of questions mentioned so far is obvious. In the same time, another problem arose: having no standards or wider accepted rules and definitions, literature, although comprehensive, gives different answers on questions made.

1 UVOD Upravljanje lancima snabdevanja i uopšte oblast koju pokrivaju lanci snabdevanja danas uživa veliku popularnost u naučnoj i stručnoj javnosti, kao i u praksi. Uprkos tome, ta velika oblast još uvek nije jasno definisana, što u mnogome otežava sagledavanje lanaca snabdevanja u cilju njihovog projektovanja ili analize. Primena i najboljih metoda i tehnika ne može dati dobre rezultate ukoliko na samom početku nije definisano šta sačinjava sam lanac (koji učesnici, šta su njihovi resursi, koliki su njihovi potencijali, gde se oni nalaze, koji se procesi odvijaju u njemu, na koji način se realizuju robni, informacioni i finansijski tokovi i dr.), na koji način se upravlja lancem (ko donosi odluke, koje upravljačke strategije se koriste, koliki uticaj se može vršiti na pojedine članove lanca i dr.), kako odrediti uspešnost funkcionisanja lanca (koje performanse pratiti, kako i gde izvršiti njihovu kvantifikaciju, kako postaviti ciljne performanse, kako sprovoditi benchmarking i sl.). Očigledna važnost navedenih pitanja se vidi u velikom broju objavljenih naučnih i stručnih radova u ovoj oblasti. Tu nastaje drugi problem – iako obimna, prisutna literatura daje različite odgovore na postavljena pitanja, jer ne postoje standardi niti opšte prihvaćena pravila i definicije.

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Which are the key participants? Na kakvom tržištu posluje?

Which are the key bussines processes? Koje se upravljačke strategije primenjuju?

Koje su ključne performanse? Koje mere performansi?

Kako merenje sprovoditi kod učesnika?

SUPPLY CHAIN

Figure 1 Crucial questions from supply chain domain slika 1 Suštinska pitanja u domenu lanaca snabdevanja


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Hence, in this paper the authors have tried to give contribution in highlighting of problems being mentioned, and through short review of referential literature indicate possible ways of defining supply chain concepts, performances, and ways of their quantification were pointed out. 2. SUPPLY CHAIN AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT DEFINING From the moment when people have started with exchanging different products till nowadays, with permanent development of production processes, transportation system and other processes related to material, information and financial flows, has been getting more and more complex, and more and more companies from different areas, and different geographical regions, are being involved. Connecting these companies, not only from places of origin, but much earlier- from the place of raw material supply till the place of demand, i.e. final user, is called supply chain, demand chain or value chain.. Today, in scientific and vocational literature numerous papers concerning supply chains can been found. However, different approaches to defining, managing, supply chain, as well as different attitudes about basic elements, scope, characteristics and their purpose can be still found. Also, many world congresses, and symposiums, whose subject was supply chain management, were in fact modified seminars of production and logistics (Cooper at all, 1997.). Naturally, this situation makes a huge problem for supply chain modeling, as it makes more difficult the answer on the question: «What should be modeled in fact?». 2.1 Traditional versus modern supply chain In numerous papers one can find categorization onto traditional and modern supply chain what is connected with certain development phases. Namely, the way in which companies were functioning in the period before supply chains arose, as well as in early stages of supply chains is called traditional, whereas their functioning afterwards, when supply chain management

Otuda, u radu je učinjen pokušaj da se kroz kraći prikaz referentne literature iz ove oblasti ukaže na moguće pristupe definisanja koncepta lanca snabdevanja, upravljanja, performansi i mogućih načina njihove kvantifikacije i da se tako, koliko je to bilo moguće, doprinese rasvetljavanju pobrojanih problema. 2. DEFINISANJE LANCA SNABDEVANJA I UPRAVLJANJA LANCEM SNABDEVANJA Proces razmene je započeo od trenutka kada su ljudi počeli da trampe različite proizvode međusobno. Od tada pa do danas, preko stalnog razvoja procesa proizvodnje, transportnog sistema i ostalih pratećih procesa u tokovima materijala, informacija i finansija, proces razmene je dobijao sve veći stepen kompleksnosti. U proces razmene uključuje se sve veći broj kompanija iz različitih delatnosti, na različitim geografskim lokacijama.. Povezivanje ovih kompanija ne samo od mesta ponude, već mnogo ranije – od početnog mesta snabdevanja sirovinama pa do mesta potražnje, tj. krajnjeg korisnika se naziva lancem snabdevanja, lancem zahteva ili lancem vrednosti. Danas se u naučnoj i stručnoj literaturi mogu naći brojni radovi čija se tematika odnosi na lance snabdevanja. Uprkos tome, još uvek se mogu naći različiti radovi i podeljena mišljenja o definisanju, upravljanju, osnovnim elementima, obuhvatnosti, karakteristikama, cilju lanca snabdevanja i slično. Pored toga, mnogi svetski stručni i naučni skupovi čija se tematika odnosila na upravljanje lancima snabdevanja, u osnovi su predstavljali modifikovane seminare iz proizvodnog ili logističkog domena (Cooper-ova i ostali, 1997.). Naravno, ovakva situacija predstavlja veliki problem za modeliranje lanca snabdevanja, jer otežava odgovor na pitanje: «Šta zapravo treba modelirati?». 2.1 Tradicionalan versus savremeni lanac snabdevanja U većem broju radova može se naći kategorizacija lanaca snabdevanja na tradicionalni i savremeni, shodno određenim fazama razvoja. Naime, funkcionisanje kompanija u periodu pre nastanka lanaca snabdevanja, kao i u ranim fazama razvoja naziva se tradicionalnim lancem, dok se funkcionisanje kompanija u kasnijim fazama razvoja u kojima započinje upravljanje lancima snabdevanja,


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has begun, is denoted as modern. Traditional and modern supply chain characteristics can be seen accordingly to changes in material flows management (Lambert, Stock and Ellram, 1998a) (Table 1.).

tretira kao (savremen) lanac snabdevanja. Karakteristike tradicionalnog i savremenog lanca snabdevanja se mogu sagledati shodno promenama pristupa u upravljanju materijalnim tokovima (Lambert, Stock i Ellram, 1998.a) (Tabela 1.).

Table 1. Characteristic of traditional and modern approach to supply chain management Tabela 1. Karakteristike tradicionalnog i savremenog pristupa upravljanja lancem snabdevanja Aspects Traditional Modern (Supply chain management)

Market

Seller's market; Low competition; Moistly national oriented; “Static” market;

Buyer's market; Keen competition; Global oriented; “Dynamic” market;

Products

Small assortment; Long life cycle; Low technology; Product price domination;

Wide assortment; Short life cycle; High technology; Product quality domination;

Production

Full capacity load, but low flexibility; Large lot sizes; Long lead times; Low costs; Make instead of buy; Large number of suppliers;

Full capacity load, but high flexibility; Small lot sizes; Short lead times; Low costs; Buy instead make; Small number selected suppliers;

Service level

High service level, but high inventory, too; Slow logistics process; Slow transport time;

High service level, but low inventory; Quick logistics process; Quick transport time;

Information technology

Manual data processing; Paper administration; Classic way of data transfer;

Electronic data processing; Paperless; Electronic way of data transfer;

Enterprise strategy

Production oriented; Functional specialization; Classic, hierarchical, administrative

management;

Market oriented; Process oriented; Supply chain management;

In traditional supply chains pushed flows dominate: producers launch mass series of the same product, where assortment is small and product life long. In the same time, technologies with low production costs and full production capacities are used without having in mind their influence on logistic systems, such are transportation, storing, order realization, and even without thinking about consumer wishes. The consequences of that approach, independent work and tendency of local optimum achievement, conflict objectives in a such company’s subsystems, and even between participants themselves in that «supply chain» may be observed through (Vlajić, 2005):

Naime, u tradicionalnom lancu snabdevanja dominiraju gurani tokovi, u kojima proizvođači lansiraju velike serije proizvoda, manji asortiman i proizvode sa dugim životnim vekom. Pri tome, primenjuju se tehnologije koje obezbeđuju niske troškove proizvodnje i potpuno iskorišćenje proizvodnog kapaciteta, a ne uzima se u obzir uticaj ovih proizvodnih karakteristika na logističke sisteme – transport, skladištenje, realizaciju narudžbine, niti stvarne želje korisnika. Posledice ovakvog pristupa, nezavisnog poslovanja i težnje za postizanjem lokalnih optimuma, konfliktnih ciljeva između samih podsistema u jednoj takvoj kompaniji, a i između učesnika u tom “lancu snabdevanja“ su se mogle sagledati kroz (Vlajić, 2005):


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-Decreasing company/supply chain's competitively level on marketplace;

− Absence of adequate accounting system that could identify real product producing expenses

− High levels of inventories with small turn over in the chain, that gives as a result at one side high inventories’ expenses, and at another provoke frequent shortage of products with high turn over;

− Large percent of errors in products delivery (quantity, assortment, place and time of delivery aspects);

− low flexibility and slow response of whole chain to market changes;

− high administrative, and information transfer costs (collecting, processing, exchanging data) and numerous errors in documentation (connected to product receiving/shipping, orders fulfilling, inventories updating etc);

− week possibilities for benchmarking performances between supply chain actors themselves, and also between supply chains in the same industry types;

− a huge number of deadlocks in material, information and financial flows;

− absence of adequate information systems for identification of locations with product inventories in the supply chain and their quantification;

− a large number of chain participants, especially suppliers with low reliability level (in sense of exact product delivery: right place, time and quantity)

− slow response on user complains and claims etc.

However, augmentation of producers, assortments and services creates higher competition on national markets, and particularly on global market, which as a consequence gives wider selection opportunities to the users, and their demand towards producers and supply chains becomes more and more complex. Company management realizes that:

− closer connection with other participants (by making partner relations, strategic unions etc.), and supply chain managing may give more benefits (especially if number of supplier is decreased to those that can assure lower prices and higher product/service level);

-opadanje konkurentnosti kompanija/lanca snabdevanja na tržištu;

− odsustvo adekvatnog računovodstvenog sistema koji bi identifikovao stvarne troškove proizvoda;

− visoke nivoe zaliha sa malim obrtom u lancu, a samim tim i visoke troškove tih zaliha sa jedne strane, ili česte nedostatke zaliha koje imaju veliki obrt, sa druge strane;

− veliki procenat grešaka u isporuci proizvoda (sa aspekta količine, asortimana, mesta i vremena isporuke);

− malu fleksibilnosti i spor odziv celokupnog lanca na promene na tržištu;

− visoke troškove administracije i prenosa informacija (prikupljanja, obrade, razmene podataka) i veliki broj grešaka u dokumentaciji (vezano za procese prijema/otpreme proizvoda, realizacije narudžbine, ažuriranje zaliha i sl.);

− slabe mogućnosti za poređenje performansi i među samim učesnicima lanca snabdevanja i između lanaca snabdevanja u istim tipovima industrija;

− veliki broj zastoja u tokovima materijala, informacija i finansija;

− odsustvo adekvatnog informacionog sistema za praćenje lokacija na kojima se nalaze zalihe proizvoda u lancu snabdevanja i njihovu tačnu kvantifikaciju;

− veliki broj učesnika u lancu, naročito snabdevača sa malim stepenom pouzdanosti (u domenu dostave proizvoda na pravo mesto, u pravo vreme, u pravoj količini)

− sporo rešavanje žalbi, reklamacija korisnika itd.

Međutim, povećanjem broja proizvođača, asortimana i usluga se pojavljuje sve veća konkurencija na nacionalnim tržištima, a posebno na svetskom tržištu što omogućava veći izbor korisnicima, koji postavljaju sve kompleksnije zahteve ne samo pred proizvođače, nego i pred lance snabdevanja. Menadžment kompanija uviđa da:

− bližim povezivanjem (ostvarivanjem partnerskih odnosa, strateških saveza, i sl.) sa ostalim učesnicima i sprovođenjem upravljanja lancem snabdevanja mogu da se ostvare veće koristi (naročito ako se redukuje broj snabdevača na one koji mogu obezbediti niže cene, a veći kvalitet proizvoda i usluge);


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− frequent changes in user demands, and a large product and service offering, augment risk of investing in inventories (product old fashioning, inventories that stay unsold or which are sold slow), and risk of profit decreasing (companies that invest in inventories capture their capital);

− all processes from the raw material supply to final product delivery can not be held under control, and that is necessary to concentrate on key processes whereas others can be outsourced to other service providers (for instance logistic service providers);

− achieving local optimum in company’s sectors, or in certain parts wont give global optimum (in such situation whole chain performance could become too low);

− user becomes production demand generator, and growing products’ differentiation, shortening product life cycle, needs more flexible supply chain

− turning to global supply chain, demands finding more effective ways for material flaws managing, synchronization and coordination in and out the company itself

− it is necessary to develop adequate strategies by which supply chain management would be easier and by which demanded chain performances would be achieved (strategies must respect final user demand characteristics, specific industry branches, product type, production process type, supplying possibilities etc);

− for efficient supply chain functioning, controlling and management it is necessary to have right information on right time and at right place i.e. that information which is got must be up to date on time, exact and true, understandable, complete and transparent (Vešović, 1998), for which adequate information system and supportting technology at the chain level is necessary etc.

All that have been said has rose higher supply chain management popularity both in theory and practice. One can find more and more papers devoted to this area (chain models, strategic, tactical and operational problems, different strategies whose aim is to minimize expenses and/or increasing user service quality and their effects etc). Also, there are many companies such as Wal Mart, Proctor & Gamble, Coca-Cola, AT

− stalna promena zahteva korisnika i veliki izbor proizvoda i usluga povećavaju rizik od ulaganja u zalihe (zastarevanje proizvoda, zalihe proizvoda koji se ne prodaju ili se sporo prodaju i sl.) i od smanjenja profita (kompanije koje ulažu mnogo u zalihe vezuju svoj kapital);

− sve procese od početnog snabdevanja sirovinama do isporuke gotovog proizvoda krajnjim korisnicima ne mogu efikasno držati pod kontrolom, već da je potrebno da se koncentrišu na svoje ključne procese, a ostale procese prepuste drugim davaocima usluga (na primer, davaocima logističkih usluga);

− postizanje lokalnih optimuma u pojednim delovima kompanija ili kod pojedinih članova lanca ne daje globalni optimum (u takvoj situaciji može da se dogodi da performanse čitavog lanca budu jako niske);

− korisnik postaje generator zahteva za proizvodnjom i da povećana proizvodna diferencijacija, skraćenje životnog veka proizvoda i sl. zahteva veću fleksibilnost lanca snabdevanja;

− okretanje ka globalnom snabdevanju zahteva pronalaženje efikasnijih načina za upravljanje, sinhronizaciju i koordinaciju tokova materijala unutar i van same kompanije;

− je potrebno razviti odgovarajuće strategije kroz koje će se olakšati upravljanje lancima snabdevanja sa jedne strane i postići željene performanse lanca sa druge strane (strategije moraju respektovati karakteristike zahteva krajnjih korisnika, konkretne grane industrije, tipa proizvoda, proizvodnih procesa, mogućnosi snabdevanja itd.);

− je za efikasno funkcionisanje, kontrolu i upravljanje lancem snabdevanja neophodno imati pravu informaciju, u pravo vreme i na pravom mestu, tj. da dobijena informacija mora biti aktuelna, blagovremena, tačna i istinita, razumljiva, potpuna i javna (Vešović, 1998), za šta je neophodna podrška odgovarajućeg informacionog sistema i tehnologije na nivou lanca itd.

Sve ovo je uticalo sve veću popularnost upravljanja lancem snabdevanja – kako u teoriji, tako i u praksi. U literaturi se sve više mogu naći radovi posvećeni ovoj problematici (modelima lanaca, strateškim, taktičkim i operativnim problemima, različitim strategijama čiji je cilj minimiziranje troškova i/ili povećanje kvaliteta usluge korisnicima i njihovim efektima i dr.). Takođe, i u praksi se mogu naći mnoge kompanije sa formiranim lancima


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& T, Hewlett-Packard, Heineken, Sears, Sara Lee, Warner Lambert, Reynolds Wrap, Benneton, Whirpool, Georgia-Pacific Corp., Campbell Soup, Johnson & Johnson, Barilla etc that have created and manage supply chains by different strategies. 2.2 Supply chain and supply chain management definitions – literature overview Although supply chain and supply chain management defining one could follow from 1982, its describing from theoretical aspect has begun just in ninetieth of previous century, with the objective to clarify differences with traditional approach to material flaw management and related information flaws. Original use of these terms, which is far wider today, was related to decreasing inventories, in and out the company. Numerous definitions of supply chain and supply chain management can be found in literature. Supply chains are defined with different scope level, and for defining management concept itself, different approaches are used – by some authors they are observed through operational activities in material flaws, by others it is seen as managing philosophy, and there are authors by which it is observed from process management aspect. Authors have even conceptualized SCM differently within the same article: as a form of integrated system and as a management philosophy (Mentzer, 2001). Diversities in interpretation can be seen from following definition quotation from scientific papers: According to Stevens (1989) supply chain is

a system whose constituent parts include material suppliers, production facilities, distribution services and customers linked together via the feed-forward flow of materials and the feedback flow of information (source – Angerhofer and Angelides, 2000). The objective of managing the supply chain is to synchronize the requirements of the customer with the flow of materials from suppliers in order to effect a balance between what are often seen as conflicting goals of high customer service, lowinventory management, and low unit cost (source – Mentzer, 2001).

snabdevanjima, koje njima upravljaju na bazi različitih strategija, kao što su Wal Mart, Proctor & Gamble, Coca-Cola, AT & T, Hewlett-Packard, Heineken, Sears, Sara Lee, Warner Lambert, Reynolds Wrap, Benneton, Whirpool, Georgia-Pacific Corp., Campbell Soup, Johnson & Johnson, Barilla i dr. 2.2 Pregled definicija lanca snabdevanja i upravljanja lancem snabdevanja u literaturi Mada se u literaturi od 1982. godine, pojavljuju definicije lanca snabdevanja i upravljanja lancem snabdevanja, tek devedesetih godina prošlog veka se pristupilo njegovom opisivanju sa teorijskog aspekta u cilju razjašnjavanja razlike u odnosu na tradicionalnije pristupe upravljanja tokom materijala i odgovarajućih tokova informacija. Prvobitna upotreba ovih izraza se odnosila na smanjenje zaliha unutar i van organizacija, ali je taj početni opseg danas dosta proširen. U literaturi se danas može naći mnoštvo definicija lanca snabdevanja i upravljanja lancem snabdevanja. Lanci snabdevanja se definišu sa različitim stepenom obuhvatnosti, a za definisanje njegovog upravljanja se koriste različiti pristupi – neki autori ga posmatraju kroz operativne aktivnosti u tokovima materijala, neki ga vide kao upravljačku filozofiju, a neki ga sagledavaju sa aspekta upravljačkih procesa. Određeni autori čak u istom radu tretiraju upravljanje lancem snabdevanja na različit način – i kao oblik integrisanog sistema sa jedne strane i kao upravljačku filozofiju (Mentzer, 2001). Različitost tumačenja ovih pojmova može se videti kroz neke citiranije definicije iz naučnih radova: Prema Stevens-u (1989) lanac snabdevanja

predstavlja sistem čiji su sastavni delovi snabdevači materijala, proizvodni objekti, distributivne službe i korisnici, povezani zajedno preko toka materijala i povratnog toka informacija (izvor – Angerhofer i Angelides, 2000). Cilj upravljanja lancem snabdevanja je da se sinhroniziraju zahtevi korisnika sa tokom materijala od snabdevača kako bi se izvelo balansiranje između onoga što se često vidi kao konfliktan cilj između visokog nivoa opsluge korisnika, niskog nivoa zaliha i niskih jediničnih troškova (izvor – Mentzer, 2001).


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According to Christopher (1994), supply chain is the network of organizations that are involved, through upstream and downstream linkages, in the different processes and activities that produce value in the form of products and services in the hands of the ultimate consumer.

According to Chow at all (1994), supply chain comprises all companies that participate in transforming, selling and distributing the product from raw material to the final consumer.

According to Stewart (1995), supply chain consists of those logistical and informational elements which are bounded by the aggregate demands of the marketplace at one end, and by specific product/service delivery at the customer site, at the other end.

According to Thomas and Griffin (1996) supply chain management is the management of material and information flows both in and between facilities, such as vendors, manufacturing and assembly plants and distribution centers.

According to Beamon (1998), a supply chain may be defined as an integrated process wherein a number of various business entities (i.e., suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and retailers) work together in an effort to: (1) acquire raw materials, (2) convert these raw materials into specified final products, and (3) deliver these final products to retailers. This chain is traditionally characterized by a forward flow of materials and a backward flow of information.

According to Lummus and Vokurka (1999) supply chain can be stated as: All the activities involved in delivering a product from raw material through to the customer including sourcing raw materials and parts, manufacturing and assembly, warehousing and inventory tracking, order entry and order management, distribution across all channels, delivery to the customer, and the information systems necessary to monitor all of these activities. Supply chain management coordinates and integrates all of these activities into a seamless process. It links all of the partners in the chain including departments within an organization and the external partners including suppliers, carriers, third-party companies, and information systems providers.

Po Christopher-u (1994), lanac snabdevanja predstavlja mrežu organizacija koje su povezane dvosmerinim vezama, različitim procesima i aktivnostima koje stvaraju vrednost u obliku proizvoda i usluga za krajnjeg korisnika.

Prema Chow-u i ostalima (1994), lanac snabdevanja obuhvata sve kompanije koje učestvuju u proizvodnji/preradi, prodaji i distribuciji proizvoda od izvorišta sirovina do krajnjih korisnika.

Prema Stewart-u (1995), lanac snabdevanja se sastoji iz onih logističkih i informacionih elemenata koji su prožeti agregiranim zahtevima tržišta sa jedne strane i isporukom određenog proizvoda/usluge korisniku sa druge strane.

Prema Thomas-u i Griffin-u (1996) upravljanje lancem snabdevanja se definiše kao upravljanje materijalnim i informacionim tokovima i unutar i između objekata, kao što su trgovački, proizvodni i montažni objekti i distributivni centri.

Prema Beamon-u (1998), lanac snabdevanja se može definisati kao integrisani proces u kome se nalaze brojni različiti poslovni entiteti (kao što su snabdevači, proizvođači, distributeri i trgovci) koji rade zajedno u cilju da: (1) nabavljaju sirovine, (2) pretvaraju te sirovine u određene gotove proizvode i (3) isporučuju ove gotove proizvode trgovcima. Ovakav lanac je tradicionalno okarakterisan tokom materijala i povratnim tokom informacija.

Lummus i Vokurka (1999) smatraju da se lanac snabdevanja može definisati kroz sve aktivnosti koje se odnose na isporuku proizvoda do korisnika, a u njih spada snabdevanje sirovinama i delovima, proizvodnja i montaža, skladištenje i praćenje zaliha, unos narudžbina i upravljanje realizacijom narudžbine, distribucija duž svih kanala, isporuka korisnicima i informacioni sistemi koji su neophodni za praćenje svih ovih aktivnosti. Upravljanje lancem snabdevanja koordinira i integriše sve ove aktivnosti u jedan proces. Ono povezuje sve partnere u lancu uključujući odeljenja unutar organizacije i spoljne partnere, kao što su snabdevači, prevoznici, davaoci usluga i kompanije u oblasti informacionih sistema.


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According to Simchi-Levi at all (2000), supply chain management is a set of approaches utilized to efficiently integrate suppliers, manufacturers, warehouses, and stores, so that merchandise is produced and distributed at the right time, in order to minimize system wide costs while satisfying service level requirements.

In their work Lambert and Cooper (2000) used following definition: Supply chain management is the integration of key business processes from end user through original suppliers that provides products, services, and information that add value for customers and other stakeholders.

Mentzer (2001) defines supply chain is defined as a set of three or more entities (organizations or individuals) directly involved in the upstream and downstream flows of products, services, finances, and/or information from a source to a customer. Supply chain management is defined as the systemic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions and the tactics across these business functions within a particular company and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply chain as a whole.

Min and Zhou (2002): “supply chain“ is integrated system which synchronizes a series of inter-related business processes in order to: (1) acquire raw materials and parts; (2) transform these raw materials and parts into finished products; (3) add value to these products; (4) distribute and promote these products to either retailers or customers; (5) facilitate information exchange among various business entities (e.g. suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, third-party logistics providers and retailers).

According to Frazelle (2002) supply chain is the network of facilities (warehouses, factories, terminals, ports, stores and homes), vehicles (trucks, trains, planes, and ocean vessels) and logistics information systems connected by an enterprise’s supplier’s suppliers and its customer’s customers.

Hensher and Brewer (2004) think that supply chain management comprises all business and management activities that are used for transforming input resources in products and services.

Prema Simchi-Levi i ostalima (2000), upravljanje lancem snabdevanja predstavlja niz pristupa koji se koriste za efikasno integrisanje snabdevača, proizvođača, skladišta i maloprodajnih objekata, tako da se roba proizvodi i distribuira u pravoj količini, na pravu lokaciju i u pravo vreme, sa ciljem da se minimiziraju troškovi u sistemu dok se zadovoljavaju zahtevi za opslugom.

Lambert i Cooper (2000) definišu upravljanje lancem snabdevanja kao integraciju ključnih poslovnih procesa od krajnjeg korisnika do početnih snabdevača koji obezbeđuju proizvode, usluge i informacije koje dodaju vrednost za korisnike i ostale ulagače.

Mentzer (2001) definiše lanac snabdevanja kao niz od tri ili više entiteta (organizacionih ili pojedinačnih) koji su direktno uključeni u dvosmerne tokove proizvoda, usluga, finansija i/ili informacija od izvorišta do korisnika. Upravljanje lancem snabdevanja definiše kao sistemsku, strategijsku koordinaciju tradicionalnih poslovnih funkcija i taktika koje se primenjuju u ovim poslovnim funkcijama unutar određene kompanije i unutar lanca snabdevanja, sa svrhom dugoročnog poboljšanja performansi kako samih kompanija tako i celokupnog lanca snabdevanja.

Min i Zhou (2002) posmatraju lanac snabdevanja kao integrisani sistem koji sinhronizuje niz međuzavisnih poslovnih procesa u cilju da se: (1) nabavljaju sirovine i delovi; (2) ove sirovine i delovi transformišu u gotove proizvode; (3) dodaje vrednost ovim proizvodima; (4) ovi proizvodi distribuiraju i promovišu bilo prodavcima bilo korisnicima; (5) olakša razmena informacija između različitih poslovnih entiteta (kao što su snabdevači, proizvođači, distributeri, logistički davaoci usluga i maloprodaja).

Frazelle (2002) smatra da lanac snabdevanja predstavlja mrežu objekata (skladišta, fabrika, terminala, luka, maloprodajnih objekata i domaćinstava), transportnih sredstava (kamiona, vozova, aviona i okeanskih plovila) i logističkih informacionih sistema koji su povezani preko snabdevačevih snabdevača i korisnikovih korisnika.

Hensher i Brewer (2004) smatraju da upravljanje lancem snabdevanja obuhvata celokupan niz poslovnih i upravljačkih aktivnosti koje se koriste za pretvaranje ulaznih resursa u proizvode i usluge.


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Although difficulties in terminology defining concerning supply chains still exist, in literature there is relatively small number of papers that discuss this subject directly. Some of basic: Lambert, Cooper and Pagh (1998), discuss differences between scope of logistic management, its defining and supply chain management, and they give management basic; Lummus and Vokurka (1999) give supply chain definitions overview, their management, motives and development phases, as well as examples of companies with real supply chains; Mentzer at all (2001.), give overview and comments concerning supply chain definitions given by different authors, their classifications and points of view1; Tan (2001) gives a list of definition connected with supply chain management and its scope from the supply aspect (the emphasis is on strategic supplier selection), from production aspect (the emphasis is laid on producer efficiency and competitiveness, based on direct suppliers resoutces’ capacity and technology), and transport and logistic aspects in retail and gross sale (the emphasis is on physical distribution and integrated logistic). From the given review, it can be concluded that there is no generally accepted supply chain definition neither its management definition2. According Vlajić, (2005), that is a consequence of supply chain complexity and diversity – concerning product/industry type and characteristics, target market (national or global), politics and supply resources, number of members and their influence on chain functioning, geographical position, dimension, way of information flow realization, comprising or not comprising financial and reverse goods flows etc. Yet, it can be concluded that supply chain comprises all participants from starting supplier to final user, all connected by material and reverse material flaw, information flaw (managing and controlling), and financial flaw. Also, it can be concluded that supply chain management is related to all members activities and processes integration, coordination and synchronization, on different levels from strategically, tactical to operational activities,

1 Definition of supply chain management differ across authors, they can be classified into three categories: a management philosophy, implementation of a management philosophy, and a set of management processes. 2 Even definition of supply chain, and supply chain management, proposed by Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals isn't official nor wider accepted (www. cscmp.org).

Iako još uvek postoje problemi definisanja termina vezanih za oblast lanaca snabdevanja, u literaturi je relativno mali broj radova koji konkretno razmatraju ovu tematiku. Neki od osnovnih su: Lambert, Cooper, Pagh (1998), koji razmatraju razlike između oblasti i definisanja logističkog upravljanja i upravljanja lancem snabdevanja i daju osnovne komponente njegovog upravljanja; Lummus i Vokurka (1999) daju pregled definicija lanaca snabdevanja i njihovog upravljanja, motive i faze razvoja, kao i primere kompanija sa realnim lancima snabdevanja; Mentzer i ostali (2001.), daju pregled i komentare vezane za definicije lanaca snabdevanja od strane različitih autora, njihove klasifikacije i aspekte posmatranja3; Tan (2001) daje pregled definicija vezanih za upravljanje lancima snabdevanja i njegove obuhvatnosti, sa aspekta snabdevanja (akcenat na strateškom izboru snabdevača), sa aspekta proizvodnje (akcenat na poboljšanju efikasnosti i konkurentske prednosti proizvođača oslanjajući se na kapacitete i tehnologiju neposrednih snabdevača) i sa aspekta transporta i logistike u oblasti veleprodaje i maloprodaje (akcenat na fizičkoj distribuciji i integrisanoj logistici). Iz datog pregleda, može se zaključiti da još uvek ne postoji opšte prihvaćena definicija lanca snabdevanja, niti njegovog upravljanja4. Prema Vlajić, (2005), to je posledica kompleksnosti i raznovrsnosti lanaca snabdevanja – u odnosu na vrstu i karakteristike proizvoda/industrije, ciljno tržište (nacionalno ili svetsko), politiku i izvore snabdevanja, broj članova i njihov uticaj na rad lanca, njihovu geografsku poziciju, veličinu, načine realizacije informacionih tokova, obuhvaćenost ili neobuhvaćenost finansijskih i povratnih robnih tokova i sl. Ipak, može se zaključiti da lanac snabdevanja obuhvata sve učesnike od početnog snabdevača, pa do krajnjeg korisnika, koji su povezani: tokom materijala, povratnim tokom materijala, informacionim tokovima (upravljačkim i kontrolnim) i finansijskim tokovima, a da se upravljanje lanacem snabdevanja odnosi na integraciju, koordinaciju i sinhronizaciju aktivnosti i procesa kod svih učesnika lanca na različitim nivoima – od strateških, preko taktičkih, pa do

3 Prema njima, definicije upravljanja lancem snabdevanja se mogu klasifikovati na tri kategorije: kategorija upravljačke filozofije, kategorija implementacije upravljačke filozofije i niz upravljačkih procesa. 4 Čak ni definicija lanca snabdevanja i upravljanja lancem snabdevanja koju je dala organizacija Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals nije zvanična, opšte prihvaćena (www. cscmp.org).


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always respecting the fact that any chain's member has influence on total expenses and on product/service value for final user. Naturally, the aim of supply chain management is raising its profitability, and that can be done by raising or maintaining its competitiveness level i.e. by raising the user service level on one side and by lowering total chain expenses on another side. For achieving aim has been defined, it is necessary to fulfill series of prerequisites that are connected with smooth flows of goods, information and capital. 2.3. Components of supply chain Supply chains scope and configuration are in close correlation with different definitions of the chain itself. Apart from definitions mentioned, in some papers, for instance, overview of supply chains is given from the aspect of ownership, and the chain is defined in narrow and broader sense. Supply chain in narrow sense is related to big company with agencies on different locations, often in different countries, and such chain is called intraorganisational supply chain. Supply chain in broader sense consist from two or more legally independent organizations which are connected by material, information and finance flows, and such chain is often called interorganisational supply chain. There are also papers in which the emphasis is given on configuration, processes, organization, management strategy, or on particular flow (goods, information, finance) etc. However, adequate overview is not possible without having in mind all mentioned facts. Hence, according to Lambert (1998), complete overview of supply chain is not possible without analysis of three key components: Supply chain network structure, by which key

supply chain members are identified, structural dimensions of the network and types of process links across supply chain are determined;

Supply chain key business processes5, by which relationships with customers are defined , ways of cooperation, information and goods flows realization, customer service level, production, procurement, placement, product development etc;

5 Seven key bussiness processes in supply chain are identifyed by members of Global Supply Chain Forum (Lambert, 1998)

operativnih aktivnosti, pri čemu se stalno mora respektovati činjenica da svaki član lanca utiče na visinu ukupnih troškova i na vrednost proizvoda/usluge za krajnjeg korisnika. Naravno, cilj upravljanja lancem snabdevanja je podizanje njegove profitabilnosti, što se može ostvariti samo preko podizanja ili održavanja nivoa konkurentnosti tj. preko podizanja nivoa opsluge korisnika sa jedne strane i snižavanja ukupnih troškova lanca sa druge strane. Za postizanje zadatog cilja neophodno je ispuniti niz preduslova vezanih za neometano funkcionisanje robnih, informacionih i finansijskih tokova. 2.3. Komponente lanca snabdevanja Obuhvatnost i konfiguracija lanaca snabdevanja su u bliskoj korelaciji sa različitim definicijama samog lanca. Pored navedenih definicija, u nekim radovima se, na primer, lanci snabdevanja sagledavaju sa aspekta vlasništva, pa se definiše lanac snabdevanja u užem i u širem smislu. Lanac snabdevanja u užem smislu se odnosi na veliku kompaniju sa poslovnicama koje se nalaze na različitim lokacijama, često u različitim državama i takav tip lanca se naziva intraorganizacioni lanac snabdevanja. Lanci snabdevanja u širem smislu se sastoje iz dve ili više pravno nezavisnih organizacija, koje su povezane tokovima materijala, informacija i finansija i takav tip lanca se često naziva interorganizacioni lanac snabdevanja. U drugim radovima, pri sagledavanju lanca snabdevanja se naglašava njegova konfiguracija, ili procesi, ili organizacija, ili upravljačka strategija iIi samo jedna vrsta toka (robni, informacioni ili finansijski) i slično. Međutim, adekvatno sagledavanje lanca snabdevanja nije moguće bez uzimanja u obzir svih navedenih činilaca. Tako, prema Lambert-u (1998), potpuno sagledavanje lanca snabdevanja nije moguće bez sagledavanja njegove tri osnovne komponente: Strukture lanca snabdevanja, kojom se

identifikuju ključni članovi lanca, utvrđuje se strukturna dimenzije mreže i tipovi poslovnih veza u procesima; Ključnih poslovnih procesa6 u lancu

snabdevanja, kojima se definišu odnosi sa korisnicima, načini saradnje, realizacija informacionih i robnih tokova, nivo opsluge korisnika, proizvodnja, snabdevanje i plasman, razvoj proizvoda i sl;

6 Članovi Global Supply Chain Forum-a identifikovali su sedam ključnih poslovnih procesa u lancu snabdevanja (Lambert, 1998.)


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Supply chain management components, which are defined through visible and measurable components by which management and control are realized (physical and technical group) and components that describe organizational behavior (managerial and behavioral components).

This approach to supply chain overview enable complete overview of the most important elements that create supply chain, and by which it is possible to develop chain concept, define its scope from the aspect of participant as well of goods, information and financial flaws, that is modeling process starting point. 3 SUPPLY CHAIN PERFORMANCES Various approaches to defining supply chain performances, their categorization, quantification, etc. can be found in literature. In this section, subject of key chain performances selection will be presented with overview of performances and performance measures which are being tracked on chain level, namely units which appear in papers dedicated to theoretical problems of performances’ selection and adequate performance measurement. 3.1 Aspects of supply chain performances defining and categorization Many papers dedicated to performance analysis and classification (mostly at single company level) can be found in available literature, but there is only a small number of researches dedicated to supply chain performances measures (Lamber and Pohlen, 2001). According to Vidovic (1997), performances in generalized sense represent a term which meaning can be used as a common denominator of various ratios, parameters, characteristics and measurers, while in techniques they represent a concept used to describe specific properties (characteristics) of elements and systems. The very value of the performance is represented by performance's measurement, measure and a pointer which describes relevant criteria in a precisely defined way. A single performance can contain more than one different measure. According to Beamon (1999) performance

Upravljačkih komponenti u lancu, koje se definišu kroz vidljive i merljive komponente preko koji se realizuje upravljanje i kontrola (fizička i tehnička grupa) i komponente koje opisuju organizaciono ponašanje (upravljačke i behaviorne komponente). Ovakav pristup sagledavanju lanaca snabdevanja omogućava potpuno sagledavanje najvažnijih elemenata iz kojih se sastoji lanac, a na bazi kojih je moguće razviti koncept lanca, definisati njegovu obuhvatnost sa aspekta učesnika i robnih, informacionih i finanskijskih tokova, što predstavlja polaznu tačku za modeliranje. 3. PERFORMANSE LANACA SNABDEVANJA U literaturi se mogu naći različiti pristupi definisanju performansi lanaca snabdevanja, njihove kategorizacije, kvantifikacije i slično. U ovoj tački biće ukratko predstavljena problematika izbora ključnih performansi lanca sa pregledom performansi i mera performansi koje se najčešće prate na nivou lanca, to jest pojavljuju u radovima koji su posvećeni teorijskoj problematici izbora performansi i adekvatnih mera performansi. 3.1 Pristupi definisanju i kategorizaciji performansi lanca snabdevanja U raspoloživoj literaturi se može naći mnogo radova posvećenih analizi i klasifikaciji performansi (najčešće na nivou jedne kompanije, ali je malo istraživanja bilo posvećeno merama performansi lanaca snabdevanja (Lambert i i Pohlen, 2001). Prema Vidoviću (1997), performanse u uopštenom smislu predstavljaju termin čije značenje se može koristiti kao zajednički imenitelj različitih koeficijenata, parametara, karakteristika i izmeritelja, dok u tehnici predstavljaju pojam kojim se opisuju određene osobine (karakteristike) elemenata i sistema. Sama vrednost performanse se predstavlja merom performanse, izmeriteljem, pokazateljem koji opisuje relevantni kriterijum na jasno definisan način. Jedna perfomansa može imati više različitih mera. Prema Beamonu (1999) mere performansi (ili sistem mera performansi) se


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measures (or performance measurement system) is used to determine the efficiency and/or effectiveness of an existing systems, or to compare competing alternative systems or to design proposed systems, by determining the values of the decision variables that yield the most desirable level(s) of performance. In regard to the observed system, various performance classifications and their measures can be found in literature. Therefore, from the logistical system aspect, different authors choose different definitions and classifications. According to Chow at all (1994), conceptually, logistic performances may be viewed as a subset of the larger notion of firm or organizational performance. Concerning this aspect, they are multi-dimensional and, as such, then can be classified on soft and hard, where: Soft performance measures usually represents

customer perception about customer service and they are related to effectiveness and efficiency;

Hard performance measures can be easy, accurate and inexpensive to collect, and than they can be eventually compared with other companies performances (in most cases they are represented by financial statistic and cost accounting elements).

In papers where logistic systems are viewed from the aspect of system theory, logistic performances can be classified on (Vidović, 1997.):

internal (they represent "inner" characteristics of logistic subsystems and relate to technical-technological, organizational, economical and other relevant characteristics of this systems);

external (they represent a "result" of logical system functioning and a reflection of quality level and economy of realization of logistical processes, in other words, they are the reflection of logistic system and a way it functioning in an environment. Simultaneously, external performances are complex multi-attribute functions of internal performances).

According to him, the ideas of internal and external performances depend on observation level and closure of system as a whole, so they should be perceived provisory. Likewise, this author categorizes main performances in logistical systems into four groups: safety of

koriste za utvrđivanje efektivnosti i/ili efikasnosti sistema, ili za poređenje alternativa ili za projektovanje datih sistema kroz određivanje vrednosti varijabli odlučivanja koje daju najpoželjniji nivo (najpoželjnije nivoe) perfomansi. U odnosu na posmatrani sistem, u literaturi se mogu naći različite klasifikacije performansi i njihovih mera. Iz tog razloga se, sa aspekta logističkog sistema, različiti autori opredeljuju za različite definicije i klasifikacije. Prema Chow-u i ostalima (1994), konceptualno, logističke performanse se mogu tretirati kao podskup jednog šireg pojma performansi na nivou kompanije ili u okviru organizacije. Gledajući sa tog aspekta, one su multidimenzionalne i kao takve se mogu klasifikovati na meke i tvrde, pri čemu: meke performanse najčešće predstavljaju

percepciju korisnika o realizovanoj usluzi i govore o efektivnosti i efikasnosti;

tvrde performanse mogu da se prikupe lako, tačno i sa malim troškovima, a potom i eventualno porede sa performansama ostalih kompanija (najčešće se radi o elementima finansijske statistike i elementima statistike troškova).

U radovima u kojima se logistički sistemi posmatraju sa aspekta teorije sistema, logističke performanse se mogu klasifikovati na (Vidović, 1997.):

interne (predstavljaju "unutrašnje" karakteristike logističkih podsistema i odnose se na tehničko-tehnološke, organizacione, ekonomske i druge relevantne karakteristike ovih sistema);

eksterne (predstavljaju "rezultat" funkcionisanja logističkog sistema i odraz nivoa kvaliteta i ekonomičnosti realizacije logističkih procesa, odnosno, one su odraz logističkog sistema i načina njegovog funkcionisanja u okruženju. Istovremeno, eksterne perfomanse su kompleksne višeatributne funkcije internih performansi).

Prema njemu, pojmovi internih i eksternih performansi zavise od nivoa posmatranja i obuhvatnosti sistema kao celine, te ih treba shvatiti krajnje uslovno. Isto tako, navedeni autor kategorizuje osnovne performanse u logističkom sistemu na četiri grupe: bezbednost


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logistical processes and their relation to the eco-system, techno-exploitation performances, service level7 and logistical costs; Frazelle (2002) categorize performances according to logistic activities8: financial, quality and productivity performance measures and cycle time performance measures. Concerning the fact that supply chain is a broader system than logistics, performances and their measures which will match the nature of the chain should be considered. However, there are many problems related to the field: (Vlajić, 2005): 1. Problem of identifying, defining and

monitoring performances on supply chain level, which comes from different definitions of supply chain, and therefore the processes which are realized in it. Besides, many techniques and measures described in literature are designed for performance measurement development in companies, but not for supply chains;

2. Problem of selection performances measures for evaluation of supply chain, it's members or member groups from the aspect of meaning, computing method, data gathering and likewise. Measures selected as performance measures must be viewed from the same aspect in the whole chain and with all members;

3. Problem of identification and performance measures definition, and measurement conducting pursuant to needs of individual companies, where their results (most often) are not shared with other chain members – it is overlooked that every member adds value to a product/service for the final customer, and that the focus should be put on the final customer; performance measurements must be defined so that they reflect common goals of all, not only one chain member.

4. Problem which arises when, due to the complexity of process which is being realized in the supply chain, it is not possible to apply only one performance measure, but corresponding system of performance measurements has to be applied (like

7 Service level is also denoted as customer service level, service quality, etc. 8 Basic logistic activity are: customer response, inventory planning and management, supply, transportation and warehousing.

logističkih procesa i odnos prema eko-sistemu, tehno-eksploatacione performanse, servis stepen9 i logistički troškovi;

Frazelle (2002) kategorizuje performanse prema logističkim aktivnostima10 i to na performanse u finansijskom i kvalitativnom domenu, domenu produktivnosti i performanse koje se mere u odnosu na vremensku komponentu. S obzirom da je lanac snabdevanja širi sistem u odnosu na logistiku, potrebno je razmotriti i definisati performanse i njihove mere koji će odgovarati prirodi lanca. Međutim, postoji više problema koji se dotiču ove oblasti (Vlajić, 2005): 1. Problem identifikovanja, definisanja i

praćenja performansi na nivou lanca, koji proizilazi iz različitog definisanja lanca snabdevanja, a samim tim i procesa koji se u njemu realizuju. Pored toga, mnoge tehnike i mere koje su opisane u literaturi su namenjene za razvoj mera performansi za kompanije, a ne za lance snabdevanja;

2. Problem izbora mera za vrednovanje performansi lanca snabdevanja, njegovih članova ili grupacija članova sa aspekta značenja, načina proračunavanja, sakupljanja podataka i sl. Izabrane mere za vrednovanje performansi se moraju posmatrati sa istog aspekta u celom lancu i kod svih učesnika;

3. Problem identifikacije i definisanja mera performansi, kao i sprovođenja merenja shodno potrebama individualnih kompanija, pri čemu se njihovi rezultati (najčešće) ne dele sa ostalim učesnicima lanca - gubi se iz vida da svaki učesnik dodaje vrednost proizvodu/usluzi za krajnjeg korisnika i da fokus treba biti na krajnjem korisniku; mere performansi moraju biti tako definisane da odražavaju zajedničke ciljeve svih, a ne samo jednog učesnika u lancu;

4. Problem koji nastaje kada usled kompleksnosti procesa koji se realizuju u lancu snabdevanja nije moguće primeniti samo jednu meru performansi, već se mora primeniti odgovarajući sistem mera performansi (kao što su proračunske šeme,

9 Servis stepen se još naziva nivo opsluge korisnika, kvalitet opsluge korisnika itd. 10 Osnovni logističke aktivnostii procesi su: odziv na zahteve korisnika, planiranje i upravljanje zalihama, snabdevanje, transport, distribucija i skladištenje.


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computation schemes, schemes based on rules, or targeted schemes); performance measurement system consists of several different performance measures which are connected with various relations;

5. Problem of frequent use of only financial performances in practice which do not give the whole picture of supply chain functioning quality (only when some no financial measures are applied relations with physical processes, and material flows may be perceived)

6. Problem of retrospective performance measures treatment (usually just for control purposes), and rarely viewing performance measures in context of future supply chain management development, etc.

It can be concluded that a lack of adequate performance measures in supply chains, wrong or different way of their quantification, results in mistakes in fulfilling consumer demands and/or consumers expectations, in local performance optimization of a single chain member or a single group in a company, in missed possibilities for boosting chain competivity and in conflicts in supply chains. (Lambert and Pohlen, 2001.) 3.2 Defining of supply chain performances and performance measures – literature review Besides traditional question of "what to measure", "when to realize the measuring" and "how to realize the measurement", the problem of performances and performance measures identification, defining and tracking in the supply chain complicates even more the complexity of the chain. According to Beamon (1999), supply chain performance measurements must have following characteristics: Inclusiveness: all supply chain pertinent

aspects should be enclosed by performance measures, so that the similar performance level can be achieved in the chain itself and at its members.

Universality: performance measures should allow comparison under various operating conditions, so that comparison by concurrent systems can be achieved.

Measurability: all data on which performance measurement is based on have to be measurable, so that an accurate and forehand evaluation of performances can be enabled.

šeme bazirane na pravilima ili ciljne šeme); sistem mera performansi se sastoji iz više različitih mera performansi koje su povezane različitim relacijama;

5. Problem česte primene samo finansijskih performansi u praksi koje ne daju sveobuhvatnu sliku kvaliteta funkcionisanja lanca snabdevanja (tek sa primenom nekih nefinansijskih performansi se može uočiti povezanost za realizacijom fizičkih procesa tj. materijalnih tokova u lancu snabdevanja);

6. Problem retrospektivnog tretiranja mera performansi (obično samo u kontrolne svrhe), a ređe razmatranje mera perfomansi u kontekstu budućeg razvoja lanca snabdevanja itd.

Može se zaključiti da nedostatak odgovarajućih mera performansi u lancu snabdevanja, pogrešnog ili raličitog načina njihove kvantifikacije rezultuje greškama u ispunjavanju zahteva korisnika i/ili njihovih očekivanja, lokalnom optimizacijom performansi jednog učesnika lanca ili jedne celine u kompaniji, ispuštenim mogućnostima za podizanje konkurentnosti lanca i konfiliktima u lancu snabdevanja (Lambert i Pohlen, 2001.) 3.2 Definisanje performansi i mera performansi lanca snabdevanja – pregled literature Pored tradicionalnih pitanja »šta treba meriti«, »kad realizovati merenje« i »kako realizovati merenje«, problematiku utvrđivanja, definisanja i praćenja performansi i njihovih mera u lancu snabdevanja usložnjava kompleksnost samog lanca. Prema Beamon-u (1999), mere performansi lanca snabdevanja moraju imati sledeće karakteristike: Sadržajnost (obuhvatnost): merama

performansi treba da budu obuhvaćeni svi relevantni aspekti lanca snabdevanja, kako bi se osigurao sličan nivo performansi i u samom lancu i kod njegovih članova.

Univerzalnost: mere performansi treba da budu poredive u različitim uslovima rada sistema, kako bi se omogućilo poređenje sa konkurentskim sistemima.

Merljivost: svi podaci na kojima se bazira merenje performansi moraju biti merljivi, kako bi se omogućilo tačno i pravovremeno vrednovanje performansi.


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Consistency: performance measures must be consistent with organization goals, so that an overview of the whole supply chain performances can be achieved with organization goals in mind

There is a small number of papers in available literature dedicated to this subject, where the most important papers come from Stewart (1995), Beamon (1999), Lambert and Pohlen (2001), Stadler and Kilger (2002), Gunasekarean at all (2004), in which individual performances and performance measures are presented. in Table 2.

Konzistentnost: mere performansi moraju biti konzistentne sa ciljevima organizacije, kako bi se omogućio uvid u performanse celog lanca snabdevanja sa uvažavanjem organizacionih ciljeva

U raspoloživoj literaturi postoji manji broj radova koji su posvećeni ovoj problematici, a kao značajniji se mogu izdvojiti radovi Stewart-a (1995), Beamon-a (1999), Lambert-a i Pohlen-a (2001), Stadler-a i Kilger-a (2002), Gunasekarean-a i ostalih (2004), u kojima se ističu pojedine performanse i mere performansi (Tabela 2).

Table 2 Key supply chain performances overview, by authors Tabela 2 Pregled klučnih performansi u lancu snabdevanja prema autorima

Author/performance

Del

iver

y Pe

rfor

man

ce

Supp

ly C

hain

R

espo

nsiv

.

Ass

ets a

nd

Inve

ntor

ies

Cos

ts

Tim

e of

ac

tivity

re

aliz

atio

n

Flex

ibili

ty

Cap

acity

ut

iliza

tion

Stewart (1995) * * * * Beamon (1999) * * * * Stadler and Kilger (2002) * * * * Gunasekaran at all (2004) * * * * * * * Accents on different individual performances can be seen from table 2. (i.e., in all of the presented papers supply chain costs and response are emphasized, while resource capacity usage is treated as a significant performance in only one paper). Of course, it is a consequence to the very definition of the supply chain and its characteristics. Although every supply chain is special, some performances and performance measurements can be applied in most of cases, and can be grouped in four categories according to matching performance measurements. (source: Stadler and Kilger, 2002.), (Table 3):

Iz tabele 2. se može videti različito naglašavanje pojedinih performansi (na primer, u svim razmatranim radovima se naglašavaju troškovi i odziv lanca snabdevanja, dok se samo u jednom radu iskorišćenje kapaciteta resursa tretira kao bitna performansa). Naravno, to je posledica samog definisanja lanca snabdevanja i njegovih konkretnih karakteristika. Mada je svaki lanac snabdevanja jedinstven, neke performanse i mere performansi se mogu primenjivati u većini slučajeva i mogu se grupisati u četiri kategorije u skladu sa odgovarajućim merama performansi, (Tabela 3):

Table 3. Performance and performance measures Tabela 3 Performanse i mere perfomansi (izvor: Stadler i Kilger, 2002.) Performances Performance measures Delivery Performance Service level Order fill rate On time

delivery Forecast accuracy

Order lead time

Supply Chain Responsiveness Flexibility Planning cycle

time Order lead time

Assets and Inventories Asset turns Inventory turns Inventory

age

Costs Cost of goods sold

Warranty costs


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At the other hand, according to Gunasekarean at all (2004), performance measures can be seen in context of the supply chain processes (plan, source, make/assemble and delivery) and hierarchical level (operational, tactical and strategic), (Table 4). It can be noticed from table 4. that some of the performance measurements can be treated as strategically as well as tactical (for example, flexibility of service system to meet customer needs, supplier pricing against market) or as tactical and operating (for example, human resource productivity, percentage of defects). The reason for dual qualification of performance measures lies in the fact that the targeted performances (results that a supply chain is trying to reach) are most often defined on a higher level, while current results (performance control levels) are tracked from the lower level.

Sa druge strane, prema Gunasekarean-u i ostalima (2004), mere performansi se mogu klasifikovati u odnosu na procese u lancu snabdevanja (planiranje, snabdevanje, proizvodnja/montaža i isporuka) i u odosu hijerarhijski nivo odlučivanja (operativni, taktički, strateški), (Tabela 4). Iz tabele 4. se može primetiti da se pojedine mere performansi mogu tretirati i kao strateške kao i taktičke (na primer, fleksibilnost sistema da ispuni zaheve korisnika, cene snabdevača u odnosu na tržište) odnosno i kao taktičke i kao operativne (na primer, produktivnost radne snage, procenat oštećenja). Razlog dvojakoj pripadnosti mera performansi leži u tome što se na višem nivou obično definišu ciljne performanse (rezultati koje lanac snabdevanja teži da ostvari), dok se sa nižeg nivoa prate i kontrolišu trenutno postignuti rezultati (kontrolne mere performansi).

Table 4 Supply chain performance metric Tabela 4 Mere performansi u lancu snabdevanja

Performance Measures Supply Chain Processes Strategic level Tactical level Operational level Plan - Level of customer

perceived value of product, - Variances against budget, - Order lead time, - Information processing cost, - Product development cycle time, - ...

- Customer query time, - Product development cycle time - Accuracy of forecasting techniques, - Planning process cycle time - Planning process cycle time, - Order entry methods, - Human resource productivity - ...

- Order entry methods, - Human resource productivity - ...

Source - Supplier lead-time against industry norm, - Quality level - Cost saving initiatives, - Supplier pricing against market - ....

- Efficiency of purchase order cycle time, - Supplier lead-time against industry norm, - Supplier pricing against market, - Efficiency of cash flow method, - Capacity flexibility - ...

- Supplier pricing against market, - Adherence to developed schedule - Ability to avoid complaints - ...

Make/Assemble - Range of products and services

- Percentage of defects, - Cost per operation hour, - Capacity utilization, - ...

- Percentage of defects, - Cost per operation hour, - Human resource productivity index - ...

Deliver - Flexibility of service system to meet customer needs, - Effectiveness of enterprise distribution planning schedule - ...

- Flexibility of service system to meet customer needs, - Effectiveness of enterprise distribution planning schedule - Percentage of finished goods in transit, - Delivery reliability performance - ...

- Delivery reliability performance - Quality of delivered goods, - On time delivery of goods, - Percentage of urgent deliveries, - ...


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Similar classification was given by Stewart as early as 1995., who gives performance measurements from both customers and supply chain member perspective by identified processes in supply chain (plan, source, make and deliver). He also isolates the total supply chain performance, while, as key measures, he emphasizes supply chain response (customer's aspect), total supply chain costs and warranty cost. On the other side, for the needs of supply chain benchmarking, similar to Stadler and Kilger (2002), this author isolates four main performances – delivery performance, flexibility and responsiveness, logistic costs and asset management. Considering given performance overview, basic definitions and key performances measurements will be presented further in the text – delivery, flexibility, costs and asset performance. 3.2.1. Delivery Performance Delivery performance is one of most important measure for total supply chain performance. Significance of this performance can be seen through impact on sales to customers and therefore on competitive position of the supply chain on the one hand and through possibility to affect on delivery quality by supply chain management, on the other hand. According to Stadler and Kilger (2002), delivery performance has to be measured in terms of the actual delivery date compared to the delivery date requested by the customer. In literature can be found different measures of that performance, like: service level, order fill rate, on time delivery, forecast accuracy, order lead-time etc. These measures can be quantified in several ways. Service level can be seen as: Event oriented measure (α-service level),

which is based on probability that incoming order can be fulfilled completely from stock in predefined period length (day, week, order cycle, etc) (Tempelmeier, 2000; Stadler and Kilger, 2002). According to Tempelmeier (2000), there are two versions of this measure, with different respect to the time interval within which the customer arrives. In the first case, it can be considered that the customer randomly finds a systems in given time interval (upper definition),

Sličnu podelu daje i Stewart još 1995. godine, koji po identifikovanim procesima u lancu snabdevanja (planiranje, snabdevanje, proizvodnja i isporuka) daje mere performansi iz perspektive korisnika i učesnika u lancu snabdevanja. On posebno izdvaja i ukupne performanse lanca snabdevanja, pri čemu kao glavne mere izdvaja odziv lanca snabdevanja (korisnički aspekt), ukupne troškove lanca snabdevanja i troškove garancije. Sa druge strane, za potrebe benchmarking-a lanaca snabdevanja, slično kao i Stadler i Kilger (2002) ovaj autor izdvaja četiri glavne performanse – performansu isporuke, fleksibilnost i odziv lanca, logističke troškove i upravljanje kapitalom. Obzirom na dati pregled perfomansi, u daljem tekstu će biti ukratko date osnove definicije i mere ključnih performansi – performanse isporuke, performanse fleksibilnosti, performanse troškova i performanse kapitala. 3.2.1. Performansa isporuke Performansa isporuke je jedna od najvažnijih performansi lanca snabdevanja. Značaj ove performanse se može videti kroz njen uticaj na prodaju korisnicima, a samim tim i na konkurentnost lanca snabdevanja sa jedne strane, i kroz mogućnost da se upravljanjem lancem snabdevanja deluje na njen kvalitet. Prema Stadler-u i Kilger-u (2002), performansa isporuke se mora meriti kroz odstupanje stvarnog trenutka isporuke od trenutka isporuke koji zahteva korisnik. U literaturi se mogu naći različite mere za ovu performansu, kao što su: opsluga korisnika, stepen ispunjavanja narudžbina korisnika, pravovremenost isporuke, tačnost prognoze, ciklus narudžbine i drugo. Kvantifikacija navedenih mera se može izvršiti na više načina. Opsluga korisnika, se može izraziti kao: Mera orijentisana na događaj (α-nivo

opsluge), koja se bazira na verovatnoći kompletnog ispunjavanja zahteva korisnika u datom periodu sa postojećih zaliha u određenom vremenskom periodu (dan, nedelja, ciklus narudžbine i sl) (Tempelmeier, 2000; Stadler i Kilger, 2002). Tempelmeier (2000) dodatno navodi u svom radu da postoje dve verzije tretiranja ove mere, koje se razlikuju po tome kako se tretira period u kome se posmatra nailazak korisnika. U prvom slučaju, može se smatrati da korisnik


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while in the other case, the time interval can be treated as a customer order cycle. Then α can be treated as a probability of a stock out within an order cycle. The way of computing α level of service calls an adequate backup reserve level treatment – in the first case, reserve backup level must be selected in the way that it satisfies variable α, while it is selected in regard of customer demands probability distribution during delivery term in the second case.

Quantity oriented measure (β-service level), defined as the proportion of incoming order quantities that can be fulfilled from inventory on hand (Tempelmeier, 2000; Stadler and Kilger, 2002). Tempelmeier (2000) define this measure in the same way, but he respect time component, too (demand that is delivered without delay). This measure can be used to determine stock out event, but also for determine number of customers who is not serviced or partially serviced.

Time and quantity oriented measure (γ- service level), which is based on quantity that cannot be met from stock and the time it takes to meet the demand (Stadler and Kilger, 2002). This measure is rarely used in practice (Tempelmeier, 2000)

Some studies shows (Stewart, 1995) that exist correlation between inventory and delivery-to-request performance – high inventory level enable high customer service level (Mason-Jones and Towill, 1999) Order fill rate is measure similar to α-service level. According to Stadler and Kilger (2002), this measure can be described as the percentage of ship-to-stock orders shipped within 24 hours. On time delivery is another measure of delivery performance and this measure can be seen from two aspects: Customer’s aspect – on time delivery

(Delivery-to-request date) is defined as the proportion of orders delivered on or before the date requested by the customer (Stewart, 1995; Stadler and Kilger 2002). A low percentage of on time deliveries indicates that the order promising process is not synchronized with the execution process in transport and/or production (Stadler and

proizvoljno nailazi u sistem u datom vremenskom intervalu (gornja definicija), dok se u drugom slučaju taj vremenski interval može tretirati kao ciklus naručivanja korisnika. Tada se α može tretirati kao verovatnoća nedostatka zaliha unutar ciklusa naručivanja korisnika. Način proračunavanja α nivoa opsluge trazi i adekvatno tretiranje nivoa zaštitnih zaliha – u prvom slučaju se zaštitni nivo zaliha mora tako izabrati da zadovolji određenu vrednost α, dok se u drugom slučaju određuje u odnosu na raspodelu verovatnoće zahteva korisnika tokom roka isporuke.

Mera orjentisana na količinu (β-nivo opsluge), koja se definiše kao procenat količina robe koje zahtevaju korisnici, a koje mogu biti ispunjene sa postojećih zaliha (Tempelmeier, 2000; Stadler i Kilger, 2002). Tempelmeier (2000) na isti način definiše ovu meru, ali uz respektovanje i vremenske komponente (zahtevi koji mogu biti ispunjeni bez odlaganja). Ova mera pruža uvid u nedostatak zaliha, ali isto tako i u broj korisnika koji nisu opsluženi ili su delimično opsluženi.

Mera orjentisana i na vreme i količinu (γ-nivo opsluge), koja se bazira na količinama koje su tražene, a ne mogu se isporučiti sa postojećih zaliha i vremenu potrebnom da se zahtevi korisnika realizuju(Stadler i Kilger, 2002). Ova mera se retko se koristi u praksi (Tempelmeier, 2000).

Prema sprovedenim studijama (Stewart, 1995), identifikovana je korelacija između nivoa zaliha u sistemu i performanse isporuke - visokim nivoima zaliha se obično postiže željena opsluga korisnika (Mason-Jones i Towill, 1999.) Stepen ispunjavanja narudžbine korisnika se može tretirati slično kao i i α nivo opsluge korisnika. Prema Stadler-u i Kilger-u (2002) ona predstavlja procenat isporuke traženih proizvoda sa zaliha u toku 24h. Pravovremenost isporuke je takođe jedna od mera performansi isporuke, a koja se može tretirati sa dva aspekta: Korisnički aspekt – pravovremenost isporuke

se definiše kao procenat narudžbina koje se mogu isporučiti pre ili u vremenskom trenutku koji je zahtevao korisnik (Stewart, 1995; Stadler i Kilger, 2002). Nizak procenat pravovremenih isporuka ukazuje na nesinhronizovanost obećanog roka isporuke


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Kilger 2002). However, there is a question – is orders delivery before date requested convenient for customer? According to Vlajic (2005), this situation can be convenient for vendor (if this situation is vendor organization and planning result), but it doesn’t mean that it is good for customer, too.

Vendor's aspect - on time delivery (Delivery-to-commit date) is defined as is the percentage of orders that are fulfilled on or before the original schedule or committed date (Stewart, 1995).

Forecast accuracy measures the ability to forecast future demands and it relates forecasted quantities to actual quantities (Stadler and Kilger, 2002). Low forecast accuracy have different consequences on supply chain (for example, Bullwhip effect appearance – Vlajić, 2005). From the customer point of view, order lead-time represent average time interval from the date the order is placed to the date the customers receives the shipment (Stadler and Kilger, 2002; Gunasekaran at all, 2004). Time span of order cycle can influence the supply chain concurrency in many ways, concerning the characteristics of the modern market. 3.2.2. Supply Chain Flexibility Assignment of different process cycles in the supply chain represents a prerequisite for defining and quantifying delivery performances, in other words some of its measures. Besides that, by identifying length of the cycles, one can ascertain ability of the chain to accommodate to changes on the market, which is one of the most important requirements for survival of the companies themselves and the whole supply chains in a working environment today. For that reason, new performance which would encapsulate all cycles in supply chain and therefore present chain flexibility has been developed. Many papers that consider flexibility from aspects of its definition, classification and measurement, need and introducing can be found in literature. From the aspect of performances, generally speaking of flexibility represents a characteristics of the system that enables performance

sa samim planom realizacije isporuke (u transportu i/ili proizvodnji). Međutim, postavlja se pitanje – da li prevremena isporuka uvek odgovara i korisniku? Prema Vlajić (2005), ova situacija je pogodna za isporučioca (ako je to posledica njegove organizacije i planiranja), a ne mora da znači da odgovara i korisniku. Gledano sa aspekta isporučioca, prema

Stewart-u (1995), ona se definiše kao procenat narudžbina koje su ispunjene pre ili po predviđenom rasporedu/obećanom trenutku isporuke.

Tačnost prognoze meri tačnost prognoziranja budućih zahteva i sagledava se iz odnosa prognoziranih količina i stvarnih količina (Stadler i Kilger, 2002). Niska tačnost prognoze ima mnogobrojne posledice po rad lanca snabdevanja (na primer, pojava Bullwhip efekta - Vlajić, 2005). Sa korisničkog aspekta, ciklus narudžbine predstavlja prosečan vremenski interval od trenutka plasiranja narudžbine do trenutka isporuke robe korisniku (Stadler i Kilger, 2002; Gunasekaran i ostali, 2004). S obzirom na karakteristike savremenog tržišta, dužina ciklusa narudžbine može u mnogome uticati na konkurentnost lanca snabdevanja. 3.2.2. Fleksibilnost lanca snabdevanja Određivanje ciklusa različitih procesa u lancu snabdevanja predstavlja preduslov za definisanje i kvantifikovanje performanse isporuke tj. neke od njenih mera. Pored toga, utvrđivanjem dužina tih ciklusa može se utvrditi sposobnost lanca da se prilagodi promenama na tržišu, što je danas jedan od najvažnijih uslova za opstanak samih kompanija i celih lanaca snabdevanja u poslovnom okruženju. Za tu svrhu, razvijena je nova performansa koja bi obuhvatila sve cikluse u lancu snabdevanja i koja bi zapravo pokazivala fleksibilnost lanca. U literaturi se mogu naći brojni radovi koji razmatraju fleksbilnost sa aspekta njenog definisanja, klasifikovanja i merenja, potrebe i uvođenja. Sa aspekta performansi, uopšteno gledajući fleksibilnost predstavlja karakteristiku sistema koja omogućava stabilnost performansi u uslovima promena tj. neodređenosti (Barad i


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stability in changing conditions, i.e. indeterminacy (Barad and Sapir, 2003.). Flexibility alone can be viewed from this aspect as a strategy for improving system response on changes and can be looked at against supply chain range and response (source – Beamon, 1999). Range dimension of flexibility measures the

variety of available alternatives for the system adaptation (associated with the system effectiveness) (Barad and SAPI, 2003); alternatives can be related to possibility of change in the elements of system themselves (i.e., to changes of equipment, changes in transport network, etc.) and in area of planning and management (i.e., in routing of products from the aspect of machines at production plant, in marketing for placing a new product to market, in the area of reaching needed productivity, etc.)

The response dimension of flexibility11 measures the easiness with which the adaptation can be carried, in terms of the reaction time or cost needed to respond to the change that occurred (associated with the system efficiency).

Both flexibility aspects can be used for determination supply chain flexibility, while different types of flexibility can be observed – in regard to quantity (the ability to change the output level of products produced), delivery (the ability to change planned delivery dates), mix (the ability to change the variety of products produced) and new product (the ability to introduce/modify and produce new products), source – Beamon (1999). According to Stewart (1995), supply chain response time, as one aspect of flexibility, comprises several periods: Days to communicate new forecast to end-

product plants, [days]; Days to communicate new forecast

implications to internal feeder plants, if any, [days];

Average days required to source and make product (assuming zero starting inventory), [days];

11 This is the way how Stadler and Kilger, 2002 define the supply chain response

Sapir, 2003.). Sama fleksibilnost se sa tog aspekta može posmatrati kao strategija za poboljšanje odziva sistema na promene i može se posmatrati u odnosu na obuhvatnost lanca i brzinu odziva (izvor – Beamon, 1999). Sa aspekta obuhvatnosti, fleksbilnost se može

meriti kroz broj različitih varijanti preko kojih se sistem može adaptirati (povezuje se efektivnošću sistema) (Barad i Sapir, 2003); alternative se mogu odnositi na mogućnosti promene u samim elementima sistema (na primer, promene tehnoloških elemenata, promene u transportnoj mreži i sl.) i u domenu planiranja i upravljanja (na primer u domenu rutiranja proizvoda sa aspekta mašina u proizvodnom pogonu, u domenu marketinga za zadatke uvođenja novog proizvoda na tržište, u domenu zahtevane proizvodnosti sistema i sl.)

Sa aspekta odziva, fleksibilnost12 se može meriti kroz brzinu kojom se može realizovati adapatacija sistema na novonastale uslove, a koja se može izraziti kroz vreme reakcije ili troškove reakcije (povezuje se sa efikasnošću sistema).

Oba aspekta fleksibilnosti se mogu primeniti za odredjivanje fleksibilnosti lanca snabdevanja, pri cemu se mogu posmatrati razlicite vrste fleksibilnosti – u odnosu na kolicine (mogucnost promene obima proizvodnje), isporuku (mogucnost promene planiranih datuma isporuke), proizvodni miks (mogucnost promene proizvodnog miksa) i razvoj proizvoda (mogucnost uvodjenja/modifikacije i proizvodnje novog proizvoda), izvor – Beamon (1999). Prema Stewart-u (1995), fleksibilnost gledana kroz vreme odziva lanca snabdevanja obuhvata zbir sledećih vremenskih perioda: Vremenski period potreban za prenos prognoze

do proizvođača gotovih proizvoda, [dana]; Vremenski period potreban za prenos podataka

o prognozi do internih snabdevača koji dostavljaju neophodne materijale do proizvođača (ako ih ima), [dana];

Prosečan vremenski period potreban za realizaciju snabdevanja i proizvodnje (pod pretpostavkom da je početni nivo zaliha jednak nuli), [dana];

12 Stadler i Kilger, 2002 na ovaj način definišu odziv lanca snabdevanja


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Average lead time in days required to fill a customer’s order [days].

Influencing on reduction of any of listed times, greater speed of chain response is gained, i.e. its flexibility grows. Of course, a great impact of modern informatics technology on supply chain response can be seen here. Supply chain responsiveness can be monitored through customer order path, which can be defined as time spent in different channels by customer order (Gunasekaran at all, 2004.). By identification and quantification of those times we can detect problem areas. For example, non-value adding activities can be identified, and by their removal the chain response grows on one side, and system costs cut on the other side. Besides listed aspects of supply chain flexibility observation, there are others – for instance, when the flexibility is set as a goal which should be accomplished by deploying various strategies (Alfredsson and Verrijdt, 1999.; Barad and Sapir, 2003), for example: direct shipping, transshipment and postponement strategy. 3.2.3. Assets and Inventories Number of authors has a opinion that asset management is the final key to successfully managing the supply chain (Stewart, 1995; Stadler and Kilger, 2002, ...), because in that way, problems related to supply chain delivery and flexibility can be solved. According to Stewart (1995) supply chain assets include accounts receivable, inventories, and selected plant, property and equipment, and, according to him, as the most important capital management performance measure usually emerge: Asset turns, which is defined by the division

of revenue by total assets (Stadler and Kilger, 2002). This measure is common for determining the efficiency of company to operating its assets, with respect to industry characteristics.

Cash-to-cash cycle time, which is a composite metric describing the average days

Prosečan vremenski period roka isporuke neophodan za realizaciju narudžbine korisnika, [dana].

Uticajem na smanjenje bilo koje od navedenih vremena, postiže se veća brzina odziva lanca tj. povećava se njegova fleksibilnost. Naravno, u ovom domenu se može videti veliki uticaj primene savremenih informacionih tehnologija na odziv lanca snabdevanja. Odziv lanca se može pratiti i kroz identifikaciju putanje narudžbine, koja predstavlja vreme koje narudžbina provede u različitim kanalima (Gunasekaran i ostali, 2004.). Identifikacijom i kvantifikacijom tih vremena se mogu uočiti problemske tačke. Na primer, mogu se identifikovati aktivnosti koje ne dodaju vrednost, a njihovim otklanjanjem se povećava odziv lanca sa jedne strane i smanjuju troškova u sistemu sa druge strane. Pored navedenih, postoje i drugačiji aspekti posmatranja fleksibilnosti lanca snabdevanja – na primer, kada se fleksibilnost postavi kao cilj koji se treba postići sprovođenjem različitih strategija (Alfredsson i Verrijdt, 1999.; Barad i Sapir, 2003), kao što su strategija direktne isporuke, strategija transshipment-a, strategija postponement-a. 3.2.3. Kapital i zalihe Više autora smatra da upravljanje kapitalom predstavlja glavni ključ za uspešnost upravljanja lancem snabdevanja (Stewart, 1995; Stadler i Kilger, 2002, ...), jer se na taj način mogu rešiti problemi u domenu isporuke i fleksibilnosti lanca snabdevanja. Prema Stewart-u (1995) kapital lanca snabdevanja obično obuhvata potraživanja, zalihe i objekte i opremu u vlasništvu lanca, a prema njemu, kao najvažnije mera perfomansi upravljanja kapitalom se obično izdvajaju: Obrt kapitala, koji se definiše kao odnos

prihoda i ukupnog kapitala (Stadler i Kilger, 2002). Ova mera peformansi se najčešće koristi za utvrđivanje efikasnosti kompanije pri radu sa kapitalom, uz respektovanje grane industrije kojoj kompanija pripada. Obrt novca, koja predstavlja izvedenu meru, a

opisuje prosečan broj dana potreban da se izvrši


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required to turn a dollar invested in raw material into a dollar collected from a customer (Stewart, 1995)13.

Considering the fact that the inventories represent a part of supply chain capital which largely influence the effectiveness and efficiency of functioning of the supply chain itself, adequate inventory analysis (based on relevant criteria, i.e. using ABC analysis) and detailed analysis from the aspect of their place in the supply chain, function, structure, value, management strategies and parameters, costs and more, has to be conducted in order to find an optimal reserve level. Usual performance measures in domain of inventories from the physical aspect are: Inventory turns, which can be defined as the

ratio of total material consumption per time period to the average inventory level of the same time period14 (Stadler and Kilger, 2002.; Vukićević, 1995.).

Inventory age, which can be defined by the average time goods are residing in stock (Stadler and Kilger, 2002.). This performance measurement is crucial for supply chains in which the products with limited duration can be find (i.e., in food industry), and also the products with seasonal consumption (i.e. in fashion industry). Inventory age can be used for high inventory level detection (with respect to product type and characteristic); identification of unnecessary and obsolete stocks etc.

Average inventory level, which represents a good performance measurement when comparing supply chain functioning in different scenarios (i.e. when changing chain structure, used management strategies, inventory management strategies, when considering changing relations between chain members, third party engagement for certain processes realization, when making changes in operative management, way of functioning of production, information or financial flow, and likewise).

13 Moment when user realizes his obligations to supplier depends on payments conditions, which are defined accordingly to company's policy, or supply chain policy. 14 There are also other approaches to inventory turns in literature

obrt novca od trenutka kada je novac investiran u sirovine do trenutka kada je korisnik izvršio plaćanje15 (Stewart, 1995.).

S obzirom da zalihe predstavljaju deo kapitala lanca snabdevanja koje u velikoj meri utiču na efektivnost i efikasnost funkcionisanja samog lanca, za određivanje optimalnog nivoa zaliha u lancu snabdevanja se mora sprovesti odgovarajuća analiza zaliha (na bazi relevantnih kriterijuma, preko na pr. ABC analize,...) i detaljna analiza komponenti zaliha sa aspekta njihovog mesta u lancu snabdevanja, funkcije, strukture, vrednosti, upravljačkih strategija i parametara, troškova i sl. Uobičajene mere performansi u domenu zaliha sa fizičkog aspekta su: Obrt zaliha, koji se definiše kao odnos ukupne

potrošnje materijala u određenom vremenskom periodu i srednjeg nivoa zaliha u istom vremenskom intervalu16 (Stadler i Kilger, 2002.; Vukićević, 1995.)..

Starost zaliha, koja se definiše kao prosečno vreme koje proizvodi provedu na zalihama (Stadler i Kilger, 2002.). Ova mera peformansi je jako bitna za lance snabdevanja u kojima se mogu naći proizvodi sa ograničenim vekom trajnja (na primer, u prehrambrenoj industriji), ali i proizvodi koji imaju sezonsku potrošnju (na primer, u modnoj industriji i slično). Starost zaliha se može iskoristiti za utvrđivanje visokog nivoa zaliha (ali uzeta sa respektom na vrstu i karakteristike proizvoda), identifikaciju zaliha koje su zastarele i nisu neophodne i sl.

Prosečan nivo zaliha, koji predstavlja dobru meru performansi pri poređenju funkcionisanja lanca snabdevanja u različitim scenarijima (na primer, pri promeni strukture lanca, primenjenih upravljačkih strategija, strategija upravljanja zalihama, pri razmatranju promene odnosa između učesnika u lancu, angažovanja trećih lica za realizaciju određenih procesa, pri promenama u operativnom upravljanju, načinu funkcionisanja robnog, informacionog ili finansijskog toka i slično).

15 Trenutak u kome korisnik izvršava svoje obaveze prema snabdevaču zavisi od uslova plaćanja, koji se određuju u skladu sa poslovnom politikom kompanije tj. lanca snabdevanja. 16 U literaturi se mogu naći i drugačiji pristupi određivanju obrtu zaliha.


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3.2.4. Costs The costs represent a significant performance, because the goal of every company and supply chain is making profit and raising competitiveness value. One of the first ways to getting to specified goal is lowering of overall supply chain costs. Overall supply chain costs typically consist of sum of costs by processes which appear in supply chains. But, overall supply chain costs consist of various cost components, as can be found in available literature. In overall supply chain costs, Stewart (1995) recognizes infrastructure costs and overall logistical costs. In overall logistical costs he recognizes he recognizes order management cost, material acquisition cost, inventory carrying cost and supply chain finance, planning, and management information system cost. He claims that there is little relationship between the level of vertical integration and logistics costs/revenue for companies with revenue levels of $200 million. This means that larger and companies with high level of profitability can compare with other companies, regardless of theirs organization and management. However, he defines total cost pursuant to defining the chain itself (section 1.2), so he does not count the production costs in it. Vlajic (2005) does not contest importance of costs that he lists, but indicates that the question of warehouse and transport costs (concerning the fact that the consumer service level does depend on reliability of transport-distribution system), has to be discussed, as well as costs of shortage of inventories, as a part of total logistics costs. Ballou (2004), however, by overall supply chain costs considers the sum of costs of all the chain members, which are for him costs of production, transport, ordering, demanding, demand processing, inventories, post-delivery; but he does not consider storage costs. In many other papers which goal is simulation of supply chain performances, one can find significant difference from previously presented cost structure in overall chain costs. Namely, in those papers overall costs are observed in different ways, and/or only certain cost groups are recognized. For instance, Jansen at all (2001) look at overall costs in the supply chain, but by the logistical unit. According to them, those

3.2.4. Troškovi Troškovi predstavljaju veoma bitnu performansu, jer je cilj svake kompanije i lanca snabdevanja sticanje profita i podizanje konkurentske prednosti. Jedan od prvenstvenih načina za postizanje postavljenog cilja je snižavanje ukupnih troškova lanca snabdevanja. Ukupni troškovi lanca snabdevanja se tipično sastoje iz sume troškova po procesima koji se u lancu snabdevanja pojavljuju. Međutim, u raspoloživoj literaturi ukupni troškovi lanca snabdevanja se sastoje iz različitih troškovnih komponenti. Stewart (1995) u ukupnim troškovima lanca snabdevanja respektuje troškove infrastrukture i ukupne logističke troškove. U ukupnim logističkim troškovima on respektuje troškova upravljanja narudžbinama, troškove nabavke materijala, troškova držanja zaliha i troškova finansija, planiranja i upravljačkog informacionog softvera u lancu snabdevanja. Isti autor navodi da postoji mala međuzavisnost između nivoa vertikalne integracije u sistemu i logističkih troškova/prihoda za kompanije koje ostvaruju prihod veći od 200 miliona dolara, što znači da se za veće i profitabilne kompanije mogu porediti samo logistički troškovi, bez obzira na njihovu organizaciju i upravljanje. Međutim, on definiše ukupne troškove shodno definisanju samog lanca (tačka 1.2), pa u njih ne ubraja i troškove proizvodnje. Vlajić (2005) ne osporava važnost troškova koje on navodi, ali ukazuje da se mora razmotriti i pitanje skladišnih i transportnih troškova (obzirom da nivo opsluge korisnika u značajnoj meri zavisi i od pouzdanosti transportnog tj. distributivnog sistema), ali i troškova nedostatka zaliha kao dela logističkih troškova. Ballou (2004) međutim pod ukupnim troškovima lanca snabdevanja smatra sumu troškova kod svih članova lanca, a za njega su to troškovi proizvodnje, transporta, naručivanja i obrade narudžbina, zaliha, i naknadne isporuke, ali ne uzima u obzir troškove skladištenja. U mnogim drugim radovima čiji je cilj simuliranje rada lanca snabdevanja mogu se sresti i značajna odstupanja od prethodno navedene strukture troškova u ukupnim troškovima lanca. Naime, u tim radovima se i ukupni troškovi posmatraju na različit načina i/ili se respektuju samo pojedine grupe troškova. Na primer, Jansen i ostali (2001) posmatraju ukupne troškove u lancu snabdevanja,


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expenses are the sum of expenses in product flow (costs of transport, material handling and processing – i.e. fixed costs of gathering and processing orders, transport costs/km, loading and unloading costs, costs of logistical units receiving, distribution costs/km, etc.) and information flow (costs which relate to orders movement, costs to input orders/lines by product groups and ordered groups). On the other hand, Persson and Olhager (2002) look at overall supply chain costs, but their supply chain contains only production part, while the overall costs consist of inventories keeping costs and product quality control costs. The costs can be presented through different performance measures (regarding to different cost types, different cost carriers, different accounting methods, ...) For supply chains, supply chain overall costs should be tracked, but business process costs (which depend on supply chain structure) should not be forgotten – in general: costs of supply (purchase), production costs, inventory-related costs, transport and distribution costs, storage processes costs, information technologies costs. Besides these cost groups, for specific supply chain types it is relevant to monitor some other costs too, like costs of warranty, which indicate the product quality. Although warranty costs depend highly on how warranty processing is carried out, it may help to identify problem areas (because superior product quality is not a typical supply chain feature, but a driving business principle in general), (Stadler and Kilger, 2002). 3.2.5 Other performances and performance measures One performance, used very often is Supplier performance measures which is typically applied for supplier selection. Besides listed performances, papers that treat performances and performances measures that can not be directly assorted in previously list can be also found in literature17. Supplier performance measures are

17J Very imoportant measure in applying certain strategies in supply chains which call for a reduction of supplier number (i.e. a prerequisite to applicing Vendor Managment Inventory, JIT and similar strategies is a choice between reliable suppliers with which one commonly gets partner relationships)..

ali po logističkoj jedinici. Prema njima, ti troškovi predstavljaju zbir troškova u robnom toku (troškovi transporta, rukovanja materijalima i prerade – na primer, fiksni troškovi prikupljanja i obrade narudžbine, transportni troškovi/km, troškovi utovara/h, troškovi istovara/h, troškovi prijema/logistička jedinica, distributivni troškovi/km, itd) i informacionom toku (troškovi koji se odnose na prenos narudžbina, troškovi formiranja i unosa narudžbenice/linija po grupama proizvoda i grupama naručioca). Sa druge strane, Persson i Olhager (2002) posmatraju ukupne troškove u lancu snabdevanja, ali njihov lanac snabdevanja obuhvata samo proizvodni deo, dok se ukupni troškovi sastoje iz troškova čuvanja zaliha i troškova kontrole kvaliteta proizvoda. Troškovi se mogu iskazati preko različitih mera performansi (respektujući različite vrste troškova, različite nosioce troškova, različite načine obračunavanja, ...). Za lance snabdevanja, potrebno je pratiti ukupne troškove lanca, ali i troškove po poslovnim procesima (koji zavise od strukture lanca snabdevanja) – generalno gledano: troškove snabdevanja (nabavke), troškove proizvodnje, troškove vezane za zalihe, troškove transporta i distribucije, troškove skladišnih procesa, troškove informacionih tehnologija. Pored navedenih grupa troškova, za određene tipove lanaca snabdevanja relevantno je pratiti i neke druge troškove, kao što su na primer troškovi garancije, kojima se ukazuje na kvalitet proizvoda. Oni u velikoj meri zavise od uslova garancije, ali se mogu koristiti za identifikaciju problemskih tačka (naročito zato što tipična karakteristika lanca snabdevanja nije superioran kvalitet proizvoda, nego vodeći poslovni principi uopšteno), (Stadler i Kilger, 2002). 3.2.5. Ostale performanse i mere performansi Pored navedenih performansi, u literaturi se mogu naći radovi koji obrađuju performanse i mere performansi koje se ne mogu direktno svrstati u prethodno navedene. Jedna od često korišćenih je performansa snabdevača, koja se tipično primenjuje pri izboru snabdevača18. Njene mere performansi su obično bazirane na varijaciji cena usluge/proizvoda, broju otkazanih isporuka i

18Jako bitna mera pri primeni određenih strategija u lancima snabdevanja koje zahtevaju redukovanje broja snabdevača (na primer, preduslov primene Vendor Management Inventory, JIT i sličnih strategija je izbor pouzdanih snabdevača sa kojima se obično stupa u partnerske odnose).


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typically based on product/service price variation, rejects on receipt and on time delivery, but some other measures are rarely used, like quality, reliability etc (Gunasekaran at all, 2004.). In the context of the supply chain, supplier selection can be viewed in a context of supply chain performance efficiency, its integration, response, customer service, reliability, etc. Of course, before the selection, periodical analysis of supplier performance has to be conducted (from short to long period of observation – development aspects, strategically plan, etc.), so that the abilities of the supplier to fulfill its customers' demands in near and further future could be noticed forehand19. Simultaneously to supplier performance analysis, the relations of supply chain members and the influence of relations on performance of the chain itself are often considered in the papers. Various forms of partner relationships20 (source: Lambert at all, 1998a; Simci-Levi at all, 2000) are being considered most often because of their influence on efficient and effective supply. 4. CONCLUSION Defining, modeling, performances choice and supply chain performances measurement represent just a few of many problems concerning supply chain field. Namely, different approaches to supply chains can be found in scientific and professional papers. One of the reasons for this lies in the fact that there are several schools which are doing researches in this field, and which treat it according to their aspiration – from aspect of management, economy, system dynamics, logistics, information technologies, etc. Further on, every school derives its own chain definition and establishes its aspect of looking at problem,

19 The choice og the supplier represents a special problem in supply chain management scope. 20 Various forms of partner relationships are described in literature – from the relations that only reside on transactions which are realised between partners in the chain, to the vertical integration, where strong connections exsist between partners who are most often characterized by different levels of common ownership, stronger and centralized management, etc. Some authors defines partnership as a tailored business relationship based on mutual trust, opennes, shared risk and shared rewards that yields a competitive advantage, resulting in business performance greater than would be achieved by the firms individually (source - Lambert at all, 1998a). Other authors, besides accepting this kind of bussiness relations, add that it is a form of strategic partnership (Simchi-Levi at all, 2000), that some degree of interdependence exists between partners (Gunasekaran at all, 2004), etc.

vremenu realizacije isporuka, ali se ređe koriste neke druge mere, kao što su na primer, kvalitet opsluge korisnika, pouzdanost snabdevača i slično (Gunasekaran i ostali, 2004.). U kontekstu lanca snabdevanja, izbor snabdevača se može posmatrati i u kontekstu efikasnosti rada lanca, njegove integracije, odziva, nivoa opsluge korisnika, pouzdanosti i sl. Naravno, pre samog izbora, neophodno je sprovoditi periodičnu analizu rada snabdevača (od kratkoročnog do dugoročnog posmatranja – aspekti razvoja, stateško planiranje i sl.), kako bi se pravovremeno uočile mogućnosti snabdevača da ispuni zaheve svojih korisnika u bližoj i daljoj budućnosti21. Paralelno sa analizom performansi snabdevača, u radovima se obično razmatraju i odnosi između učesnika u lancu snabdevanja i uticaj takvih odnosa na rad samog lanca. Najčešće se razmatraju različiti oblici partnerskih odnosa22 (videti: Lambert i ostali, 1998.a; Simci-Levi i ostali, 2000.) usled njihovog uticaja na efikasno i efektivno snabdevanje. 4. ZAKLJUČAK Definisanje, modeliranje, izbor perofmansi i mera performansi lanaca snabdevanja predstavljaju samo neke od brojnih problema vezanih za oblast lanaca snabdevanja. Naime, u naučnoj i stručnoj literaturi se mogu sresti različiti pristupi lancima snabdevanja. Jedan od razloga za takvo stanje leži u tome što postoji više škola koje izučavaju ovu oblast i koje je tretiraju shodno njihovom usmerenju – sa aspekta menadžmenta, ekonomije, sistemske dinamike, logistike, informacione tehnologije i sl. Pri tome, svaka škola izvodi sopstvene definicije lanca i postavlja svoj aspekt sagledavanja problema ističući određene karakteristike lanca kao primarne, dok

21 Izbor snabdevača predstavlja posebnu problematiku u domenu upravljanja lancima snabdevanja. 22 U literaturi se opisuju različiti oblici partnerskih odnosa – od odnosa koji počivaju samo na transakcijama koje se realizuju između partnera u lancu, pa do vertikalne integracije, gde postoje jake veze između partnera koje najčešće karakterišu različiti stepeni zajedničkog vlasništva, čvršće i centralizovano upravljanje itd. Neki autori definišu partnerstvo kao ustanovljen poslovi odnos baziran na zajedničkom poverenju, otvorenosti, podeli rizika i podeli nagrada koji daje konkurentsku prednost, rezultujući višim poslovnim performansama u odnosu na one koje bi kompanije individualno postigle (izvor - Lambert i ostali, 1998a),. Drugi autori, pored priznavanja takvog poslovnog odnosa, dodaju još i da je to oblik strateškog partnerstva (Simchi-Levi i ostali, 2000), da između partnera postoji određeni stepen medjuzavisnosti (Gunasekaran i ostali, 2004) itd


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accenting certain characteristics of the chain as primary, while having less or none appreciation for others. Besides, ”Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals” – official organization which has promoted supply chain management and that gathers experts in the field, changed supply chain and supply chain management definitions, striving to make a key difference between this and other related fields. In an attempt to indicate on the true size of problem, only some of the most cited supply chain and their management definitions were presented, also, a clear distinction between classical, traditional and modern way of chain functioning, i.e. supply chain management, was made; while many advantages which come from application of modern approach were listed. Besides, some of the prerequisites which should be achieved, so that supply chain management can be enabled in the first place were also listed. The problem of chain definition complicates its modeling, and indirectly influencing on performance and performance measurement choice. Besides, a single question is related to the very approach to the modeling. Three main approaches to modeling where presented in this paper, with a bit more detailed overview of literature related to the key supply chain performances choice and the description of their possible measurements. Majority of authors agree that, on global level, key performances include: total chain costs, chain flexibility, customer service level, capital and reserves. It should be noted that the identification of key performances and method of their quantification depends on characteristics of the very chain (its structure, chain members connection, number and types of business relationships and processes in the chain, management elements, the market that the chain works in, product types and characteristics, industry, etc.) as emphasized in many papers which are more directly dealing with analysis of certain supply chains. The paper indicates some of the problems in the field of supply chains. The solutions to this problems lie in future research and studies on this subject, which will develop a standard definition of supply chain, supply chain management on one hand; and on the other hand, develop a clear, generic methodology of supply chain modeling and references for the selection of adequate performances and ways of their quantification.

se ostale manje uvažavaju ili zanemaruju. Pored toga, ”Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals” - zvanična organizacija koja je promovisala upravljanje lancima snabdevanja i koja okuplja stručnjake u ovoj oblasti, za poslednjih nekoliko godina menjala je definicije lanca snabdevanja i upravljanja lancem snabdevanja, pokušavajući da napravi suštinsku razliku između ove i drugih srodnih oblasti. U pokušaju da se ukaže na veličinu problema, u radu su prikazane samo neke od citiranijih definicija lanaca snabdevanja i njihovog upravljanja, a napravljena je, takođe, i jasna razlika između klasičnog, tradicionalnog i savremenog načina funkcionisanja lanca snabdevanja tj upravljanja lancima snabdevanja, pri čemu su navedene brojne prednosti koje proizilaze iz primene savremenog pristupa. Pored toga, navedeni su i neki od preduslova koje je neophodno ispuniti da bi se uopšte omogućilo upravljanje lancima snabdevanja. Problem definisanja lanaca snabdevanja otežava njegovo modeliranje, a indirektno utiče i na izbor performansi i mera performansi lanca. Pored toga, posebno pitanje se vezuje za sam način modeliranja. U radu je sažeto ukazano na tri glavna pristupa modeliranju, uz malo detaljniji pregled literature koji se odnosi na izbor ključnih performansi lanca snabdevanja i opis njihovih mogućih mera. Većina autora se izjašnjava da su, globalno gledano, ključne performanse lanca snabdevanja: ukupni troškovi lanca, fleksibilinost lanca, nivo opsluge korisnika, kapital i zalihe. Međutim, u brojnim radovima koji se direktnije bave analizom rada određenih lanaca snabdevanja se ističe da identifikacija ključnih performansi i način njihove kvantifikacije zavisi u mnogome od karakteristika konkretnog lanca (njegove strukture, povezanosti učesnika u lancu, broja i tipova poslovnih veza i procesa u lancu, upravljačkih elemenata, tržišta na kome posluje lanac, tipova i karakteristika proizvoda, industrije itd). Rad ukazuje na nekoliko problema u oblasti lanaca snabdevanja. Rešenja ovih problema leže u budućim istraživanjima i studijama na ovu temu koja bi sa jedne strane proizvela standardnu definiciju lanca snabdevanja, upravljanja lancem snabdevanja, a sa druge strane proizvela jasnu, opštu metodologiju modeliranja lanaca snabdevanja i preporuka za izbor odgovarajućih performansi i načina njihove kvantifikacije.


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Reviewal / Recenzija: prof. dr Dragoslav Kuzmanović

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lanci snabdevanja - definisanje i per for manse

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