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LABORATORY APPRAISAL OF CARBON SEQUESTRATIONAND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY AFTER DIFFERENTORGANIC MATTER INPUTS IN VIRGIN AND CULTIVATEDZIMBABWEAN SOILSG Almendros a S Giampaolo b amp M T Pardo aa Centro de Ciencias Medioambientales (CSIC) Serrano 115B Madrid E-28006 Spainb Dipartamento di Scienza del Suolo e Nutrizione della Pianta Universitagrave di Firenze Ple Cascine 15 Florence 50122 ItalyPublished online 05 Feb 2007

To cite this article G Almendros S Giampaolo amp M T Pardo (2001) LABORATORY APPRAISAL OF CARBONSEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY AFTER DIFFERENT ORGANIC MATTER INPUTS IN VIRGIN AND CULTIVATEDZIMBABWEAN SOILS Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 325-6 877-894

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COMMUN SOIL SCI PLANT ANAL 32(5amp6) 877ndash894 (2001)

LABORATORY APPRAISAL OF CARBONSEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENTAVAILABILITY AFTER DIFFERENT

ORGANIC MATTER INPUTS IN VIRGINAND CULTIVATED ZIMBABWEAN SOILS

G Almendros1 S Giampaolo2 and M T Pardo1

1 Centro de Ciencias Medioambientales (CSIC)Serrano 115B Madrid E-28006 Spain

2 Dipartamento di Scienza del Suolo e Nutrizione della PiantaUniversita di Firenze P le Cascine 15 Florence 50122 Italy

ABSTRACT

The effects of adding different organic amendments (maize strawsunflower straw and two types of manure) to Rhodic Kandiustalffrom North Zimbabwe were evaluated in laboratory experimentsusing soil samples from a large commercial farm and from theneighboring virgin ecosystem The study focused on a) assessingthe changes in soil respiratory activity b) comparing the accumu-lation patterns of stable humus substances after a 55-day incuba-tion period c) checking the differences in availability of plantnutrients and d) comparing the response to organic matter additionof virgin and cleared sites to evaluate the extent to which the re-sponse to organic input depends on the soil degradation status Byadding external organic matter sources the soil respiratory activityincreased in the following order sunflower straw fresh manure maize straw old manure The sequestration in soil of the or-

877

Copyright 2001 by Marcel Dekker Inc wwwdekkercom

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ganic matter added was higher with lignocellulosic wastes thanwith old manure Irrespective of the organic input the mineraliza-tion coefficients evidenced the higher biodegradability of organicmatter accumulated in the cultivated rather than in virgin soil Thefour types of organic matter input compensated the selective accu-mulation of humic colloids of a low molecular weight (fulvicacids) a natural tendency of most tropical soils and to a large ex-tent (mainly when sunflower straw was applied) increased the hu-mic acidfulvic acid ratios However cultivation induces changesin the soil physico-chemical status and per unit of C added theaddition of lignocellulosic wastes to cultivated soil was ca 50less effective in accumulating humic acid than in virgin soil Thechemical fertilizer performance of the different amendments used(ie the percentage of nutrients at zero time still available after theincubation experiment) only provides values above 100 (mobi-lizing effect) in the case of some microelements [manganese (Mn)zinc (Zn)] in soils treated with lignocellulosic wastes but the op-posite trend (microbial or physico-chemical immobilization) oc-curs with some macroelements [phosphorus (P) calcium (Ca) andmagnesium (Mg)] These results can be interpreted in the sensethat cultivated soil displays an increasing biogeochemical activitycompared with virgin soil as corresponds to its higher mineraliza-tion coefficients of exogenous organic matter

INTRODUCTION

Nutrient supply in tropical soils is largely related to the performance of thesoil biogeochemical cycle The amount and stability of soil organic matter are ofprime importance for the sustainable management of tropical productive systemsexposed to climatic conditions favoring the degradation of their physical proper-ties (1 2 3 4) The severe decline of soil organic matter levels following landconversion to agriculture is an almost universal occurrence in most tropical re-gions of the world (5 6 7) It often leads to rapid soil degradation through nutrientleaching in the heavy rainy season as well as to unfavorable physical properties ina situation in which tree cover and crop wastes have been removed (8) In order tocounteract these negative effects adequate levels of organic matter should bemaintained in the soil and for this reason residue input plays an important role inestablishing a new balance In particular crop residues and animal manures rep-resent an important potential resource to generate humic matter and consequentlyto enhance soil productivity (9 10 11 12 13) The rational management of cropand cattle wastes produce both economic and environmental benefits leading to

878 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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i) the reduced requirement of mineral fertilizers ii) the continuous release ofavailable nutrients and iii) progressive restoring of the biophysico-chemical soilproperties required for nutrient accumulation during intercropping stages Thedisposal of crop wastes on fields also has interesting effects with regard to pro-tecting the topsoil against raindrop disaggregation (14) However when certainlevels of soil degradation are reached it is questionable whether external organicmatter input will contribute significantly to soil remediation or conversely it isreadily mineralized under the climatic conditions of tropical soils In fact inmost sites of Africa organic matter decomposition rates are so high that a notice-able increase in organic C is difficult to achieve (15 16) In addition the aridand semiarid regions are often characterized by a lack of good quality organicwastes that can advantageously be applied to land as biofertilizers and soil condi-tioners (17)

In this study the effect of different types of organic amendments applied toa Rhodic Kandiustalf was evaluated under laboratory conditions in order to moni-tor their impact on soil C sequestration rates and compare their performance inreleasing and mobilizing nutrients to soil solution The soil samples studied weretaken from virgin vegetation and cleared cultivated sites on a commercial farm inNorth Zimbabwe The reason for that was to analyze the extent to which extensivesoil cultivation has turned the soil into a resource with limited possibilities ofremediation through the use of external input of organic matter or whether bycontrast the biogeochemical system remains more or less undisturbed in qualita-tive terms

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Soils

The soil formation studied corresponding to a clay loam kaolinitic RhodicKandiustalf (18) was highly representative of the crusting soils that occur in oneof the most productive areas of Zimbabwean agriculture located in the relativelyhumid North Surface samples (0 ndash20 cm depth) were collected in both virgin andcultivated sites of the Hamilton section of the Mazowe Citrus Station The sam-pling sites were homogeneously distributed over the terrain along zigzag pathsThree composite samples were made by mixing 10 individual samples collectedfrom each analytical unit

In virgin sites the soil was under brushwood and grass In cultivated sitesthe soil had been managed by a commercial farm for the last 60 years The usualcrop rotation consists of maize-soybean-cotton Tillage is carried out by diskplowing at 30 cm and straw is either incorporated or left on the soil surface Fer-tilization is based on low inputs of mineral fertilizers

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 879

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The main physico-chemical properties of the topsoil from virgin and culti-vated sites are respectively pH51ndash 49 organic C219ndash90 g kg soil1 effec-tive cation exchange capacity (ECEC)1500 ndash751 mmolc kg1

Soil Analyses

The soil samples (3 replications) were air dried and homogenized to2 mm Total nitrogen (N) was determined by micro-Kjeldahl digestion and or-ganic matter by the Walkley and Black method (19) The pH was determined in125 soil water suspensions The available P was extracted with 003 mol dm3

NH4F01 mol dm3 HCl (20) Available Ca potassium (K) and Mg with 1 moldm3 NH4Ac (pH 7) and the available micronutrients with diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid (21)

The ECEC was calculated as the sum of exchangeable acidity and ex-changeable cations removed with 1 mol dm3 NH4OAc (22)

Soil Humus Fractions

The humus fractions were isolated and quantified in triplicate samples fol-lowing methods suggested by Duchaufour and Jacquin (23) The not-yet decom-posed organic remains (free organic matter floating fraction) were isolated bydensity separation in 01 mol dm3 H3PO4 Then humic acid (HA) and fulvicacid (FA) were isolated by successive extractions with 01 mol dm3 Na4P2O7 andwith 01 mol dm3 NaOH The HA was precipitated with H2SO4 and was quan-tified in desiccated aliquots For partial demineralization previous to additionalalkaline extractions the soil residue was treated with a 60 mmol dm3 Na2S2O4

and 1 mol dm3 HCl-HF (1 1) mixture at 60C (24) followed by an extractionwith 05 mol dm3 NaOH to isolate the humus substances associated with oxidesand clay (insolubilized extractable humin) The final residue consisted of non-extractable humin and the remaining soil mineral fraction

Incubation Experiment

The soil samples (100 g) were treated with a dose of 4 wt of the differentamendments (maize straw sunflower straw and two types of cattle manure thechemical characteristics of which are shown in Table 1)

The soil-organic waste mixtures prepared in triplicate and homogenized to2 mm were incubated in 500-cm3 Erlenmeyer flasks with rubber stoppers provided

880 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 881

Tabl

e1

Gen

eral

Cha

ract

eris

tics

ofth

eO

rgan

icA

men

dmen

tsU

sed

onR

hodi

cK

andi

usta

lf

Org

anic

Am

endm

ent

C(g

kg

1 )

Tota

lN

(gkg

1 )

CN

Tota

lMac

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Tota

lMic

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nC

uZ

npH

Sunfl

ower

stra

w37

99

739

198

351

666

2033

356

8536

115

1020

61

Mai

zest

raw

403

90

448

930

1285

050

5027

8029

0566

726

63

Fres

hm

anur

e41

422

518

490

6655

6622

500

6066

1166

293

1029

07

6O

ldm

anur

e58

59

98

2478

1629

023

333

3480

4533

106

1553

83

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ORDER REPRINTS

with polyethylene in- and outlet tubes The moisture content of the incubationsubstrates was adjusted to 75 of the soil water holding capacity Due to the factthat calculated CN ratios after the organic matter addition ranged between 9 and18 no attempt was made to correct the N concentration by additional N input Ina controlled-environment chamber the flasks were incubated in the dark at271C for 55 days The atmosphere in the flasks was periodically analyzed(daily in the first two weeks) by connecting the outlet tube to a CO2 analyzer(Carmhograph-12 Wosthoff) and the inlet tube to a soda-lime column to provideCO2-free air (25) Soil respiration curves were obtained from the periodic data ofC released in the course of the experiment

Soil organic matter mineralization was expressed both in absolute termseg the mineralization rates (C mg released from 100 g of amended soil) and inrelative terms (mineralization coefficients) ie taking into account that each soilsample had a different concentration of C (C g released per 100 g C in the soil)

Statistical Treatment

The statistical significance of the results obtained from triplicate analyseswas calculated from the least significant difference test Since a major aim of thepresent study was to assess the effect of cultivation the significant (P005)changes with regard to the control (ie between virgin and cultivated sites) wereindicated in the Tables by including the corresponding percentage increase

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Increase in the Concentration of Available Nutrients

The concentrations of the available macro- and microelements in virgin andcleared soils after the incubation with different types of organic matter are shownin Table 2 In particular and when the differences were significant with regard tothe control soil before amendment the relative increases obtained after applyingthe different wastes are useful to indicate the success of the treatment As ex-pected there was a relative increase of the concentrations of all the macroelementsin both the virgin and the cleared soils The most significant change was that bothtypes of manures led to the enhancement of the concentration of available P Theconcentration of K mainly increased with sunflower straw Mg mainly increasedwith fresh manure whereas the greatest increases in Ca corresponded to old ma-nure As regards the microelements the major increase corresponds to Zn afterapplication of fresh manure

882 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Availability Changes After Incubation (lsquolsquoFertilizer Performancersquorsquo)

In order to assess the extent to which the organic matter input induced amobilizing effect of the available cations in the soil concentrations of the differentavailable elements were calculated as a percentage increase (or decrease) withregard to the theoretical values expected from the total sum of the concentrationsof each available element in the soil and in the amendment Data below 100 indi-cated immobilization or loss whereas values above 100 indicated interaction be-tween the soil and organic amendments leading to the release of ions into the soilsolution (Table 2) These ions were not available previously in the soil the amend-ment or both

In all the cases organic matter application lead to decreasing P availabilitymainly in virgin soil There was also some decrease in the availability of K CaMg (suggesting some biological immobilization of the major macroelements)In the case of the cultivated soil the changes in the availability of K were notsignificant

By contrast some organic matter-induced enhancement of the solubility ofmicroelements was observed after the input of lignocellulosic wastes In thecleared soil there was a somewhat higher response to manure In both virgin andcleared soil there was some significant tendency to increase the availability of Mnand Zn but decreasing Fe solubility

Exchangeable Cations

As expected the behavior of exchangeable cations (Table 3) was similar tothat of available cations with regard to the distribution patterns in virgin andcleared sites The ECEC increased to a much greater extent in the cleared soil thanin the virgin soil after organic matter application Both kinds of manure mainlyproduced a slight significant effect by increasing the exchangeable Na both invirgin and cleared soils

As in the case of the available nutrients an important effect of increasingexchangeable K was obtained with sunflower straw This was also the case withincreasing exchangeable Ca achieved with manure fresh manure leading to themost significant relative increase in Mg Mainly in virgin soil treated with sun-flower straw organic matter input has led to a decreased concentration of ex-changeable Al3 which was to be expected because of the soil buffering capacityThis is relevant in soils such as this where most of the acidity correspond to Al3

Humus Fractions

The concentration of the different organic fractions as well as the relativeincreases after compost application are shown in Table 4

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 883

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

Dow

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

Dow

nloa

ded

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a St

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at 1

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ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

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at 1

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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ganic matter added was higher with lignocellulosic wastes thanwith old manure Irrespective of the organic input the mineraliza-tion coefficients evidenced the higher biodegradability of organicmatter accumulated in the cultivated rather than in virgin soil Thefour types of organic matter input compensated the selective accu-mulation of humic colloids of a low molecular weight (fulvicacids) a natural tendency of most tropical soils and to a large ex-tent (mainly when sunflower straw was applied) increased the hu-mic acidfulvic acid ratios However cultivation induces changesin the soil physico-chemical status and per unit of C added theaddition of lignocellulosic wastes to cultivated soil was ca 50less effective in accumulating humic acid than in virgin soil Thechemical fertilizer performance of the different amendments used(ie the percentage of nutrients at zero time still available after theincubation experiment) only provides values above 100 (mobi-lizing effect) in the case of some microelements [manganese (Mn)zinc (Zn)] in soils treated with lignocellulosic wastes but the op-posite trend (microbial or physico-chemical immobilization) oc-curs with some macroelements [phosphorus (P) calcium (Ca) andmagnesium (Mg)] These results can be interpreted in the sensethat cultivated soil displays an increasing biogeochemical activitycompared with virgin soil as corresponds to its higher mineraliza-tion coefficients of exogenous organic matter

INTRODUCTION

Nutrient supply in tropical soils is largely related to the performance of thesoil biogeochemical cycle The amount and stability of soil organic matter are ofprime importance for the sustainable management of tropical productive systemsexposed to climatic conditions favoring the degradation of their physical proper-ties (1 2 3 4) The severe decline of soil organic matter levels following landconversion to agriculture is an almost universal occurrence in most tropical re-gions of the world (5 6 7) It often leads to rapid soil degradation through nutrientleaching in the heavy rainy season as well as to unfavorable physical properties ina situation in which tree cover and crop wastes have been removed (8) In order tocounteract these negative effects adequate levels of organic matter should bemaintained in the soil and for this reason residue input plays an important role inestablishing a new balance In particular crop residues and animal manures rep-resent an important potential resource to generate humic matter and consequentlyto enhance soil productivity (9 10 11 12 13) The rational management of cropand cattle wastes produce both economic and environmental benefits leading to

878 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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i) the reduced requirement of mineral fertilizers ii) the continuous release ofavailable nutrients and iii) progressive restoring of the biophysico-chemical soilproperties required for nutrient accumulation during intercropping stages Thedisposal of crop wastes on fields also has interesting effects with regard to pro-tecting the topsoil against raindrop disaggregation (14) However when certainlevels of soil degradation are reached it is questionable whether external organicmatter input will contribute significantly to soil remediation or conversely it isreadily mineralized under the climatic conditions of tropical soils In fact inmost sites of Africa organic matter decomposition rates are so high that a notice-able increase in organic C is difficult to achieve (15 16) In addition the aridand semiarid regions are often characterized by a lack of good quality organicwastes that can advantageously be applied to land as biofertilizers and soil condi-tioners (17)

In this study the effect of different types of organic amendments applied toa Rhodic Kandiustalf was evaluated under laboratory conditions in order to moni-tor their impact on soil C sequestration rates and compare their performance inreleasing and mobilizing nutrients to soil solution The soil samples studied weretaken from virgin vegetation and cleared cultivated sites on a commercial farm inNorth Zimbabwe The reason for that was to analyze the extent to which extensivesoil cultivation has turned the soil into a resource with limited possibilities ofremediation through the use of external input of organic matter or whether bycontrast the biogeochemical system remains more or less undisturbed in qualita-tive terms

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Soils

The soil formation studied corresponding to a clay loam kaolinitic RhodicKandiustalf (18) was highly representative of the crusting soils that occur in oneof the most productive areas of Zimbabwean agriculture located in the relativelyhumid North Surface samples (0 ndash20 cm depth) were collected in both virgin andcultivated sites of the Hamilton section of the Mazowe Citrus Station The sam-pling sites were homogeneously distributed over the terrain along zigzag pathsThree composite samples were made by mixing 10 individual samples collectedfrom each analytical unit

In virgin sites the soil was under brushwood and grass In cultivated sitesthe soil had been managed by a commercial farm for the last 60 years The usualcrop rotation consists of maize-soybean-cotton Tillage is carried out by diskplowing at 30 cm and straw is either incorporated or left on the soil surface Fer-tilization is based on low inputs of mineral fertilizers

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 879

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The main physico-chemical properties of the topsoil from virgin and culti-vated sites are respectively pH51ndash 49 organic C219ndash90 g kg soil1 effec-tive cation exchange capacity (ECEC)1500 ndash751 mmolc kg1

Soil Analyses

The soil samples (3 replications) were air dried and homogenized to2 mm Total nitrogen (N) was determined by micro-Kjeldahl digestion and or-ganic matter by the Walkley and Black method (19) The pH was determined in125 soil water suspensions The available P was extracted with 003 mol dm3

NH4F01 mol dm3 HCl (20) Available Ca potassium (K) and Mg with 1 moldm3 NH4Ac (pH 7) and the available micronutrients with diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid (21)

The ECEC was calculated as the sum of exchangeable acidity and ex-changeable cations removed with 1 mol dm3 NH4OAc (22)

Soil Humus Fractions

The humus fractions were isolated and quantified in triplicate samples fol-lowing methods suggested by Duchaufour and Jacquin (23) The not-yet decom-posed organic remains (free organic matter floating fraction) were isolated bydensity separation in 01 mol dm3 H3PO4 Then humic acid (HA) and fulvicacid (FA) were isolated by successive extractions with 01 mol dm3 Na4P2O7 andwith 01 mol dm3 NaOH The HA was precipitated with H2SO4 and was quan-tified in desiccated aliquots For partial demineralization previous to additionalalkaline extractions the soil residue was treated with a 60 mmol dm3 Na2S2O4

and 1 mol dm3 HCl-HF (1 1) mixture at 60C (24) followed by an extractionwith 05 mol dm3 NaOH to isolate the humus substances associated with oxidesand clay (insolubilized extractable humin) The final residue consisted of non-extractable humin and the remaining soil mineral fraction

Incubation Experiment

The soil samples (100 g) were treated with a dose of 4 wt of the differentamendments (maize straw sunflower straw and two types of cattle manure thechemical characteristics of which are shown in Table 1)

The soil-organic waste mixtures prepared in triplicate and homogenized to2 mm were incubated in 500-cm3 Erlenmeyer flasks with rubber stoppers provided

880 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 881

Tabl

e1

Gen

eral

Cha

ract

eris

tics

ofth

eO

rgan

icA

men

dmen

tsU

sed

onR

hodi

cK

andi

usta

lf

Org

anic

Am

endm

ent

C(g

kg

1 )

Tota

lN

(gkg

1 )

CN

Tota

lMac

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Tota

lMic

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nC

uZ

npH

Sunfl

ower

stra

w37

99

739

198

351

666

2033

356

8536

115

1020

61

Mai

zest

raw

403

90

448

930

1285

050

5027

8029

0566

726

63

Fres

hm

anur

e41

422

518

490

6655

6622

500

6066

1166

293

1029

07

6O

ldm

anur

e58

59

98

2478

1629

023

333

3480

4533

106

1553

83

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ORDER REPRINTS

with polyethylene in- and outlet tubes The moisture content of the incubationsubstrates was adjusted to 75 of the soil water holding capacity Due to the factthat calculated CN ratios after the organic matter addition ranged between 9 and18 no attempt was made to correct the N concentration by additional N input Ina controlled-environment chamber the flasks were incubated in the dark at271C for 55 days The atmosphere in the flasks was periodically analyzed(daily in the first two weeks) by connecting the outlet tube to a CO2 analyzer(Carmhograph-12 Wosthoff) and the inlet tube to a soda-lime column to provideCO2-free air (25) Soil respiration curves were obtained from the periodic data ofC released in the course of the experiment

Soil organic matter mineralization was expressed both in absolute termseg the mineralization rates (C mg released from 100 g of amended soil) and inrelative terms (mineralization coefficients) ie taking into account that each soilsample had a different concentration of C (C g released per 100 g C in the soil)

Statistical Treatment

The statistical significance of the results obtained from triplicate analyseswas calculated from the least significant difference test Since a major aim of thepresent study was to assess the effect of cultivation the significant (P005)changes with regard to the control (ie between virgin and cultivated sites) wereindicated in the Tables by including the corresponding percentage increase

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Increase in the Concentration of Available Nutrients

The concentrations of the available macro- and microelements in virgin andcleared soils after the incubation with different types of organic matter are shownin Table 2 In particular and when the differences were significant with regard tothe control soil before amendment the relative increases obtained after applyingthe different wastes are useful to indicate the success of the treatment As ex-pected there was a relative increase of the concentrations of all the macroelementsin both the virgin and the cleared soils The most significant change was that bothtypes of manures led to the enhancement of the concentration of available P Theconcentration of K mainly increased with sunflower straw Mg mainly increasedwith fresh manure whereas the greatest increases in Ca corresponded to old ma-nure As regards the microelements the major increase corresponds to Zn afterapplication of fresh manure

882 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Availability Changes After Incubation (lsquolsquoFertilizer Performancersquorsquo)

In order to assess the extent to which the organic matter input induced amobilizing effect of the available cations in the soil concentrations of the differentavailable elements were calculated as a percentage increase (or decrease) withregard to the theoretical values expected from the total sum of the concentrationsof each available element in the soil and in the amendment Data below 100 indi-cated immobilization or loss whereas values above 100 indicated interaction be-tween the soil and organic amendments leading to the release of ions into the soilsolution (Table 2) These ions were not available previously in the soil the amend-ment or both

In all the cases organic matter application lead to decreasing P availabilitymainly in virgin soil There was also some decrease in the availability of K CaMg (suggesting some biological immobilization of the major macroelements)In the case of the cultivated soil the changes in the availability of K were notsignificant

By contrast some organic matter-induced enhancement of the solubility ofmicroelements was observed after the input of lignocellulosic wastes In thecleared soil there was a somewhat higher response to manure In both virgin andcleared soil there was some significant tendency to increase the availability of Mnand Zn but decreasing Fe solubility

Exchangeable Cations

As expected the behavior of exchangeable cations (Table 3) was similar tothat of available cations with regard to the distribution patterns in virgin andcleared sites The ECEC increased to a much greater extent in the cleared soil thanin the virgin soil after organic matter application Both kinds of manure mainlyproduced a slight significant effect by increasing the exchangeable Na both invirgin and cleared soils

As in the case of the available nutrients an important effect of increasingexchangeable K was obtained with sunflower straw This was also the case withincreasing exchangeable Ca achieved with manure fresh manure leading to themost significant relative increase in Mg Mainly in virgin soil treated with sun-flower straw organic matter input has led to a decreased concentration of ex-changeable Al3 which was to be expected because of the soil buffering capacityThis is relevant in soils such as this where most of the acidity correspond to Al3

Humus Fractions

The concentration of the different organic fractions as well as the relativeincreases after compost application are shown in Table 4

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 883

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

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888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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i) the reduced requirement of mineral fertilizers ii) the continuous release ofavailable nutrients and iii) progressive restoring of the biophysico-chemical soilproperties required for nutrient accumulation during intercropping stages Thedisposal of crop wastes on fields also has interesting effects with regard to pro-tecting the topsoil against raindrop disaggregation (14) However when certainlevels of soil degradation are reached it is questionable whether external organicmatter input will contribute significantly to soil remediation or conversely it isreadily mineralized under the climatic conditions of tropical soils In fact inmost sites of Africa organic matter decomposition rates are so high that a notice-able increase in organic C is difficult to achieve (15 16) In addition the aridand semiarid regions are often characterized by a lack of good quality organicwastes that can advantageously be applied to land as biofertilizers and soil condi-tioners (17)

In this study the effect of different types of organic amendments applied toa Rhodic Kandiustalf was evaluated under laboratory conditions in order to moni-tor their impact on soil C sequestration rates and compare their performance inreleasing and mobilizing nutrients to soil solution The soil samples studied weretaken from virgin vegetation and cleared cultivated sites on a commercial farm inNorth Zimbabwe The reason for that was to analyze the extent to which extensivesoil cultivation has turned the soil into a resource with limited possibilities ofremediation through the use of external input of organic matter or whether bycontrast the biogeochemical system remains more or less undisturbed in qualita-tive terms

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Soils

The soil formation studied corresponding to a clay loam kaolinitic RhodicKandiustalf (18) was highly representative of the crusting soils that occur in oneof the most productive areas of Zimbabwean agriculture located in the relativelyhumid North Surface samples (0 ndash20 cm depth) were collected in both virgin andcultivated sites of the Hamilton section of the Mazowe Citrus Station The sam-pling sites were homogeneously distributed over the terrain along zigzag pathsThree composite samples were made by mixing 10 individual samples collectedfrom each analytical unit

In virgin sites the soil was under brushwood and grass In cultivated sitesthe soil had been managed by a commercial farm for the last 60 years The usualcrop rotation consists of maize-soybean-cotton Tillage is carried out by diskplowing at 30 cm and straw is either incorporated or left on the soil surface Fer-tilization is based on low inputs of mineral fertilizers

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 879

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The main physico-chemical properties of the topsoil from virgin and culti-vated sites are respectively pH51ndash 49 organic C219ndash90 g kg soil1 effec-tive cation exchange capacity (ECEC)1500 ndash751 mmolc kg1

Soil Analyses

The soil samples (3 replications) were air dried and homogenized to2 mm Total nitrogen (N) was determined by micro-Kjeldahl digestion and or-ganic matter by the Walkley and Black method (19) The pH was determined in125 soil water suspensions The available P was extracted with 003 mol dm3

NH4F01 mol dm3 HCl (20) Available Ca potassium (K) and Mg with 1 moldm3 NH4Ac (pH 7) and the available micronutrients with diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid (21)

The ECEC was calculated as the sum of exchangeable acidity and ex-changeable cations removed with 1 mol dm3 NH4OAc (22)

Soil Humus Fractions

The humus fractions were isolated and quantified in triplicate samples fol-lowing methods suggested by Duchaufour and Jacquin (23) The not-yet decom-posed organic remains (free organic matter floating fraction) were isolated bydensity separation in 01 mol dm3 H3PO4 Then humic acid (HA) and fulvicacid (FA) were isolated by successive extractions with 01 mol dm3 Na4P2O7 andwith 01 mol dm3 NaOH The HA was precipitated with H2SO4 and was quan-tified in desiccated aliquots For partial demineralization previous to additionalalkaline extractions the soil residue was treated with a 60 mmol dm3 Na2S2O4

and 1 mol dm3 HCl-HF (1 1) mixture at 60C (24) followed by an extractionwith 05 mol dm3 NaOH to isolate the humus substances associated with oxidesand clay (insolubilized extractable humin) The final residue consisted of non-extractable humin and the remaining soil mineral fraction

Incubation Experiment

The soil samples (100 g) were treated with a dose of 4 wt of the differentamendments (maize straw sunflower straw and two types of cattle manure thechemical characteristics of which are shown in Table 1)

The soil-organic waste mixtures prepared in triplicate and homogenized to2 mm were incubated in 500-cm3 Erlenmeyer flasks with rubber stoppers provided

880 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 881

Tabl

e1

Gen

eral

Cha

ract

eris

tics

ofth

eO

rgan

icA

men

dmen

tsU

sed

onR

hodi

cK

andi

usta

lf

Org

anic

Am

endm

ent

C(g

kg

1 )

Tota

lN

(gkg

1 )

CN

Tota

lMac

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Tota

lMic

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nC

uZ

npH

Sunfl

ower

stra

w37

99

739

198

351

666

2033

356

8536

115

1020

61

Mai

zest

raw

403

90

448

930

1285

050

5027

8029

0566

726

63

Fres

hm

anur

e41

422

518

490

6655

6622

500

6066

1166

293

1029

07

6O

ldm

anur

e58

59

98

2478

1629

023

333

3480

4533

106

1553

83

Dow

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Nor

th D

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ORDER REPRINTS

with polyethylene in- and outlet tubes The moisture content of the incubationsubstrates was adjusted to 75 of the soil water holding capacity Due to the factthat calculated CN ratios after the organic matter addition ranged between 9 and18 no attempt was made to correct the N concentration by additional N input Ina controlled-environment chamber the flasks were incubated in the dark at271C for 55 days The atmosphere in the flasks was periodically analyzed(daily in the first two weeks) by connecting the outlet tube to a CO2 analyzer(Carmhograph-12 Wosthoff) and the inlet tube to a soda-lime column to provideCO2-free air (25) Soil respiration curves were obtained from the periodic data ofC released in the course of the experiment

Soil organic matter mineralization was expressed both in absolute termseg the mineralization rates (C mg released from 100 g of amended soil) and inrelative terms (mineralization coefficients) ie taking into account that each soilsample had a different concentration of C (C g released per 100 g C in the soil)

Statistical Treatment

The statistical significance of the results obtained from triplicate analyseswas calculated from the least significant difference test Since a major aim of thepresent study was to assess the effect of cultivation the significant (P005)changes with regard to the control (ie between virgin and cultivated sites) wereindicated in the Tables by including the corresponding percentage increase

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Increase in the Concentration of Available Nutrients

The concentrations of the available macro- and microelements in virgin andcleared soils after the incubation with different types of organic matter are shownin Table 2 In particular and when the differences were significant with regard tothe control soil before amendment the relative increases obtained after applyingthe different wastes are useful to indicate the success of the treatment As ex-pected there was a relative increase of the concentrations of all the macroelementsin both the virgin and the cleared soils The most significant change was that bothtypes of manures led to the enhancement of the concentration of available P Theconcentration of K mainly increased with sunflower straw Mg mainly increasedwith fresh manure whereas the greatest increases in Ca corresponded to old ma-nure As regards the microelements the major increase corresponds to Zn afterapplication of fresh manure

882 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Availability Changes After Incubation (lsquolsquoFertilizer Performancersquorsquo)

In order to assess the extent to which the organic matter input induced amobilizing effect of the available cations in the soil concentrations of the differentavailable elements were calculated as a percentage increase (or decrease) withregard to the theoretical values expected from the total sum of the concentrationsof each available element in the soil and in the amendment Data below 100 indi-cated immobilization or loss whereas values above 100 indicated interaction be-tween the soil and organic amendments leading to the release of ions into the soilsolution (Table 2) These ions were not available previously in the soil the amend-ment or both

In all the cases organic matter application lead to decreasing P availabilitymainly in virgin soil There was also some decrease in the availability of K CaMg (suggesting some biological immobilization of the major macroelements)In the case of the cultivated soil the changes in the availability of K were notsignificant

By contrast some organic matter-induced enhancement of the solubility ofmicroelements was observed after the input of lignocellulosic wastes In thecleared soil there was a somewhat higher response to manure In both virgin andcleared soil there was some significant tendency to increase the availability of Mnand Zn but decreasing Fe solubility

Exchangeable Cations

As expected the behavior of exchangeable cations (Table 3) was similar tothat of available cations with regard to the distribution patterns in virgin andcleared sites The ECEC increased to a much greater extent in the cleared soil thanin the virgin soil after organic matter application Both kinds of manure mainlyproduced a slight significant effect by increasing the exchangeable Na both invirgin and cleared soils

As in the case of the available nutrients an important effect of increasingexchangeable K was obtained with sunflower straw This was also the case withincreasing exchangeable Ca achieved with manure fresh manure leading to themost significant relative increase in Mg Mainly in virgin soil treated with sun-flower straw organic matter input has led to a decreased concentration of ex-changeable Al3 which was to be expected because of the soil buffering capacityThis is relevant in soils such as this where most of the acidity correspond to Al3

Humus Fractions

The concentration of the different organic fractions as well as the relativeincreases after compost application are shown in Table 4

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 883

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

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ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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The main physico-chemical properties of the topsoil from virgin and culti-vated sites are respectively pH51ndash 49 organic C219ndash90 g kg soil1 effec-tive cation exchange capacity (ECEC)1500 ndash751 mmolc kg1

Soil Analyses

The soil samples (3 replications) were air dried and homogenized to2 mm Total nitrogen (N) was determined by micro-Kjeldahl digestion and or-ganic matter by the Walkley and Black method (19) The pH was determined in125 soil water suspensions The available P was extracted with 003 mol dm3

NH4F01 mol dm3 HCl (20) Available Ca potassium (K) and Mg with 1 moldm3 NH4Ac (pH 7) and the available micronutrients with diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid (21)

The ECEC was calculated as the sum of exchangeable acidity and ex-changeable cations removed with 1 mol dm3 NH4OAc (22)

Soil Humus Fractions

The humus fractions were isolated and quantified in triplicate samples fol-lowing methods suggested by Duchaufour and Jacquin (23) The not-yet decom-posed organic remains (free organic matter floating fraction) were isolated bydensity separation in 01 mol dm3 H3PO4 Then humic acid (HA) and fulvicacid (FA) were isolated by successive extractions with 01 mol dm3 Na4P2O7 andwith 01 mol dm3 NaOH The HA was precipitated with H2SO4 and was quan-tified in desiccated aliquots For partial demineralization previous to additionalalkaline extractions the soil residue was treated with a 60 mmol dm3 Na2S2O4

and 1 mol dm3 HCl-HF (1 1) mixture at 60C (24) followed by an extractionwith 05 mol dm3 NaOH to isolate the humus substances associated with oxidesand clay (insolubilized extractable humin) The final residue consisted of non-extractable humin and the remaining soil mineral fraction

Incubation Experiment

The soil samples (100 g) were treated with a dose of 4 wt of the differentamendments (maize straw sunflower straw and two types of cattle manure thechemical characteristics of which are shown in Table 1)

The soil-organic waste mixtures prepared in triplicate and homogenized to2 mm were incubated in 500-cm3 Erlenmeyer flasks with rubber stoppers provided

880 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 881

Tabl

e1

Gen

eral

Cha

ract

eris

tics

ofth

eO

rgan

icA

men

dmen

tsU

sed

onR

hodi

cK

andi

usta

lf

Org

anic

Am

endm

ent

C(g

kg

1 )

Tota

lN

(gkg

1 )

CN

Tota

lMac

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Tota

lMic

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nC

uZ

npH

Sunfl

ower

stra

w37

99

739

198

351

666

2033

356

8536

115

1020

61

Mai

zest

raw

403

90

448

930

1285

050

5027

8029

0566

726

63

Fres

hm

anur

e41

422

518

490

6655

6622

500

6066

1166

293

1029

07

6O

ldm

anur

e58

59

98

2478

1629

023

333

3480

4533

106

1553

83

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with polyethylene in- and outlet tubes The moisture content of the incubationsubstrates was adjusted to 75 of the soil water holding capacity Due to the factthat calculated CN ratios after the organic matter addition ranged between 9 and18 no attempt was made to correct the N concentration by additional N input Ina controlled-environment chamber the flasks were incubated in the dark at271C for 55 days The atmosphere in the flasks was periodically analyzed(daily in the first two weeks) by connecting the outlet tube to a CO2 analyzer(Carmhograph-12 Wosthoff) and the inlet tube to a soda-lime column to provideCO2-free air (25) Soil respiration curves were obtained from the periodic data ofC released in the course of the experiment

Soil organic matter mineralization was expressed both in absolute termseg the mineralization rates (C mg released from 100 g of amended soil) and inrelative terms (mineralization coefficients) ie taking into account that each soilsample had a different concentration of C (C g released per 100 g C in the soil)

Statistical Treatment

The statistical significance of the results obtained from triplicate analyseswas calculated from the least significant difference test Since a major aim of thepresent study was to assess the effect of cultivation the significant (P005)changes with regard to the control (ie between virgin and cultivated sites) wereindicated in the Tables by including the corresponding percentage increase

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Increase in the Concentration of Available Nutrients

The concentrations of the available macro- and microelements in virgin andcleared soils after the incubation with different types of organic matter are shownin Table 2 In particular and when the differences were significant with regard tothe control soil before amendment the relative increases obtained after applyingthe different wastes are useful to indicate the success of the treatment As ex-pected there was a relative increase of the concentrations of all the macroelementsin both the virgin and the cleared soils The most significant change was that bothtypes of manures led to the enhancement of the concentration of available P Theconcentration of K mainly increased with sunflower straw Mg mainly increasedwith fresh manure whereas the greatest increases in Ca corresponded to old ma-nure As regards the microelements the major increase corresponds to Zn afterapplication of fresh manure

882 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Availability Changes After Incubation (lsquolsquoFertilizer Performancersquorsquo)

In order to assess the extent to which the organic matter input induced amobilizing effect of the available cations in the soil concentrations of the differentavailable elements were calculated as a percentage increase (or decrease) withregard to the theoretical values expected from the total sum of the concentrationsof each available element in the soil and in the amendment Data below 100 indi-cated immobilization or loss whereas values above 100 indicated interaction be-tween the soil and organic amendments leading to the release of ions into the soilsolution (Table 2) These ions were not available previously in the soil the amend-ment or both

In all the cases organic matter application lead to decreasing P availabilitymainly in virgin soil There was also some decrease in the availability of K CaMg (suggesting some biological immobilization of the major macroelements)In the case of the cultivated soil the changes in the availability of K were notsignificant

By contrast some organic matter-induced enhancement of the solubility ofmicroelements was observed after the input of lignocellulosic wastes In thecleared soil there was a somewhat higher response to manure In both virgin andcleared soil there was some significant tendency to increase the availability of Mnand Zn but decreasing Fe solubility

Exchangeable Cations

As expected the behavior of exchangeable cations (Table 3) was similar tothat of available cations with regard to the distribution patterns in virgin andcleared sites The ECEC increased to a much greater extent in the cleared soil thanin the virgin soil after organic matter application Both kinds of manure mainlyproduced a slight significant effect by increasing the exchangeable Na both invirgin and cleared soils

As in the case of the available nutrients an important effect of increasingexchangeable K was obtained with sunflower straw This was also the case withincreasing exchangeable Ca achieved with manure fresh manure leading to themost significant relative increase in Mg Mainly in virgin soil treated with sun-flower straw organic matter input has led to a decreased concentration of ex-changeable Al3 which was to be expected because of the soil buffering capacityThis is relevant in soils such as this where most of the acidity correspond to Al3

Humus Fractions

The concentration of the different organic fractions as well as the relativeincreases after compost application are shown in Table 4

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 883

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

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ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 881

Tabl

e1

Gen

eral

Cha

ract

eris

tics

ofth

eO

rgan

icA

men

dmen

tsU

sed

onR

hodi

cK

andi

usta

lf

Org

anic

Am

endm

ent

C(g

kg

1 )

Tota

lN

(gkg

1 )

CN

Tota

lMac

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Tota

lMic

roel

emen

ts(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nC

uZ

npH

Sunfl

ower

stra

w37

99

739

198

351

666

2033

356

8536

115

1020

61

Mai

zest

raw

403

90

448

930

1285

050

5027

8029

0566

726

63

Fres

hm

anur

e41

422

518

490

6655

6622

500

6066

1166

293

1029

07

6O

ldm

anur

e58

59

98

2478

1629

023

333

3480

4533

106

1553

83

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with polyethylene in- and outlet tubes The moisture content of the incubationsubstrates was adjusted to 75 of the soil water holding capacity Due to the factthat calculated CN ratios after the organic matter addition ranged between 9 and18 no attempt was made to correct the N concentration by additional N input Ina controlled-environment chamber the flasks were incubated in the dark at271C for 55 days The atmosphere in the flasks was periodically analyzed(daily in the first two weeks) by connecting the outlet tube to a CO2 analyzer(Carmhograph-12 Wosthoff) and the inlet tube to a soda-lime column to provideCO2-free air (25) Soil respiration curves were obtained from the periodic data ofC released in the course of the experiment

Soil organic matter mineralization was expressed both in absolute termseg the mineralization rates (C mg released from 100 g of amended soil) and inrelative terms (mineralization coefficients) ie taking into account that each soilsample had a different concentration of C (C g released per 100 g C in the soil)

Statistical Treatment

The statistical significance of the results obtained from triplicate analyseswas calculated from the least significant difference test Since a major aim of thepresent study was to assess the effect of cultivation the significant (P005)changes with regard to the control (ie between virgin and cultivated sites) wereindicated in the Tables by including the corresponding percentage increase

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Increase in the Concentration of Available Nutrients

The concentrations of the available macro- and microelements in virgin andcleared soils after the incubation with different types of organic matter are shownin Table 2 In particular and when the differences were significant with regard tothe control soil before amendment the relative increases obtained after applyingthe different wastes are useful to indicate the success of the treatment As ex-pected there was a relative increase of the concentrations of all the macroelementsin both the virgin and the cleared soils The most significant change was that bothtypes of manures led to the enhancement of the concentration of available P Theconcentration of K mainly increased with sunflower straw Mg mainly increasedwith fresh manure whereas the greatest increases in Ca corresponded to old ma-nure As regards the microelements the major increase corresponds to Zn afterapplication of fresh manure

882 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Availability Changes After Incubation (lsquolsquoFertilizer Performancersquorsquo)

In order to assess the extent to which the organic matter input induced amobilizing effect of the available cations in the soil concentrations of the differentavailable elements were calculated as a percentage increase (or decrease) withregard to the theoretical values expected from the total sum of the concentrationsof each available element in the soil and in the amendment Data below 100 indi-cated immobilization or loss whereas values above 100 indicated interaction be-tween the soil and organic amendments leading to the release of ions into the soilsolution (Table 2) These ions were not available previously in the soil the amend-ment or both

In all the cases organic matter application lead to decreasing P availabilitymainly in virgin soil There was also some decrease in the availability of K CaMg (suggesting some biological immobilization of the major macroelements)In the case of the cultivated soil the changes in the availability of K were notsignificant

By contrast some organic matter-induced enhancement of the solubility ofmicroelements was observed after the input of lignocellulosic wastes In thecleared soil there was a somewhat higher response to manure In both virgin andcleared soil there was some significant tendency to increase the availability of Mnand Zn but decreasing Fe solubility

Exchangeable Cations

As expected the behavior of exchangeable cations (Table 3) was similar tothat of available cations with regard to the distribution patterns in virgin andcleared sites The ECEC increased to a much greater extent in the cleared soil thanin the virgin soil after organic matter application Both kinds of manure mainlyproduced a slight significant effect by increasing the exchangeable Na both invirgin and cleared soils

As in the case of the available nutrients an important effect of increasingexchangeable K was obtained with sunflower straw This was also the case withincreasing exchangeable Ca achieved with manure fresh manure leading to themost significant relative increase in Mg Mainly in virgin soil treated with sun-flower straw organic matter input has led to a decreased concentration of ex-changeable Al3 which was to be expected because of the soil buffering capacityThis is relevant in soils such as this where most of the acidity correspond to Al3

Humus Fractions

The concentration of the different organic fractions as well as the relativeincreases after compost application are shown in Table 4

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 883

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

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ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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with polyethylene in- and outlet tubes The moisture content of the incubationsubstrates was adjusted to 75 of the soil water holding capacity Due to the factthat calculated CN ratios after the organic matter addition ranged between 9 and18 no attempt was made to correct the N concentration by additional N input Ina controlled-environment chamber the flasks were incubated in the dark at271C for 55 days The atmosphere in the flasks was periodically analyzed(daily in the first two weeks) by connecting the outlet tube to a CO2 analyzer(Carmhograph-12 Wosthoff) and the inlet tube to a soda-lime column to provideCO2-free air (25) Soil respiration curves were obtained from the periodic data ofC released in the course of the experiment

Soil organic matter mineralization was expressed both in absolute termseg the mineralization rates (C mg released from 100 g of amended soil) and inrelative terms (mineralization coefficients) ie taking into account that each soilsample had a different concentration of C (C g released per 100 g C in the soil)

Statistical Treatment

The statistical significance of the results obtained from triplicate analyseswas calculated from the least significant difference test Since a major aim of thepresent study was to assess the effect of cultivation the significant (P005)changes with regard to the control (ie between virgin and cultivated sites) wereindicated in the Tables by including the corresponding percentage increase

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Increase in the Concentration of Available Nutrients

The concentrations of the available macro- and microelements in virgin andcleared soils after the incubation with different types of organic matter are shownin Table 2 In particular and when the differences were significant with regard tothe control soil before amendment the relative increases obtained after applyingthe different wastes are useful to indicate the success of the treatment As ex-pected there was a relative increase of the concentrations of all the macroelementsin both the virgin and the cleared soils The most significant change was that bothtypes of manures led to the enhancement of the concentration of available P Theconcentration of K mainly increased with sunflower straw Mg mainly increasedwith fresh manure whereas the greatest increases in Ca corresponded to old ma-nure As regards the microelements the major increase corresponds to Zn afterapplication of fresh manure

882 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Availability Changes After Incubation (lsquolsquoFertilizer Performancersquorsquo)

In order to assess the extent to which the organic matter input induced amobilizing effect of the available cations in the soil concentrations of the differentavailable elements were calculated as a percentage increase (or decrease) withregard to the theoretical values expected from the total sum of the concentrationsof each available element in the soil and in the amendment Data below 100 indi-cated immobilization or loss whereas values above 100 indicated interaction be-tween the soil and organic amendments leading to the release of ions into the soilsolution (Table 2) These ions were not available previously in the soil the amend-ment or both

In all the cases organic matter application lead to decreasing P availabilitymainly in virgin soil There was also some decrease in the availability of K CaMg (suggesting some biological immobilization of the major macroelements)In the case of the cultivated soil the changes in the availability of K were notsignificant

By contrast some organic matter-induced enhancement of the solubility ofmicroelements was observed after the input of lignocellulosic wastes In thecleared soil there was a somewhat higher response to manure In both virgin andcleared soil there was some significant tendency to increase the availability of Mnand Zn but decreasing Fe solubility

Exchangeable Cations

As expected the behavior of exchangeable cations (Table 3) was similar tothat of available cations with regard to the distribution patterns in virgin andcleared sites The ECEC increased to a much greater extent in the cleared soil thanin the virgin soil after organic matter application Both kinds of manure mainlyproduced a slight significant effect by increasing the exchangeable Na both invirgin and cleared soils

As in the case of the available nutrients an important effect of increasingexchangeable K was obtained with sunflower straw This was also the case withincreasing exchangeable Ca achieved with manure fresh manure leading to themost significant relative increase in Mg Mainly in virgin soil treated with sun-flower straw organic matter input has led to a decreased concentration of ex-changeable Al3 which was to be expected because of the soil buffering capacityThis is relevant in soils such as this where most of the acidity correspond to Al3

Humus Fractions

The concentration of the different organic fractions as well as the relativeincreases after compost application are shown in Table 4

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 883

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

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ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Availability Changes After Incubation (lsquolsquoFertilizer Performancersquorsquo)

In order to assess the extent to which the organic matter input induced amobilizing effect of the available cations in the soil concentrations of the differentavailable elements were calculated as a percentage increase (or decrease) withregard to the theoretical values expected from the total sum of the concentrationsof each available element in the soil and in the amendment Data below 100 indi-cated immobilization or loss whereas values above 100 indicated interaction be-tween the soil and organic amendments leading to the release of ions into the soilsolution (Table 2) These ions were not available previously in the soil the amend-ment or both

In all the cases organic matter application lead to decreasing P availabilitymainly in virgin soil There was also some decrease in the availability of K CaMg (suggesting some biological immobilization of the major macroelements)In the case of the cultivated soil the changes in the availability of K were notsignificant

By contrast some organic matter-induced enhancement of the solubility ofmicroelements was observed after the input of lignocellulosic wastes In thecleared soil there was a somewhat higher response to manure In both virgin andcleared soil there was some significant tendency to increase the availability of Mnand Zn but decreasing Fe solubility

Exchangeable Cations

As expected the behavior of exchangeable cations (Table 3) was similar tothat of available cations with regard to the distribution patterns in virgin andcleared sites The ECEC increased to a much greater extent in the cleared soil thanin the virgin soil after organic matter application Both kinds of manure mainlyproduced a slight significant effect by increasing the exchangeable Na both invirgin and cleared soils

As in the case of the available nutrients an important effect of increasingexchangeable K was obtained with sunflower straw This was also the case withincreasing exchangeable Ca achieved with manure fresh manure leading to themost significant relative increase in Mg Mainly in virgin soil treated with sun-flower straw organic matter input has led to a decreased concentration of ex-changeable Al3 which was to be expected because of the soil buffering capacityThis is relevant in soils such as this where most of the acidity correspond to Al3

Humus Fractions

The concentration of the different organic fractions as well as the relativeincreases after compost application are shown in Table 4

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 883

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

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ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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r 20

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Order now

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httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

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Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

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884 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Tabl

e2

Con

cent

rati

onof

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

-an

dM

icro

nutr

ient

sin

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

In-

cuba

tion

with

Dif

fere

ntA

men

dmen

tsI

nth

eC

ase

ofSi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)D

iffe

renc

esw

ithR

egar

dto

the

Con

trol

(ie

Bet

wee

nV

irgi

nan

dC

ultiv

ated

Site

s)th

ePe

rcen

tage

Incr

ease

IsG

iven

inth

eSu

bseq

uent

Row

sT

heFe

rtili

zer

Perf

orm

ance

Cor

resp

onds

toth

eC

alcu

late

dPe

rcen

tage

sof

Eac

hE

lem

entR

emai

ning

Ava

il-ab

leA

fter

the

55-D

ayIn

cuba

tion

Peri

odan

dC

alcu

late

don

the

Bas

isof

the

Ori

gina

lCon

cent

rati

onat

Zer

oT

ime

(10

0M

obili

zati

on

100

Imm

obili

zati

on)

(gkg

1 )

NC

N

Ava

ilabl

eM

acro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

PK

Ca

Mg

Ava

ilabl

eM

icro

nutr

ient

s(m

gkg

1 )

FeM

nZ

nC

u

a)C

once

ntra

tion

and

rela

tive

incr

ease

s

Vir

gin

soil

02

102

756

716

5040

315

419

72

12

sunfl

ower

stra

w2

113

46

2550

2107

557

170

263

313

32

14

35

028

38

34

50

8

m

aize

stra

w2

412

47

1057

1717

443

188

263

313

14

21

86

22

34

50

8

fres

hm

anur

e2

611

090

850

2100

587

135

188

610

24

1186

27

46

20

0

old

man

ure

21

110

2511

3722

5044

715

818

83

117

257

101

36

50

8

Cul

tivat

edso

il1

09

029

350

800

110

4311

31

7

sunfl

ower

stra

w1

315

029

2433

1383

283

4312

82

830

67

59

573

15

713

10

014

mai

zest

raw

13

149

3190

095

018

045

152

28

30

66

157

19

64

35

100

14

fr

esh

man

ure

17

114

260

567

1333

347

6413

08

870

27

79

762

67

21

549

15

70

0

old

man

ure

11

100

8910

0015

5018

751

105

28

11

207

186

94

70

19

Dow

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ded

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ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

Dow

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ded

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As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

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ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

Dow

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

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ded

by [

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ity]

at 1

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06

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14

ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 885

b)Fe

rtili

zerp

erfo

rman

ce

Vir

gin

soil

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

su

nflow

erst

raw

8413

9786

88mdash

133

107

mdash

mai

zest

raw

98mdash

98mdash

mdash70

132

9910

6

fres

hm

anur

e87

24mdash

8291

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

2493

87mdash

mdashmdash

7387

Cul

tivat

edso

il10

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

010

0

sunfl

ower

stra

wmdash

mdashmdash

8684

mdash11

311

1mdash

m

aize

stra

w96

mdash10

495

81mdash

131

98mdash

fr

esh

man

ure

8966

mdash78

9871

104

63mdash

ol

dm

anur

emdash

69mdash

8975

23mdash

64mdash

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

Dow

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ded

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th D

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ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

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06

Dec

embe

r 20

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ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

Dow

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

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ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ORDER REPRINTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Dow

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embe

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14

ORDER REPRINTS

As expected the free organic matter was the fraction that underwent thegreatest relative increases after organic matter application Concerning the col-loidal humus fractions the most significant change was the large increase inrelative concentration of HA the opposed occurring with the FA The concomit-ant increase in the HAFA ratio is of special significance in the case of theclimatic conditions of most tropical soils where the natural tendency of selec-tive accumulation of humic colloids with a low molecular weight (FA) (26) canbe compensated by external inputs of comparatively less transformed organicmatter

When the balance of the different humic fractions was calculated per unit ofsoil C (ie independent of the amount of organic matter) (Figure 1) the datareflect the potential for C sequestration in each situation and for every humus

886 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Virgin andCultivated Soils After Incubation with Organic Amendments In the Case of Significant(P005) Differences with Regard to the Controls (ie Between Virgin and CultivatedSites) the Percentage Increase Is Given in the Subsequent Rows

ECEC

(mmolc kg1)

Exchangeable Bases

Na K Ca2 Mg2

ExchangeableAcidity

H Al3

Virgin soil 134 0 12 82 35 1 5 sunflower straw 203 1 52 98 50 0 2

51 333 20 43 60 maize straw 155 1 22 86 41 0 4

16 83 fresh manure 197 8 20 108 58 0 3

47 67 32 66 40 old manure 177 6 23 105 39 0 4

32 92 28

Cultivated soil 68 0 8 45 10 1 6 sunflower straw 146 0 51 67 25 0 3

115 538 49 150 50 maize straw 91 0 19 49 16 0 7

34 138 60 fresh manure 127 4 13 71 32 0 8

87 63 58 220 old manure 119 5 20 70 17 0 6

75 150 56 70

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

Dow

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ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

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embe

r 20

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

Dow

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ded

by [

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th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ded

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ate

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r 20

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ORDER REPRINTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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ity]

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11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

Dow

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a St

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Uni

vers

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14

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25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

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embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 887

Tabl

e4

Tota

lC

once

ntra

tion

and

Dis

trib

utio

nof

Org

anic

Car

bon

inD

iffe

rent

Hum

usFr

acti

ons

(gC

kgso

il

1 )in

Vir

gin

and

Cul

tivat

edSo

ilsA

fter

Incu

bati

onw

ithD

iffe

rent

Org

anic

Am

endm

ents

CFO

MH

AFA

TE

HH

AF

AE

HN

EH

Vir

gin

soil

214

03

48

80

127

06

28

55

su

nflow

erst

raw

282

22

104

37

141

28

40

79

32

633

119

54

11

43

42

mai

zest

raw

297

40

91

56

147

16

45

50

39

1233

92

30

15

70

fr

esh

man

ure

257

03

77

60

136

13

44

73

20

61

25

59

32

old

man

ure

230

03

77

52

129

15

41

56

762

35

47

Cul

tivat

edso

il9

00

12

04

26

20

52

30

4

sunfl

ower

stra

w19

51

85

83

69

31

65

62

811

735

00

189

15

51

14

154

4

mai

zest

raw

194

17

49

39

89

13

34

54

116

3300

14

8

643

47

11

56

fr

esh

man

ure

194

11

50

37

87

14

37

59

116

2100

15

0

12

40

60

1274

old

man

ure

110

04

32

32

64

10

32

09

22

720

62

24

40

10

7

FOM

fr

eeor

gani

cm

atte

rH

A

hum

icac

idF

A

fulv

icac

idT

EH

to

tale

xtra

ctab

lehu

mus

(HA

FA

)E

H

extr

acta

ble

hum

inN

EH

no

n-ex

trac

tabl

ehu

min

In

the

case

ofsi

gnifi

cant

(P

005

)di

ffer

ence

sas

rega

rds

the

cont

rol(

virg

inan

dcu

ltiv

ated

site

s)th

epe

rcen

tage

incr

ease

isin

dica

ted

inth

esu

bseq

uent

row

s

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

Dow

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ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

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06

Dec

embe

r 20

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ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

Dow

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

Dow

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ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

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06

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embe

r 20

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ORDER REPRINTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

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ded

by [

Nor

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a St

ate

Uni

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ity]

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06

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ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

888 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Fig

ure

1D

istr

ibut

ion

ofso

ilor

gani

cca

rbon

into

diff

eren

thum

icfr

acti

ons

Hor

izon

tale

rror

bars

indi

cate

leas

tsig

nific

antd

iffe

renc

es(P

0

05)

betw

een

cont

rols

oils

and

soils

trea

ted

with

orga

nic

amen

dmen

ts

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

Dow

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ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

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ate

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vers

ity]

at 1

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06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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ity]

at 1

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06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

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Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

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06

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r 20

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ORDER REPRINTS

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 889

Figure 2 Soil respiration curves (soil C released as CO2) obtained during a 2-monthlaboratory incubation The daily mineralization curves (left ordinate axes) include errorbars indicating extreme values between replications) The cumulative respiration curves(right ordinate axes) are plotted at the same full-scale value TMCtotal mineralizationcoefficient C g (1000 g soil C)1 percentage increase relative to the control (virginand cultivated sites)

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ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

Dow

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th D

akot

a St

ate

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vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

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embe

r 20

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ORDER REPRINTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

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by [

Nor

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akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

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06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

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akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

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ded

by [

Nor

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akot

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ate

Uni

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at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

fraction irrespective of the concentration of organic matter in the soil The resultsindicated that per unit of C added sunflower straw was most effective in increas-ing the HA concentration The relative increase in extractable humin representsthe major effect of cultivation whereas in virgin soil the tendency was to ac-cumulate HA

Respiratory Activity

Figure 2 shows the mineralization curves of the control soils and of the soilstreated with the different amendments As expected the incorporation of the dif-

890 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Table 5 Respiratory Activity [mg C (100 g soil)1] for the 3 Mineralization Stages Dur-ing Laboratory Incubation in Virgin and Cultivated Soils After the Addition of DifferentOrganic Matter Sources

CO2 Released

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

TotalCO2

evolved

Virgin soil 112 44 23 1790 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2346 1063 429 39381995 2316 1765 2044

maize straw 1317 666 371 23541076 1414 1513 1215

fresh manure 1725 1296 577 35981440 2845 2409 1910

old manure 245 96 50 391119 118 117 119

Cultivated soil 51 21 09 810 0 0 0

sunflower straw 2392 951 248 35914590 4429 2656 4333

maize straw 1516 907 406 28292873 4219 4411 3393

fresh manure 1725 1324 495 35443282 6205 5400 4275

old manure 157 69 37 263208 229 311 225

Stage 1 0 to 6 days Stage 2 6 to 25 days Stage 3 25 to 55 days The percentages indi-cate relative increase as regards the corresponding controls (virgin and cultivated soilrespectively)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

Dow

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ded

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ORDER REPRINTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

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ded

by [

Nor

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akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

Dow

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ded

by [

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akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

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06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

ferent forms of organic matter produced significant enhancement in soil CO2 re-lease soil respiratory activity increased in the order sunflower straw freshmanure maize straw old manure (Table 5)

When the values were calculated per unit of soil C (mineralization coeffi-cients) they showed the highest potential biodegradability of the organic matter inthe cultivated soil ie the soil-organic matter interactions in cultivated soils wereless favorable to long-term C sequestration in the soil (Figure 2)

In the mineralization curves it is usual to consider progressive mineraliza-tion stages In this case we considered I) a rapid CO2 release at the beginning ofthe experiment stage (0 ndash6 days) ii) an intermediate stage (6 ndash25 days) and iii) afinal stabilization stage probably more representative of the long-term C miner-alization in the soil (25ndash55 days and more) When comparing the data for thedifferent stages we observed that both in virgin and cleared soils the highestincrease (as regards the control soils) tended to correspond to stage 2 ie thechanges in the respiratory activity did not indicate a rapid priming effect of freshorganic matter but took more than one week in achieving maximum activity

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the objectives (andashd) set forth in the Abstract the results suggestthat

a) Clearing and cultivation have increased the mineralization coefficientof the soils which is reflected in the decreased levels of organic matterAfter amendment with lignocellulosic wastes or manures externalsources of carbon are more readily biodegraded than in virgin soil

b) Selective accumulation of FA is compensated by organic matteramendment

c) In general the organic amendments have a similar chemical fertilizereffect in virgin soil than in cleared soil In most cases the increases inavailable nutrients are frequently accompanied by immobilization ef-fects (ca 20) of the preexisting available element in the soil andor inthe amendment This effect was minimum with K and some microele-ments (Cu Mn) where some mobilizing effect can be attributed to theinteraction with the organic matter added

d) The above conclusions suggest that cultivation has induced changes inthe soil physico-chemical activity and per unit of C added (Figure 1)the increases of the HA concentration after amending are ca 50 lowerthan in virgin soil After the organic matter inputs the increase in theconcentration of available and exchangeable elements are likely syste-matically higher in cultivated rather than in virgin soil

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 891

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ate

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vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support by the European Union (Grants STD2A285-1 andIC18-CT98-0277) and the Spanish Ministry of Educacion y Cultura (GrantAMB99-0907) are gratefully acknowledged Dr Ferrarirsquos team (Universita diFirenze) and Dr Ristorirsquos team (Istituto per la Genesi e lrsquoEcologia del Suolo)Firenze Italy have conducted the soil classification and mineralogical study

REFERENCES

1 Duxbury JM Smith MS Doran JW Soil Organic Matter as a Sourceand Sink of Plant Nutrients In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in TropicalEcosystems Coleman DC Oades JM Uehara G Eds University ofHawaii Press Honolulu Hawaii 1989 33ndash67

2 Tiessen H Cuevas E Chacon P The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Sus-taining Soil Fertility Nature 1994 371 783ndash785

3 Batjes NH Sombroeck WG Possibilities for Carbon Sequestration inTropical and Subtropical Soils Global Change Biol 1997 3 161ndash173

4 Tiessen H Shang C Organic Matter Turnover in Tropical Land-Use Sys-tems In Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics in Natural and Agricultural Tropi-cal Ecosystems Bergstrom L Kirchman H Eds CAB InternationalWallingford UK 1998 1ndash14

5 Buringh P Organic Carbon in Soils of the World In The Role of TerrestrialVegetation in the Global Carbon Cycle Measurement by Remote SensingWoodwell GM Ed Wiley New York 1984 SCOPE 23 91ndash101

6 de Moraes FI Volkoff B Cerri CC Bernoux M Soil Properties UnderAmazon Forest and Changes Due to Pasture Installation in Rondonia BrazilGeoderma 1996 70 63ndash81

7 Pardo MT Giampaolo S Almendros G The Effect of Cultivationon Physical Speciation of Humic Substances and Plant Nutrients in Aggre-gate Fractions of Crusting Soil from Zimbabwe Biol Fert Soils 1997 2595ndash102

8 Van der Waat HVH Valentin C Soil Crusting The African View In SoilCrusting Chemical and Physical Processes Summer ME Steward BAEds CRC Press Boca Raton FL 1992 301ndash338

9 Sommerfeldt TG Chang C Entz T Long-Term Manure ApplicationsIncrease SOM and N Decrease C to N Rates Soil Sci Soc Am J 1988 521668ndash1672

10 Parr JF Papendick RI Hornick SB Colaccio D Use of OrganicAmendments for Increasing the Productivity of Arid Lands Arid Soil ResRehabil 1989 3 149ndash170

892 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

11 Ladd JN Amato M Li-Kai Z Schultz JE Differential Effects ofRotation Plant Residue and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Microbial Biomass andOrganic Matter in an Australian Alfisol Soil Biol Biochem 1994 26821ndash831

12 Somda ZC Powell JM Seasonal Decomposition of Sheep Manure andForage Leaves in Soil Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 1998 29 2961ndash2979

13 Goyal S Chandler K Mundra MC Kapoor KK Influence of OrganicFertilizers and Organic Amendments on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Mi-crobial Properties Under Tropical Conditions Biol Fert Soils 1999 29196 ndash200

14 DrsquoAcqui LP Ristori GG Nyamugafata P Pardo MT Dodero ASparvoli E Studies on Crusting in a Kaolinitic Soil from Zimbabwe and theEffect of Different Conditioners In Sealing Crusting and Hardsetting SoilsProductivity and Conservation So HB Smith GD Raine SR SchaferBM Loch RJ Eds Australian Society of Soil Science QueenslandBranch Australia 1995 355ndash362

15 Ayanaba A Jenkinson DS Decomposition of 14C-Labelled Ryegrass andMaize under Tropical Conditions Soil Sci Soc Am J 1990 54 112ndash114

16 Chandler K S Goyal MC Mundra and KK Kapoor 1997 OrganicMatter Microbial Biomass and Enzyme Activity of Soils Under DifferentCrop Rotations in the Tropics Biol Fert Soils 1997 24 306 ndash310

17 Parr JF Papendick RI Colaccio D Recycling of Organic Wastes for aSustainable Agriculture Biol Agric Hort 1986 3 115ndash130

18 Soil Survey Staff Soil Taxonomy A Basic System of Soil Classification forMaking and Interpreting Soil Survey 6th Ed United States Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Washington DC 1994 306 pp

19 Nelson DV Sommers LE Total Carbon Organic Carbon and OrganicMatter In Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 2nd Ed Page AL MillerRH Keeney DR Eds Am Soc American Society of Agronomy Mad-ison WI 1982 Agron 9 539ndash579

20 Bray RH Kurtz LT Determination of Total Organic and Available Formsof Phosphorus in Soils Soil Sci 1945 59 39ndash 45

21 Lyndsay WL Norvell WA Development of a DTPA Soil Test for ZincIron Manganese and Copper Soil Sci Soc Am J 1978 42 421ndash 428

22 Juo ASR Ayanlaja SA Ogunwale JA An Evaluation of Cation Ex-change Measurements for Soils in the Tropics Commun Soil Sci PlantAnal 1976 7 751ndash761

23 Duchaufour P Jacquin F Comparaison des Procesus DrsquoHumification Dansles Principaux Types DrsquoHumus Forestiers Bull AFES 1975 1 29ndash36

24 Merlet D Mise au Point Technique Concernant Lrsquoextraction et la Caracte-risation des Composes Organiques Dans les Sols Centre de Pedologie Bio-logique CNRS Nancy France 1971 Doc No 15 19 pp

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY 893

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

ORDER REPRINTS

25 Almendros G Gonzalez-Vila FJ Martin F Fire-Induced Transformationof Soil Organic Matter from an Oak Forest An Experimental Approach tothe Effects of Fire on Humic Substances Soil Sci 1990 149 158ndash168

26 Volkoff B Cerri CC Quelques Proprietes de Lrsquohumus drsquoun Sol Ferralli-tique Humifere sur Granite du Parana (Bresil) Sci du Sol 1978 4 269ndash280

894 ALMENDROS GIAMPAOLO AND PARDO

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

657

06

Dec

embe

r 20

14

Order now

Reprints of this article can also be ordered at

httpwwwdekkercomservletproductDOI101081CSS100103914

Request Permission or Order Reprints Instantly

Interested in copying and sharing this article In most cases US Copyright Law requires that you get permission from the articlersquos rightsholder before using copyrighted content

All information and materials found in this article including but not limited to text trademarks patents logos graphics and images (the Materials) are the copyrighted works and other forms of intellectual property of Marcel Dekker Inc or its licensors All rights not expressly granted are reserved

Get permission to lawfully reproduce and distribute the Materials or order reprints quickly and painlessly Simply click on the Request PermissionReprints Here link below and follow the instructions Visit the US Copyright Office for information on Fair Use limitations of US copyright law Please refer to The Association of American Publishersrsquo (AAP) website for guidelines on Fair Use in the Classroom

The Materials are for your personal use only and cannot be reformatted reposted resold or distributed by electronic means or otherwise without permission from Marcel Dekker Inc Marcel Dekker Inc grants you the limited right to display the Materials only on your personal computer or personal wireless device and to copy and download single copies of such Materials provided that any copyright trademark or other notice appearing on such Materials is also retained by displayed copied or downloaded as part of the Materials and is not removed or obscured and provided you do not edit modify alter or enhance the Materials Please refer to our Website User Agreement for more details

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nor

th D

akot

a St

ate

Uni

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