knossos: palace, city, state || the neolithic settlement of knossos: new light on an old picture

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The Neolithic settlement of Knossos: new light on an old picture Author(s): Nikos Efstratiou, Alexandra Karetsou, Eleni S. Banou and Despina Margomenou Source: British School at Athens Studies, Vol. 12, KNOSSOS: PALACE, CITY, STATE (2004), pp. 39-49 Published by: British School at Athens Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40960764 . Accessed: 28/06/2014 10:31 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . British School at Athens is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to British School at Athens Studies. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 91.238.114.210 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:31:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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Page 1: KNOSSOS: PALACE, CITY, STATE || The Neolithic settlement of Knossos: new light on an old picture

The Neolithic settlement of Knossos: new light on an old pictureAuthor(s): Nikos Efstratiou, Alexandra Karetsou, Eleni S. Banou and Despina MargomenouSource: British School at Athens Studies, Vol. 12, KNOSSOS: PALACE, CITY, STATE (2004), pp.39-49Published by: British School at AthensStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40960764 .

Accessed: 28/06/2014 10:31

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

British School at Athens is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to British Schoolat Athens Studies.

http://www.jstor.org

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Page 2: KNOSSOS: PALACE, CITY, STATE || The Neolithic settlement of Knossos: new light on an old picture

I The Neolithic settlement of Knossos: new light

on an old picture Nikos Efstratiou, Alexandra Karetsou, Eleni S. Banou

and Despina Margomenou

Restoration work by the Herakleion Ephoreia in the winter of 1997 in the northeastern part of the Central Court of Knossos (FIG. 1.1) provided an opportunity to "revisit" the Neolithic settlement of Knossos, a key site for the early prehistoric development of the east- ern Mediterranean. Karetsou foresaw this unique chance from the beginning of the restoration pro- gramme, with the result that this project involving a number of colleagues and specialists could be organ- ised and set in motion within a very short period of time.

The conditions of the subsequent excavation were constrained by pressures of time and space. On the one hand, we were restricted to a 3 x 2 m trench beside the staircase which leads from the Central Court to the northeastern wing of the Palace; on the other, our task was to reveal the Neolithic deposit down to bedrock and uncover the total life-span of the Neolithic settle- ment (FIG. 1.2). This was accomplished in the short space of four weeks, which forced us to reduce the ex- cavation area below the depth of 4.5 m even further, ending up with a trench of 1.5 x 1.5 m.

However, this "time-hole" was destined to provide significant information. In addition to categories of ma- terial remains that had been systematically collected and recorded in the past (pottery, lithics, chipped-stone tools, etc.), we focused on material remains that, al- though collected, had not yet been systematically ana- lysed (such as animal bones, and charred plant and wood remains) as well as on categories of material re- mains that had been omitted (such as sediment sam- ples for micromorphological and phytolith analyses). Carbon and charred wood and seeds in particular were systematically collected for a new set of radiocarbon dates.

Our goal was not only to supplement and evaluate what was already known in terms of the Neolithic oc- cupation of the mound (occupational sequence, chro- nology, economy), but also to provide new evidence es- pecially regarding the site's palaeoenvironment and the human impact upon it during the Neolithic period.

THE EXCAVATION

The excavation of this small trench produced an im- pressive Neolithic deposit and a continuous stratigraphie sequence, 8.5 m deep (FIG. 1.3). The pres- ence of a geomorphologist, the late M. -P. Fumanal of the University of Valencia, during the course of exca- vation was invaluable, as she helped us to trace and record the stratigraphie sequence of the Neolithic lay- ers with confidence, while systematically collecting sedi- ment samples for micromorphological analysis. The orderly succession of the Neolithic occupation layers at Knossos is impressive (FIG. 1.4). Black strata full of occupational debris such as hearths, shallow rubbish pits, carbonised material, large quantities of pottery, etc., alternated with layers of kouskouras, the soft local lime- stone marl used as building material as well as for plas- tering habitation floors.

The stratigraphie sequence of this 8.5 m deep Neolithic deposit produced 39 excavation levels and covered the whole span of the Neolithic period, from Aceramic to Late Neolithic (FIG. 1.3, which also shows the distribution of these levels as compared to J. D. Evans's [1964, fig. 4] well established sequence of strata X to I). It should be stressed that in some cases, during the course of excavation, such levels were attributed to minor excavation units, which were later found to be- long to the same stratigraphie context and not to dif- ferent strata. Thus, some strata shown in FIG. 1.3 are defined by more than one level number. Finally, it is important to note that Furness's (1953, 94) and Evans's (1964, 132) ceramic typology was used at the start for the general definition and identification of the differ- ent cultural phases, since it was important to establish, somehow, how representative the material we excavated was. At a later stage of the study, however, several new parameters, including ceramic technological observa- tions and 14C dates, were used to elaborate on this se- quence (see below).

Architectural remains from several structures (walls, foundations, etc.) (FIG. 1.5), whether of stone or

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Page 3: KNOSSOS: PALACE, CITY, STATE || The Neolithic settlement of Knossos: new light on an old picture

40 N. EFSTRATIOU, A. KARETSOU, E. S. BAN OU AND D. MARG0MEN0U

pi D i '

I i-J 9 10 20 30 40 50 metres

Fig. i.i. Knossos: plan showing the site ofiggy excavation in the Central Court.

Fig. 1.2. Knossos: view ofiggj trench.

kouskouras or both, were found in the upper layers of the deposit. The dominant architectural feature of the trench however, was a massive structure, elliptical in shape, 0.3 m thick and 0.7 m high (FIG. 1 .6). The exca- vators opted towards its characterisation as either a "re- taining wall", or at least as an architectural feature mark- ing the overall spatial arrangement of the central sec- tion of the settlement. This was primarily based on the longevity of the structure (it lasted for most of EN II [levels 28-20]), its massive construction and its posi- tion close to the fringe of the Knossos mound. Succes- sive habitation floors, of clay plaster or kouskouras and rich in material remains, were identified for all occupa- tional phases. This indicated that we were probably dig- ging the interiors of houses (FIG. 1.5).

Despite the particular circumstances of this excava- tion, primarily the very limited excavation area and the deep stratigraphie sequence representing a very long occupational history, the possibility that we were exca- vating a refuse area (one of our main concerns) was early entertained - and rejected. On the one hand, we had Evans's estimate of the overall extent of the Neolithic settlement (1971, 106). On the other, there was the or- derly sequence of the ceramic traits as well as the

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THE NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF KNOSSOS: NEW LIGHT ON AN OLD PICTURE 41

Fig. 1.3. Knossos: section of sìv corner ofiggj trench.

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42 N EFSTRA TIOU, A. KARETSOU, E. S. BAN OU AND D. MARGOMENOU

Fig. 1.4. Knossos: occupation layers. Fig. 1.5. Knossos: architectural remains and habitation floors.

Fig. 1.6. Knossos: the massive elliptical structure.

phytolith record, the latter highlighting a series of phases related to changes in the agricultural economy and use of space (see below). We hope that these observ- ations will also be confirmed by the results of the mi- cromorphological analysis.

THE MATERIAL

Margomenou studied the ceramic material. Research goals were in many ways determined by the limited horizontal exposure of the trench, and its close prox-

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THE NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF KNOSSOS: NEW LIGHT ON AN OLD PICTURE 43

imity to Evans's excavation, as well as by the work al- ready published of Furness (1953) and Evans (1964, 1968). Our first goal therefore was to establish that the pottery found was representative of the general range of variation as identified by our predecessors.

After that, our next goal was to reconsider the exist- ing typology. This appeared necessary in view of con- temporary theoretical discussions on the socio-eco- nomic aspects of ceramic production and use, as well as recent discussions on socio-political changes postulated for Neolithic Knossos (Broodbank 1992; Whitelaw 1992). To accomplish this, we focused on constructing a statistical (qualitative) typology using explicit and well defined variables in the identification of ceramic types. These variables fall within three general categories: ce- ramic technology (fabric identification/vessel forming/ firing methods); vessel shape and size; and decoration and surface treatment.

In studying ceramic technology, S. Dimitriadis (De- partment of Geological Studies, University of Thessaloniki) focused on pétrographie analysis of thin sections for the identification of different fabrics, as well as on the identification of forming methods and firing techniques. The wider Knossos area was also surveyed, and a significant number of clay and sand samples col- lected for comparative purposes. An experimental project to reproduce some of the fabrics that we have identified is currently under way.

Banou is studying the limited architectural remains of the trench. Archaeozoological remains were collected and studied by M. Perez (University of Valencia) and the archaeobotanical evidence by A. Sarpaki (Institute of Mediterranean Studies, Crete). E. Badal and M. Ntinou (University of Valencia) used the carbonised material collected by both dry and water sieving from all 39 excavation units to study the site's paleo- environment. Sediment samples for micromorphologi-

cal studies were collected and studied by Fumanal, and for phytolith analysis by M. Madella (McDonald In- stitute, Cambridge University). Other categories of ma- terial remains including bone tools and polished stones were studied by G. Stratouli (Pella Museum), and ob- sidian tools by A. Moundrea-Agrafioti (University of Volos). Unfortunately, other portable finds such as figu- rines are few, due to the limited extent of excavation.

THE CULTURAL SEQUENCE

Although aware of the limited excavation area and the preliminary character of this report, we shall attempt a short synthesis of the finds. It is our contention that although limited, this re- visiting of Neolithic Knossos (perhaps the last in a series of exploratory soundings under the Minoan Palace) has afforded a unique op- portunity for a fresh look at this early site, and its ma- terial and cultural sequence. At the same time, it al- lowed us to introduce new lines of analysis and study that were not attempted, or were not possible, in the past. The synthesis attempted here may therefore be significant to the extent that it re-evaluates, and in some cases questions, some of the current interpretations.

Given the importance of the Neolithic settlement of Knossos for the prehistory of the Aegean and the east- ern Mediterranean, various interpretative narratives have been suggested since the site was excavated in the 1960s. Yet many of these are based on poor excavational evidence, and in some ways they seem to serve precon- ceived models of prehistoric social organisation in Crete, influenced greatly by the cultural dominance of the Minoan Palace (Broodbank 1992).

The Neolithic settlement of Knossos was founded on the Kephala hill at the end of the eighth millennium BC, sometime around 7000 BC (FIG. 1.7): our new 14C/ AMS early date coincides with Evans's dates (TABLE

Fig. 1.7. Knossos: Acer amie occupation.

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44 N. EFSTRATIOU, A. KARETSOU, E. S. BAN OU AND D. MARGOMENOU

TABLE i.i: Knossos 1957-60/1997: comparison of calibrated 14C dates.

STRATUM PHASE bc 1997 UNIT bc

X 7292-6693 Aceramic 7033-6649 39 7040-6770

OxA-9215 IX IX Early EN I 6565-6235 VIII VII VI EN I 561 1-5305 37 5210-5060

OxA-9216 541 1-4845 35 5365-5305

Ox A- 9219 5312-4961 33 5210-4990

OxA-9217 32 5210-5000

OxA-9220 32 5207-5037

DEM-663 31 5260-5070

DEM-661 V Late EN I 5258-4858 IV EN II 4905-4787 29 4930-4800

OxA-9218 4902-4617 28 4961-4852

OxA-9221 4957-4502 28 4940-4800

DEM-659 24 5061-4945

DEM-658 14 4907-4799

DEM-642 III MN 4782-4502 12 4917-4789

DEM-640 4685-4363 4547-4357

II LN 4600-4253 4456-4256

I 4456-4255 LN/ FN 4041-3529

(All dates are BC calibrated. All samples submitted to the Oxford Research Laboratory are Quer cus evergreen charred grains. For datasets [and intervals] used, see Stuiver et al. 1998, and Radiocarbon Calibration Program Rev. 4.0, Quaternary Isotope Labora- tory, Washington University [Stuiver and Reimer 1993].)

i.i). The first occupants, a small community, arrived in the area bringing with them the full Neolithic "pack- age" but not pottery.

All the bones retrieved indicate fully domesticated animals such as goats, sheep (ovisl capra), pigs (sus scrofa), cattle (bos) and dogs (cants familiar is), all be- longing to small-sized animals showing no signs of any proto-domestication process. The agricultural economy is characterised by fully domesticated plants such as cereals (Triticum sp.) and legumes (Pisum sp.) - and not just cereals as Helbaek reports (Evans 1968, 269)

- that show no evidence of any transitional stage from wild to cultivated plants (wild einkorn and barley). Sarpaki, who examined the pertinent material, stresses strongly that, while systematically exploiting tree-crops, in particular almonds (Amygdalus communis) and figs (Ficus carica), the first Knossians were well advanced in agricultural practices, and not mere beginners.

From the evidence collected and analysed by Badal and Ntinou we are, perhaps for the first time, in a po- sition to understand better the environmental condi- tions that prevailed in the area of Knossos during the

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THE NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF KNOSSOS: NEW LIGHT ON AN OLD PICTURE 45

Neolithic era. Thus, anthracological research suggests that the area was dominated by an evergreen forest, primarily of oak trees (Quercus sp.) (20-30%) and, to a lesser extent, of shrubs {Pistacia, Rhamnus-Phillyrea) (10-20%), and almond and strawberry trees (5%). Conifers like pine (Pinus sp.), cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), and juniper (Juniperus sp.) seem to have a modest representation, less than 5%; one must also add riverside vegetation with myrtle (Myrtus commu- nis) and ash (Fraxinus sp.). The palaeoenvironmental study, still in progress, has yielded an overall homoge- neous charcoal diagram for the area, which beginning from Aceramic (level 39) remained basically unchanged through most of the Neolithic period. It belongs to a typical thermo-mediterranean bioclimatic level which, in palaeoecological terms, indicates a climate similar to the one prevailing in the region today.

There are two points of particular interest to em- phasise here. First, Western in Evans's early publica- tion (1964) reported the presence of a deciduous forest around the site. Her analysis was based on a very few charcoal fragments coming from pieces of timber used for construction purposes. However, from our evidence to date, we would claim that a deciduous forest might well have existed, not in the immediate vicinity of Knossos, but rather in the mountainous area where the inhabitants looked for timber for building. And second, our Neolithic inventory is characterised by a notewor- thy absence of charcoal from olive trees. This coincides with Bottema's pollen diagram from Ayia Galini (1980) but contradicts the diagram from Tersana (Moody et al 1996), where the initial appearance of olive is dated to MN. If, therefore, the olive tree is not indigenous to Crete - since we have found no charcoal remains or seeds, as in the case of almond trees - the possibility of its being domesticated in the Bronze Age is bleak indeed (Runnels and Hansen 1986).

The inventory of chipped stone tools from the Aceramic phase (level 39) is very small. Only four ob- sidian artefacts were found but they cannot be attrib- uted to any known diagnostic tool type. This is not sur- prising, if we compare the similar picture of Evans's material from the same levels. Flint is extremely rare as well, with only one small irregular flake found. Al- though no provenance analysis has been performed on these pieces yet, macroscopic examination favours a Melian origin.

The Aceramic layers were followed without any stratigraphie gap by levels 38-36, yielding pottery that, according to the present typology, could be identified as EN I (for example, with plastic and dotted decora- tion; and in general very similar to pottery from Evans's strata VIII-VI) (FIG. 1.3). Both in terms of shape and decoration, pottery production appears to be mature already in this early phase. A degree of technological maturity seems to be reflected also in the selection of raw materials, shaping techniques and surface finish- ing, including decoration.

The variety of fabrics observed might easily reveal the existence of different production centres near, or within the wider vicinity of, Knossos. In fact, Dimitriadis was able to identify all the mineral and rock components of these early ceramics in sediments and beach sands during the survey he conducted in the northern and central parts of Crete. The minerals and rock fragments identified include those that have been related to southern lithological types by Wilson and Day (1994). The earliest assemblages are characterised by calcareous and non-calcareous matrices with a variety of tempering materials (such as grains of micritic or sparitic carbonates, siltstones, sandstones, slates and phyllitic schists, metamorphosed basic and ultrabasic rocks, granitic and volcanic rocks, quartz, chert, etc.). The picture however changes during EN II, and is char- acterised by a marked reduction in the variability of tempering materials.

The provenance of 13 obsidian artefacts, primarily flakes, from levels 37-36, was examined by Neutron Activation Analysis at the Demokritos Laboratory, Ath- ens. Their Melian origin was confirmed. Our pieces come from both the Adamas and Demenegaki sources, confirming the results of the first scientific examina- tion of Aegean obsidian by Renfrew et al. (1965, 238). In terms of their typological features, these EN I flakes, although fragmentary, are different from both Main- land Greek sites (parallel-sided pressure blades) and the more complicated Near Eastern repertory (naviform cores, points).

According to Sarpaki's analysis of the archaeobotanical evidence, from EN I onwards the Neolithic economy at Knossos broadened its basis by placing a greater emphasis on cereal cultivation with the appearance of einkorn (Triticum mono co e curri). Madella groups the available evidence from the EN I levels into two phases: early EN I, with phytolith as- semblages which might indicate episodes of plant burn- ing activities and the limited presence of crops, and late EN I, with signs of intense cereal processing (wheat - Triticum sp.; barley - Hordeum sp.). From the changes in the phytolith record, this process seems to reach a climax during the transition to MN. The changes ob- served may reflect different patterns of economic be- haviour and different choices made by the inhabitants of Neolithic Knossos (see below).

The next stratum (level 35, Evans's VIII) shows signs of transition with possibly mixed material, although this has to be confirmed by more detailed work on the ce- ramic material and micro-morphological analysis. The following levels 34-28, however, mark the latter part of EN I, and are related to two successive habitation floors. Ceramic types (such as simple carinated bowls, cari- nated bowls with off-set rims, and handles of the "sad- dle" type) considered distinctive of this transitional pe- riod now became common, while pétrographie analysis indicates a marked reduction in the variability of tem- pering materials. From this phase - and for the rest of

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46 N EFSTRATIOU, A. KARETSOU, E. S. BAN OU AND D. MARGOMENOU

the Neolithic period - we note ceramics with more or less calcareous matrices, tempered with sparitic calcite aggregates, discrete coarse calcite crystal grains, or sin- gle crystal dolomite rhombs. At the same time, temper- ing materials observed in EN I became gradually scarcer during the course of the Neolithic period.

It is also noteworthy that no obvious relation seems to exist between the various raw material combinations (clay type + temper type), vessel shapes, wall thick- ness, finishing, and decoration. Our research so far in- dicates therefore that stylistic changes during the Neolithic were not necessarily accompanied by changes in the raw materials selected and the tempering tech- niques utilised; developments in the latter two appear to be slower than in the former. Finally, it should also be pointed out that the very common calcareous matri- ces and the equally common (and thermally undam- aged) carbonate tempers imply low temperatures (less than 750o C) and short duration of firing.

EN II (levels 28-14) is characterised by the construc- tion of a large and substantial wall (the "retaining wall") as well as by smaller walls built successively within the same period, in relation to at least two occupation epi- sodes, manifested by two floors. Diagnostic pottery identified by Evans as EN II types were found: rippled surface treatment makes its appearance here. The 14C/ AMS dates for this phase cover the end of the sixth and the turn of the fifth millennia BC (TABLE 1 . 1 ), which is hardly an EN horizon in relative chronological terms. The archaeobotanical data suggest that the economy continued without any significant change with only the appearance of the grape, in both its wild and cultivated forms. The results of the phytolith analysis from this long EN II period complement this picture of the plant economy.

From levels 13-8, the pottery falls within the types recognised as MN, according to Evans's typological scheme. Rippled surface treatment becomes especially popular with a marked increase in levels 13-12 ("MN" habitation floor and occupation). Although ceramic manufacture does not seem to change, the pottery was technically inferior in comparison to the preceding pe- riod in the sense that the purity of the tempering mate- rial does not seem to have been the potters' prime con- cern. This is also true for the following LN period.

The phytolith record, according to Madella, indicates that from MN the agricultural package included mil- let-type crops (Panicum sp. and Setaria sp.) for the first time, which gradually became more important than wheat and barley. It is not easy to explain why the Neolithic farmers at Knossos chose to expand into new crops, thus broadening the agricultural basis of their economy. From, primarily, ceramic stylistic evidence such as the increase in the numbers of sherds with rip- pled surface treatment, some colleagues have already suggested a dramatic cultural change in Knossos by the end of EN II and the beginning of MN (Broodbank 1992; Whitelaw 1992). But it is too early to evaluate the cultural implications of the changes we have been able

to detect in the different data sets we have analysed so far. However, we would argue that any suggestion of postulated major socio-economic change in Middle Neolithic has to be supported by evidence from several independent sources, rather than be based on one cat- egory of material remains only (in this case some very dubious ceramic evidence).

Within this context, we think that the two impor- tant changes noted by Perez in the animal bone record for this transitional period might not be coincidental. According to the animal bone record, the transition from EN II to MN is characterised by an increased percent- age of bovines (bos) and by the appearance of wild fauna (wild boar) for the first time. In MN, moreover, two new species appear among the wild fauna, capra aegagrus and meles meles, while martes is added in LN. We are of course aware of the current discussion on the endemic character (or not) of some of these species (time of in- troduction, causes of extinction, relations with the early colonists, etc.) (Lax and Strasser 1992; Reese 1996). This issue however will be discussed fully in the final publication of this excavation.

Despite the limited number of animal bones retrieved from the 1997 excavation, some noteworthy observa- tions were made during the analysis of the material. It seems, for instance, that martes and meles meles were introduced to the island as wild animals by the Neolithic inhabitants of Knossos in MN and LN respectively. Moreover, despite Jar man's view to the opposite (1996), Perez has identified from morphological and metrical criteria numerous bones of agrimi (Capra aegagrus) in our MN and LN levels.

Late Neolithic (levels 7-3) is identified as such on the basis of diagnostic vessel shapes and decoration (such as the "squared" lip for bowls; a significant in- crease in closed vessel shapes especially nàrrow-necked jars, and funnel-necked jars; widely spaced dotted deco- ration on coarse wares; "seam pattern" decoration, etc.). Moreover, there is a very significant increase in coarse and striated surface treatment (red and buff surface colours), while rippled decoration gradually disappears.

The LN includes one occupation episode (one floor deposit). There is no evidence for any changes in the agricultural economy of the site during this period. Apart from the introduction of the new animal species mentioned above, archaeobotanical information is, un- fortunately, missing, while the phytoliths retrieved from the upper levels of the deposit show no signs of any crop-processing activity. Finally, pottery belonging to Final Neolithic has not been identified. Levels 2 and 1 yielded a very few, undiagnostic Neolithic sherds as well as some equally undiagnostic sherds probably of later periods (including wheel made).

CHRONOLOGY Perhaps the most interesting aspect of our work in Knossos so far is a series of 13 new radiocarbon dates obtained from the Demokritos Laboratory and the Ox-

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THE NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF KNOSSOS: NEW LIGHT ON AN OLD PICTURE 47

ford Research Laboratory, where carbonised material and charred seeds {Querem evergreen) were submitted (TABLE 1 . 1 ). All dates shown in TABLE 1 . 1 , old and new, are in calibrated years BC for comparative purposes. The new dates, seven of them calculated by AMS, allow a re-evaluation of the chronological sequence of the site. Discussion here will concentrate on two major issues. The first relates to the earliest available date around 7000 BC for the Aceramic phase, and the second to the consistent grouping of the rest of the dates around the end of the sixth and the first half of the fifth millennia BC.

The date of 7000 BC reaffirms Evans's well known 14C dates for the arrival of Neolithic settlers in the area of Kephala. Thus, even if Knossos is not the earliest Neolithic site on the island, it must have been one of the earliest. The presence of pre-Knossian sites, just by analogy with Cyprus, which theoretically could place the time of the first colonisation much earlier (PPNB), may not be so easy to substantiate however (Peltenburg et ai, 2001). Besides, a starting date of around 7000 BC for the first appearance of Neolithic in Crete fits well within the wider pattern of known dates from western Turkey (Özdogan and Basgelen 1999) and the Greek Mainland, and Sicily and southern Italy to the west.

We maintain that, perhaps not immediately after the Aceramic but some time during the following 1,000 years until quite late in the sixth millennium BC, what took place at Knossos, or at least within the limited area that we have excavated (FIG. 1.3), was a sequence of occupation and abandonment episodes. Moreover, we would suggest that the date for the end of this seem- ingly unsettled period is some time in the second half of the sixth millennium, that is well after the end of the EN period in relative chronological terms. The period in question is very long (from just after 7000 to 5600 BC: TABLE 1.1) and, in our opinion, has been inad- equately defined in terms of absolute chronology, since Evans offers only two dates (6500 BC: stratum IX; 5600 BC: stratum VI), which are also very far apart. It is un- fortunate that the results of our micro-morphological study for this deposit are not available yet. As an inde- pendent line of evidence, they would have been invalu- able in the archaeological detection and identification of such short abandonment phases. The phytolith evi- dence, nevertheless, gives us strong indications for a possible periodic occupation of this part of the site, with depositions deriving from non-crop (wild?) plants re- mains as a result of burning activities and/or the pres- ence of grass phytoliths.

Such episodes of changes in the use of the settle- ment's space may be true not only for this early part of EN II but for the LN deposit as well. The latter may be related to a drastic spatial re-arrangement of the settle- ment organisation in favour of open spaces, something which may not be irrelevant to the conception of the much later Central Court. What the phytolith evidence also indicates is that re-arrangements of space within the settlement are not easy to detect in the archaeological

deposit. If this is so, estimating the size of the settle- ment during its long Neolithic life may not be so easy to substantiate as previously thought (Evans 1971).

Evans's chronology for EN I and EN II at Knossos, based on four and five radiocarbon BC dates each, spans the second half of the sixth and the beginning of the fifth millennia BC (TABLE 1.1). Our 11 new dates, whether AMS or conventional, show a remarkable chronological consistency, likewise spanning the last quarter of the sixth and the first half of fifth millennia BC. The issue here, however, as we understand it, is whether or not these new dates describe an Early Neolithic horizon, following the accepted Knossos ter- minology, or if they could be ascribed to Late Neolithic in the Aegean relative chronological scheme (Warren and Hankey 1989). Moreover, Evans's Middle Neolithic is poorly represented by just one new 14C date, which covers the first half of the fifth millennium BC. There are no new dates available for Late Neolithic.

At this preliminary stage of research, however, and working primarily from the 14C dates available, we would suggest that a Late Neolithic date for the main occupa- tion phases of the Knossos settlement, previously con- sidered by Evans as EN II-MN, cannot be ruled out. This of course might be difficult to support in view of the lack of material from other Cretan or Aegean island sites that could be used for relative chronological pur- poses.

Finally, the AMS dating of the seeds from Aceramic Knossos can contribute much to the detailed study of the pattern of the spread of early farming practices west- wards (Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza 1984). Although there is no room here to elaborate on the issue, we stress the necessity, and importance, of including Crete de- finitively on the map of this spread pattern by our con- firming the date of 7000 BC for the start of Neolithic culture on the island. This is especially significant now, as new evidence from places like Cyprus reveals the main trends of this expansion, its slow pace and the "demie" mode of the diffusion involved (Peltenburg et al 2001). The data from Knossos re-affirms both trends.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite limitations in horizontal exposure, the finds from the excavation at the northeastern corner of the Central Court of Knossos confirm many of Evans's conclusions about the earliest occupation of Crete. At the same time, they afford the opportunity for further consideration of some of the most interesting aspects of Aegean island prehistory. While the presence of a pre-Neolithic population on the island still remains improbable, there is no doubt that the people who ar- rived at the Kephala hill around the end of the eighth millennium BC and founded Aceramic Knossos brought with them a full Neolithic economic package. It is un- fortunate that the early chipped stone assemblages of Knossos (primarily a flake industry) from both Evans's and our excavations do not help to establish any early

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48 N. EFSTRATIOU, A. KARETSOU, E. S. BANOU AND D MARGOMENOU

Mainland Greek or Asiatic affinities typical of the eighth millennium BC. Characteristic parallel-sided pressure blades known from Aceramic sites like Franchthi and Sesklo, or chipped-stone industries belonging to the PPNB Near Eastern pressure-retouch tradition, have not been found in Knossos (Perlés 1990; Briois et al. 1997)-

Although still tentative, our evidence for the earliest human presence on the Kephala hill indicates that this event should best be viewed not as an isolated and unique episode of sea-borne Aegean "migration" or as a "colonisation" adventure, as suggested by Broodbank and Strasser (1991). Rather, we would consider it as one of many such events related to short distance relocations of people to or within the island, both be- fore and after 7000 BC. This assumption is based on very specific characteristics of the archaeological record as we have analysed it so far:

i. the knowledge and exploitation of the two obsid- ian sources from the island of Melos (Adamas and Demenegaki) from as early as the beginning of the EN I period, something which hardly points to casual sea-movements in the Aegean.

ii. despite the limited excavation area, all the evidence from the 1997 excavation points to date towards repeated episodes of abandonment, or at least short seasonal occupations, for the whole period after the first Aceramic and early EN phases until the mid- dle of the sixth millennium BC. Such seasonality of occupation, however, presupposes local mobil- ity incentives. Abandonment practices in Knossos cannot be attributed to negative "carrying capac- ity" factors. At least as far as the Neolithic sequence of EN I to MN is concerned, we have not observed any kind of dramatic human impact on the flora record and landscape characteristics that could in- dicate unbalanced landscape management by the Neolithic farmers. Despite the preliminary char- acter of our research, we suggest that human im- pact on Crete's natural resources (vegetation, ani- mal) may not have been so decisive as has been re- cently suggested by Moody (1997).

iii. the diversity of technological choices regarding pottery production also has serious implications. The use of different clay sources from as early as EN I and then throughout Knossian Neolithic can hardly be considered as a sign of island isolation- ism, conservatism or the result of a unique, single human occupation on the island.

iv. the apparent introduction of wild animals around the middle of the fifth millennium BC, as indicated by our admittedly limited evidence, probably in re- sponse to a rather complex socio-economic and "political" local scene, certainly presupposes the presence of more than one Neolithic village on Crete.

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