kilimanjaro and mount kenya: colonized mountains and …€¦ · although both mountains are of...

26 Geographische Rundschau International Edition Vol. 5, No. 4/2009

he two highest mountains on the African continent are about330 km due north and south ofone another. While the north face of Kilimanjaro slopes down

towards the Tanzanian-Kenyanborder, the northern foothills of Mount Kenya straddle the equa-tor with its summit positionedapproximately 130 km northeastof the Kenyan capital Nairobi. Asisolated landmarks both inactivestratovolcanoes tower above theadjoining hills and lowlands locat-ed at altitudes between 1,000 and1,500 m above sea level (a.s.l.), onthe eastern side of the Great RiftValley (Figure 1).

Although both mountains are of volcanic origin, their physi-cal appearance differs greatly. Thebase of Kilimanjaro is approxi-mately 60 km long and 30 kmwide at the 2,000 m a.s.l. contour.Its longitudinal transect is orientedfrom northwest to southeast. Allthree of its major volcanic cones

are located along this main axis.Only the western and southernrims of the Shira Crater, withKlute Peak (3,962 m) as highestpoint, remain as a visible remnantof the westernmost cone, whereason the eastern side the ruggedMawenzi (5,149 m) towers abovethe Kibo Saddle. The summitregion of Kibo forms a calderaapproximately 2 by 2.5 km in dia-meter harbouring two innercraters, the Reusch Crater and theAsh Pit. The highest peaks, amongthem Uhuru Peak (5,895 m) andseveral other peaks above 5,700 m,are located along the southern rimof the outer crater (see Map Insertto this issue and satellite image of Kilimanjaro; Photo 1).

The broad cone-shaped MountKenya has an almost circular base

The isolated volcanic massifs of Kilimanjaro(5,895 m) and Mount Kenya (5,199 m) rise spec-tacularly above the tropical East African land-scape. The continent’s highest mountains werefirst ascended by European explorers at theend of the 19th century. Both were geogra-phers, and their conquests were seen as sym-bolic acts of colonial annexation and expan-sion. Due to the rapid glacier retreat, bothmountains have recently become icons in thedebate on global climate change.

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Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya: ColonizedMountains and their Rediscovery as Symbols of Global Climate Change

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27Geographische Rundschau International Edition Vol. 5, No. 4/2009

diameter of a little over 60 km,measured from the 2,000 m a.s.l.contour level. The massif risesgently to the base of the summitsBatian (5,199 m) and Nelion(5,189 m), twin rocky peaks whichtower steeply above the mountainslopes dissected by characteristicradial U-shaped valleys. The thirdmajor peak of the massif, PointLenana (4,985 m), is located about1 km to the east of the main sum-mit (see Map Insert and satelliteimage of Mount Kenya; Photo 2).

Both mountain massifs haveoften been referred to as textbookexamples to demonstrate the alti-tudinal zonation of tropical cli-mate and vegetation (e.g., Hedberg1964, Winiger 1981, Winiger et al.1990). Kilimanjaro and MountKenya arise from semi-arid footzones over distinct forest belts andaltotropical grass- and moorlandswith typical giant rosette plants tohigh altitude deserts right above4,000 m a.s.l. The lower parts ofboth forest belts are partly reduced

due to the encroachment of cash-crop oriented plantations of coffee,tea and bananas. The shrinkingglaciers atop the two highestAfrican mountains belong to thefew remaining tropical glaciers inthe world.

However these mountains aretextbook examples not only interms of their physical geographybut also in terms of their history of geographical exploration andshifting symbolic meaning. Thecontroversy over the existence of

Figure 1: Location of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya in East Africa


glaciers on Kilimanjaro and MountKenya that arose following theirinitial exploration (Krapf 1858,Meyer 1888, Honold 2000) findsitself mirrored in the present daywith these glaciers having takenon the role of global climatechange indicators (Thompson etal. 2002, Kaser et al. 2004). Theemblematic nature of these massifsis nothing new and is closelyintertwined with their role as geo-graphical centre pieces in the colo-nial expansion of Great Britainand Germany in East Africa.

Exploration andmountaineering historyEarly modern discovery of Africa’shighest mountains started in thefirst half of the nineteenth centuryat a time when the interior of

Africa was still very much anunmapped mystery. Europeanpresence was confined mainly to trading enclaves and outpostson the coastline. The Germanmissionaries Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johann Rebmann werethe first “white” explorers to giveauthentic accounts of the EastAfrican hinterlands. WhereasRebmann discovered Kilimanjaroon 11 May 1848, Krapf was thesecond European who beheld theview of Kilimanjaro on 10 Novem-ber 1849 and the first who spottedMount Kenya during anotherexpedition on 3 December 1849(Krapf 1858). Their reports onsolitary ice-clad mountains causeda dispute in the European geo-graphical community. British geo-graphers, most notably Desbor-ough Cooley, vigorously rejected

their accounts of glaciated moun-tains, arguing for the impossibilityof perpetual snow and ice in closeproximity to the equator (Meyer1888, p. 7). The controversy waspublished in several notes in thejournal Petermanns Geographi-sche Mitteilungen in 1855 and1856 (Honold 2000, p. 534).

It is important to rememberthat this heated debate took placeagainst the background of anemerging rivalry between GreatBritain and Germany which wasrooted in their competing interestsover spheres of influence in EastAfrica. In the following decades anumber of expeditions to Kili-manjaro and Mount Kenya werecarried out in order to clarify the issue and to collect more sub-stantial information. Many werearranged by wealthy aristocratsand private colonial explorers.Based on his journeys in the years1861 and 1862, Baron Karl Klausvon der Decken confirmed the icecap on Kilimanjaro. The Hungari-an explorer Count Samuel Telekiand the Austrian officer Ludwigvon Höhnel were the first to reach an altitude of about 5,300 m on Kilimanjaro and the first toclimb Mount Kenya up to around4,300 m in 1887.

The early European exploratoryperiod of Africa’s highest moun-tains came to pass at the end ofthe nineteenth century. In the pe-riod following the 1884/85 BerlinConference, which marked theformalization of the ‘Scramble for Africa’, Great Britain and Ger-many intensified their colonialendeavours. Germany’s suddenemergence as an imperial power inEast Africa resulted from the activ-ities of colonial annexation andexpansion initiated by Karl Peters,the founder of the German EastAfrica Company in 1885, whereland was claimed in the interior,mostly through signed contractswith local chieftains (Perras 2004).In the Anglo-German Agreementof 1886, the two countries agreedto acknowledge their spheres ofinfluence in East Africa, and theircolonial territories were then di-vided by a boundary running froma point approximately 100 km


Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya: Colonized Mountains and their Rediscovery as Symbols of Global Climate ChangeM A R C U S N Ü S S E R

Photo 3: The summit of Kibo from the southeast (4,330 m) in 1889

Photo 2: The north face of Mount Kenya with the twin peaks Nelion andBatian, 9 February 2009

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south of Mombasa to the easternand northern slopes of Kiliman-jaro and further to the shores ofLake Victoria. Thus the perfectlystraight boundary line between theBritish and German controlled ter-ritories was broken by a curvearound Kilimanjaro (Demhardt1997, p. 350).

The first ascent ofKilimanjaroAgainst the background of impe-rial rivalry and competition, theclimbing accomplishments by theGerman geographer, publisher andexplorer Hans Meyer on Kiliman-jaro symbolize the construction ofcolonial space and occupancy. Onhis first attempt on the summit ofKibo in 1887, Meyer reached analtitude of about 5,450 m (Meyer1888, p. 16). The following year heteamed up with the cartographerOscar Baumann, but their missionwas aborted during the AbushiriRevolt when both were takenprisoner by the leader of this anti-colonial insurrection. In the thirdsuccessive year, Meyer started an-other attempt to scale Kilimanjaro(Photo 3) together with theAustrian mountaineer LudwigPurtscheller and their local guideYohani Kinyala Lauwo. Eventual-ly the three of them reached thesummit of Kibo on 5 October 1889and became the first recorded per-

sons to set foot on the highestpoint in Africa. Their climbing featwas not repeated for twenty years.In order to underline the symbolicact of annexation of Africa’s high-est point as part of the expandingGerman empire, Meyer named thesummit, for which he measured analtitude of 6,010 m, after the Ger-man Emperor Wilhelm II. Theoriginal quotation of his declama-tion represents a key scene in East African colonial history: “Um 1/2 11 Uhr betrat ich als erster die Mittelspitze. Ich pflanzte auf dem verwetterten Lavagipfelmit dreimaligem, von HerrnPurtscheller kräftig sekundierten‘Hurra’ eine kleine, im Rucksackmitgetragene deutsche Flagge aufund rief frohlockend: ‘Mit demRecht des ersten Ersteigers taufeich diese bisher unbekannte,namenlose Spitze des Kibo, denhöchsten Punkt afrikanischer unddeutscher Erde: Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze’” (Meyer 1890, p. 134;Figure 2).

The representation of colonialoccupation was reinforced bynaming a number of peaks andglaciers after German explorers,geographers and statesmen (e.g.,Penck Glacier, Ratzel Glacier,Rebmann Glacier, BismarckTowers). One year after the firstsuccessful climb, the Kilimanjaroregion became ratified as part ofthe German colony Tanganyika inthe Anglo-German Treaty of 1 July1890 (the so-called Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty). In return theGermans abstained from furtherencroaching into British Kenya.Hans Meyer’s successful climbbecame central to the making ofcolonial geographies. Besides hisground-breaking climbing achieve-ments, he produced outstandingscientific results in the fields oftropical high mountain geography.Apart from the first glaciologicalobservations and altitudinal mea-surements, Meyer collected a largenumber of botanical and geologi-cal specimens. The most notableoutcome of his scientific surveys isthe map of the Kilimanjaro regionand that of the summit environs(Meyer 1890). After his successfulclimb Meyer became an influential

advocate of German colonialinterests and chaired several colo-nial commissions (Volkmann2002, pp. 239–241). In 1910 hesponsored a professorship forcolonial geography in Berlin andfive years later he accepted anappointment as full professor forcolonial geography in Leipzig(Volkmann 2002, pp. 297 f.).

The first ascent of Mount KenyaTen years after Hans Meyerclimbed Kilimanjaro, the Britishgeographer Halford Mackinderset off to climb Mount Kenya, the second-highest peak on thecontinent. It took three attemptsduring that expedition before he reached the summit Batian on 13 September 1899 together with the Italian-Swiss guide César Ollier and the porter JosephBrocherel (Mackinder 1900, p. 473). This first ascent was notrepeated for the 30 years beforeEric Shipton scaled both twinpeaks, Batian and Nelion.

Similar to the case of Meyer’sfirst ascent of Kilimanjaro,Mackinder’s motives for climbingMount Kenya were not onlyscientific in order to promote geo-graphical research and explorationto fill the blanks on the map but part of a larger geopoliticalpicture of colonial annexation andexpansion (Blouet 2004, p. 323).The symbolic dimension ofMackinder’s Kenya expedition wasrooted in the project of establish-ing British imperial control overthe interiors of East Africa (ÓTuathail 1996, p. 76; Kearns 1997,p. 455). Mackinder’s expeditionparty had the approval of the For-eign Office and was substantiallyfunded by the Royal GeographicalSociety (RGS; Kearns 2009, p. 100). Its scientific goals includ-ed a survey and mapping project, a collection of botanical and zoo-logical specimens and a photo-graphic documentation of themountain region. Like Hans Meyer on Kilimanjaro, Mackindertook rock samples from the sum-mit as trophies (Ryan 1997, p. 127).


Figure 2: Meyer and Purtscheller atthe summit of Kilimanjaro Source: Meyer 1890, p. 18


Mackinder scaled Mount Kenya after twelve years of teach-ing geography at the University ofOxford when he decided that “aspell of freedom was desirable”(Mackinder 1991, p. 31). His per-sonal motives were not only led bythe wish to be the first white manto summit Africa’s second highestmountain and his own imperialaspirations but by the exploratoryfoundations of colonial geographyat the end of the nineteenth centu-ry. In this context Mackinderstrove to prove himself as an ex-plorer and adventurer in order toget further financial RGS supportfor continuing his readership atOxford (Ryan 1997, p. 122).Although scientific credibility ofhis expedition was claimed, reach-

ing the summit was, after all, themain purpose of the expedition,especially after Hans Meyer hadannounced his intention to climbMount Kenya. The race with theGerman geographer was part of animperial rivalry (Kearns 2009, p. 100).

After his successful climbMackinder became a prominentimperialist and one of the found-ing fathers of Geopolitics. In 1904he published “The GeographicalPivot of History”, the key paper ofthe so-called heartland theory inwhich he extended the scope ofgeopolitical analysis to encompassthe entire globe (Blouet 2004,Venier 2004). In 1903 Mackinderleft Oxford and became director ofthe London School of Economics

until 1908 before he was elected toParliament in 1910 where he con-centrated on promoting the causeof imperial unity.

Apart from their commonscientific background in geogra-phy, Hans Meyer and HalfordMackinder were imperial subjectsand resolute supporters of colonialrule and expansion. Their moun-taineering feats were exploited toclaim territorial seizure in thename of British and Germanspheres of influence in East Africa.In this context both mountainascents were loaded with symbolicmeaning of colonial supremacyand pre-eminence. Consequentlyin the context of decolonization,the summit of Kilimanjaro was re-named Uhuru Peak (Uhuru means‘Freedom’ in Swahili) as a repre-sentative act by Julius Nyererewho served as the first president ofTanganyika (which became Tanza-nia in 1964 after it joined withZanzibar) after the country’sindependence in 1961. SimilarlyMount Kenya became a powerfulsymbol for the anti-colonialenthusiasm which united Kenyansbehind their national leader JomoKenyatta who became the firstprime minister and president ofKenya from 1963 until 1978.Kenyatta had published his thesisin social anthropology entitled“Facing Mount Kenya” in 1938.

Corresponding to this shift fromcolonial to anti-colonial symbolicfunctions of both mountains, therehas been a parallel shift in themeaning ascribed to its glaciers aswell. Whereas the tropical glaciersof Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenyaserved as symbols contradictingthe prevailing geographical (and literary) imagination ofAfrican landscapes at the middleof the 19th century, the contem-porary discussion extends thecharacterisation of these glaciersas anatopisms which may dis-appear anytime.

African icecaps as ’endangered species’The 20th century witnessed theevolution of a changing symbolicmeaning of Africa’s highest moun-



Photo 4b: The summit of Kibo from the south (4,250 m), 31 December 2008

Photo 4a: The summit of Kibo from the south (4,250 m); December 1912

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tains as icons of climate change.The rapidly retreating icecaps ofKilimanjaro and Mount Kenyaespecially received internationalattention and became a powerfulrepresentation of global warming.While Hemingway’s prominent“Snows of Kilimanjaro” and theequatorial glaciers of MountKenya are steadily vanishing intothin air, a global discourse aboutglacier retreat and possible mea-sures to save glacier sceneriesarose which has been portrayed asthe “endangered glacier narrative”(Carey 2007, p. 499).

A first account of glacier reces-sion atop Kilimanjaro was given by Meyer (1890), who mapped sev-eral glacial notches on the westerncrater rim. Since the earliest de-tailed map showing the glacierextent in 1912 (Klute 1920), Kili-manjaro has lost about 80 % of itsice coverage in the 20th century(Hastenrath and Greischar 1997,p. 455; Thompson et al. 2002, p. 590; Photos 4 a, b). The Ameri-can glaciologist Lonnie Thompson,who became prominent as a pio-neer in alpine ice coring expedi-tions worldwide, found that theglaciers on Kilimanjaro are about11,700 years old. He predicts thatif climatic conditions of the pastdecades continue, the remainingice fields will disappear between2015 and 2020 which in turn leadsto critical water shortage for localpopulations (Thompson et al.2002, p. 593).

Whereas Thompson and his co-authors solely attribute theglacier retreat to increased airtemperatures as a result of globalwarming, more recent research hasemphasized the importance ofchanges in moisture-related cli-mate parameters which have con-tributed to atmospheric drying, re-duced cloud cover and increasedsolar radiation (Kaser et al. 2004,p. 331). According to the investi-gations by the Innsbruck-basedworking group of Georg Kaser, therelatively small glaciers of Kili-manjaro do not contribute signifi-cantly to the water resources inthe surrounding lowlands as mostof the glacier ablation goes straightinto the atmosphere through subli-

mation (Mölg et al. 2008, p. 177).Based on climate modeling theplateau glacier atop Kibo will dis-appear by the mid-21st century(Kaser et al. 2004, p. 337). Even ifthe general trend of glacier retreaton Kilimanjaro remains undisput-

ed, the demise of “The Snows ofKilimanjaro” will continue to be ofgreat scientific and public concern.

Mount Kenya appears to be thetropical mountain with the mostextensive and detailed documenta-tion of ice shrinkage over the last


Photo 5a: Upper part of the Lewis Glacier with twin peaks of Nelion (right) and Batian (left); May 1934

Photo 5b: Upper part of the Lewis Glacier with twin peaks of Nelion (right) and Batian (left); 11 February 2009

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century (Hastenrath 2005, p. 120;2008). The earliest map of MountKenya’s glaciers was presented byMackinder (1900). In 1934 Lewisglacier, the largest glacier of themassif, was mapped by Troll andWien (1949) using terrestrial pho-togrammetry. Together with ErwinSchneider’s excellent map of thesummit group and the glaciers atthe scale of 1:10,000 (Schneider1964), a number of valuable base-line surveys were available for thepurpose of monitoring glacier re-treat. Between 1899 and 2004 thetotal ice coverage of Mount Kenyahas been drastically reduced toapproximately 16 %, and eightsmaller glaciers have completelydisappeared over the last century(Hastenrath 2005, p. 122; Photos5 a, b). Unlike the glaciers of Kili-manjaro, those of Mount Kenyaare to some extent exposed todirect solar radiation while othersare located in shaded positions.

Against the background of theglobal climate change debate,Africa’s highest mountains wererediscovered and their vanishingglaciers became a prominent re-search object for Western science.In the context of these darkeningpeaks one can perceive a transfor-mation of glaciers into “scientificlaboratories” as part of the“endangered glacier narrative”(Carey 2007, p. 520).

ConclusionTaking into account the diverseperspectives of discovery and re-discovery over the past 120 years,Africa’s highest mountains wereloaded with different symbolicmeanings. The representationalfunctions attributed to the moun-tains range from the doctrine ofimperial conquest and supremacyin the exploratory phase over thehope for freedom and indepen-dence during the phase of decolo-nization in the 1960s to the globalicon of “darkening peaks” at theturn of the millennium. Mainlydue to their physical appearanceand scenery, Kilimanjaro andMount Kenya have become majordestinations for internationalmountain tourists in the course of

the past decades. The people inthe surrounding lowlands, theKikuyu on Mount Kenya and theChagga of Kilimanjaro, are mostlyperceived as porters or mountainguides. Although Uhuru Peakrefers to the people, both moun-tains often appear as peaks with-out locals. Throughout this periodone can detect a persistent asym-metry between various externalactors on the one hand and mostlyneglected local people on theother. ■

AcknowledgementsField visits were possible in the context of theproject “Semi-arid areas in transition: Liveli-hood security, socio-ecological variability andthe role of development interventions in EastAfrica” funded by the Volkswagen Foundation.

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Professor Dr. Marcus NüsserSouth Asia Institute, Department of Geogra-phy, University of Heidelberg, Im NeuenheimerFeld 330, 69120 Heidelberg / [email protected]

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