JudaismJudaism

Chapter 8Chapter 8

Judaism Learning Objectives (1)Judaism Learning Objectives (1)

Comprehend the concepts/ terms Understand and explain the main beliefs/ teachings Understand and explain the practices Understand historical development of Judaism with

the cultural, political, and social contexts and how foreign influences impacted the religion

Be able to explain the nature and goals of this relig. Develop an appreciation for the contributions this

religion made to history of thought, religion, etc.

Judaism Learning Objectives (2)Judaism Learning Objectives (2)

Know, identify, comprehend, and explain the following:

The theistic classification of this religion Its concepts and thought patterns The countries where this religion

formed/developed Its origin, its founders & his teachings, the story The main beliefs and practices The main sacred texts and teachings t The main divisions/ sects/ Branches Judaism today and its festivals

The Discovery of Judaism…The Discovery of Judaism…

Begins Now…

Judaism: Judaism: Quote of the DayQuote of the Day

“Here, O Israel: the LORD our God, the LORD is one!” Deut. 6:4 (NKJV)

Judaism Judaism Terms/ Concepts and FiguresTerms/ Concepts and Figures

Torah Tanak Talmud Mishnah Exodus Ten Commandments YHWH/Yahweh Israel Levitical Feasts Abraham Moses David Solomon

Ezra Priest Prophet Rabbi 722 B.C.E. 586 B.C.E. 70 C.E. Sadducees Pharisees Essenes Apocalyptic Messiah/ messianic Diaspora Biblical Judaism Rabbinic Judaism Zealots Gentiles Hasidism Orthodox Conservative Reform Kabbalism Kosher Holy Days Zionism Anti-Semitism Holocaust

Defining Judaism (1):Defining Judaism (1): Webster’s Collegiate New NinthWebster’s Collegiate New Ninth

1. A religion developed among the ancient Hebrews & characterized by belief in one transcendent God who has revealed himself to Abraham, Moses, & the prophets, & by religious life in accordance with Scriptures & rabbinic traditions

2. Conformity to Jewish rites, ceremonies, & practices

3. The cultural, social, & religious beliefs & practices of the Jews

4. The Jewish people

Defining Judaism (2)Defining Judaism (2)

Judaism: a religion and a culture“Jew”: used in ethnic (physical

descendency) cultural, and religious senses

Clearing the confusion: proposeJudaica: Jewish things/ culture“Judaism”: the religionBut what about “Jew”?

Defining “Israel”Defining “Israel”

Israel – ethnic sense (descendents of the 12 tribes of Israel)

Israel – national/ political senseIsrael – religious/ spiritual sense

Judaism’s Main BeliefsJudaism’s Main BeliefsHighlightedHighlighted

God is OneGod made a covenant with His

Hebrew peopleGod is active in history and the

Tanak recounts the sacred historyGod has spoken to His people

directly through prophets especially noteworthy, Moses

The Story of Judaism (1):The Story of Judaism (1):The Beginning: the CreationThe Beginning: the Creation

The Story of the Creation (based on the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament)

“In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth…” (Gen. 1:1)

Early Genesis

The First/ Proto/ Archetypal Stories/ Myths Creation of the heavens and earth (ch. 1 – 2:4) Creation of Man and Garden of Eden (ch. 2)

Adam and Eve and Fall into Sin (ch. 3) Cain and Abel (ch. 4) Noah and the Flood (chs. 6—9) Tower of Babel (ch. 11)

The Story of Judaism (2):The Story of Judaism (2):The Patriarch AbrahamThe Patriarch Abraham

Beginning in Gen. ch. 12: the Story of Abraham

Abram of Ur of Mesopotamia:God’s Call to him to separate from his peoples

God’s promises to Abram God sends Abram to Canaan Later God changes his name to

Abraham

Abraham’s JourneyAbraham’s Journey

The Story of Judaism (3):The Story of Judaism (3):Ishmael and IsaacIshmael and Isaac

Abraham’s 1st son was thru Hagar, the servant of Abraham’s wife Sarai

Later, at the age of 90, Sarai conceives and gives birth to Isaac (“laughter”)

When Isaac is a teenager, Sarai demands that Hagar and Isaac be banished from them and his inheritance

The Story of Judaism (4):The Story of Judaism (4):Isaac, Jacob, and 12 Sons of IsraelIsaac, Jacob, and 12 Sons of Israel

Isaac begets JacobJacob, as a young man, wrestles

with an angel who changes Jacob’s name to “Israel”

Israel then has twelve sons who basically become the Twelve Tribes of Israel

The Story of Judaism (5):The Story of Judaism (5):From the Patriarchs to MosesFrom the Patriarchs to Moses

Jacob’s extended family of 70 migrate to Egypt during draught and remain there

Descendents of Israel are enslaved by Pharaoh Moses comes on the seen, flees Egypt for

killing an Egyptian and while in the wilderness, God calls him to return to Egypt to “set My people free”

The Story of Judaism (6):The Story of Judaism (6):The PassoverThe Passover

Moses, with his brother Aaron, return to Egypt and go to Pharaoh, “Let my people go,” and God sends many plagues before Pharaoh gives in, the last plague: death of the firstborn

The Israelites celebrate the first Passover on that last night in Egypt, the night of their deliverance from bondage to Egypt

Then Moses leads the children of Israel out of Egypt into freedom

The Passover has been celebrated since in Judaism, a formative sacred event

The Story of Judaism (7): The ExodusThe Story of Judaism (7): The Exodus The pharaoh releases the Israelites, and they make a

mass exodus. Moses leads them to Mt. Sinai where he receives the

Torah of God, even the Law, which is the 2nd defining event in the formation of Judaism.

The Story of Judaism (8):The Story of Judaism (8): The Exodus, highlighted by HopfeThe Exodus, highlighted by Hopfe

Hopfe & Woodward textbook states: The Exodus (includes the Passover) is the most important event in Judaism

The events and characters of the Exodus became the heart and soul of the Jewish people

God acted to save his chosen people, the Israelites, miraculously delivering them from slavery from the most powerful nation in the world at that time

The Story of Judaism (9):The Story of Judaism (9): The Sinai EventThe Sinai Event

At Mt. Sinai, Moses received the Law of God for the Israelites.

Jewish tradition is that the Torah, is the Law Moses received from Mt. Sinai, and that Moses wrote these first five books of the Hebrew Scriptures (the 1st 5 books of the Bible)

This legal material of the Law became the most important material for Judaism

The Ten Commandments etched on stone tablets

Two Main Defining Events of Judaism Recapped

The Passover and Exodus/ Deliverance from Egyptian Slavery

The Receiving of the Torah from Mt. Sinai

The Story of Judaism (10):The Story of Judaism (10):The Wilderness Wanderings The Wilderness Wanderings

The Israelites wandered in the wilderness for 40 years before entering the promised Land of Canaan

The Wilderness Wanderings The Wilderness Wanderings encampment below Mt. Sinai Ark of Covenant in the encampment below Mt. Sinai Ark of Covenant in the Tabernacle Tabernacle

The Story of Judaism (11):The Story of Judaism (11):The Ages of the Conquest, the Judges The Ages of the Conquest, the Judges

and Monarchiesand Monarchies The Israelite Conquest of Canaan 200-400 year period of Israel (confederated

tribes) being ruled by Judges. United monarchy period under kings Saul,

David (1000 BCE), then Solomon Divided monarchy from about 921 B.C.E. to

586 B.C.E. Northern kingdom of Israel was destroyed by

the Assyrians in 722 B.C.E. Judah was destroyed in 586 B.C.E. by the

Babylonians

The Story of Judaism (12):The Story of Judaism (12):Destruction of 1Destruction of 1stst Temple, Babylonian Temple, Babylonian

Exile, and the 2Exile, and the 2ndnd Temple Temple Solomon’s Temple destroyed in 586 by the

Babylonians The Jewish exile (“captivity”) in Babylonian

exile (for 70 years accord to the Bible) Persian king Cyrus Edict of Restoration allowed

the Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt after

under Nehemiah after 537, the “Second” Temple

The “Second” Temple, after King Herod adorned it was destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E.

The Making of the Hebrew ScripturesThe Making of the Hebrew Scriptures towards Canonizationtowards Canonization

Most of the Hebrew Scriptures written by end of Babylonian exile, end of 6th cent. B.C.E.

Ezra and other priests edited, redacted into the final form in the 5th cent. B.C.E.

Books of Daniel and final compiling of Psalms in the 2nd cent. B.C.E.

All these books make up Hebrew Scriptures, the Tanak (equivalent to the “Old Testament” in the Bible)

Tanak contains the 3 main divisions: Torah, The Prophets, and the Writings

The Religion of Biblical Judaism (1)The Religion of Biblical Judaism (1)

inin BCE Days and up to 70 C.E.BCE Days and up to 70 C.E.

Includes the Religion of the ancient Israelites, also called the Faith of YHWH

Sabbath-keeping Animal sacrifices and offerings by the

priests at the Tabernacle and latter Jerusalem Temple, and offerings of the people.

Office (role) of the Prophets Singing and keeping of the 7 Levitical

Festivals and the beginning of the keeping of the Torah

The Religion of Biblical Judaism (2)The Religion of Biblical Judaism (2) inin BCE Days and up to 70 C.E.BCE Days and up to 70 C.E.

Worshipping YHWH & living in covenant with God through:

Circumcision Offerings & sacrifices at tabernacle & later

the temple in Jerusalem Sabbath-keeping Moon festivals and Levitical Feasts Kosher-keeping based on Torah laws Prayers Singing by Levitical priests

Institutions of Biblical Judaism Institutions of Biblical Judaism BCE Days:BCE Days:

Levitical Priesthood

Ark of the Covenant

Jerusalem Temple

The Intertestamental PeriodThe Intertestamental PeriodHistorical empires: Persian, Greek,

Parthian, and Roman Roughly “400 Silent Years” Josephus,

1st cent. C.E. Jewish historian Alexander the Great’s conquest of

Israel (4th cent. B.C.E.) Maccabean Revolt and Hasmonean

Dynasty (2nd cent.-63 B.C.E.) Rise of Apocalyptic literature and

messianic prophecies and expectation

Sects of JudaismSects of Judaism22ndnd. Cent. B.C.E. to 70 C.E.. Cent. B.C.E. to 70 C.E.

Developed in Seleucid Pd. 2Developed in Seleucid Pd. 2ndnd cent.BCEcent.BCE

Sadducees, Pharisees, and EssenesSadducees, Pharisees, and EssenesSanhedrin was the high Jewish

ruling Council in Jerusalem

The Apocalyptic and Messianic The Apocalyptic and Messianic Beliefs in focusBeliefs in focus

Apocalyptic literature became very popular by Jews in Palestine under the oppressive Seleucid Greek rule

Messiah would come to bring the evil times to an end and establish a reign of peace

Messianic age would be heralded by a period of great oppression and wickedness

1st cent. C.E. many Jews believed that age had come under the Roman oppression

Jesus the “Christ” Heb. Messiah was believed by some to be the promised Messiah

The Destruction of the 2The Destruction of the 2ndnd Temple and Temple and Jerusalem in 70 C.E.Jerusalem in 70 C.E.

The Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Jewish temple in 70 C.E., and this put a permanent end to the Jewish sacrificial system. Judaism was fundamentally changed from daily animal sacrifices to daily prayers.

Age of Biblical Judaism Ends

Age of Biblical Judaism comes to end at the end of the 1st cent. C.E. with the final canonization of the Tanak

A new age arises…

Rabbinic Rabbinic Judaism Judaism (1)(1)

No Temple = No animal sacrifices and no priesthood = a MAJOR change in this religion

Shifted to the study of Torah and prayer revolving around the Torah

Weekly observance of the Sabbath continued

Gathered in synagogues for worship and prayer

Office of priest replaced by the office of Rabbis as the main religious leaders.

The Temple’s permanent destruction made this change permanent.

Rabbinic Rabbinic Judaism Judaism (2)(2)

Rabbinic Judaism develops from the late 1st-4th centuries C.E, coming mainly out of the Pharisee sect

The Mishnah (219 C.E.) the “Oral Torah” The Talmud (499 C.E.) the “Oral Torah”

and commentaries, legal arguments, etc. the Torah is the voice of God, the “king” of

this religion

Rabbinic Judaism and Christianity Rabbinic Judaism and Christianity Part their WaysPart their Ways

The first Christians, who were Jews, believed that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah (which “Christ” means), but those who remained of the faith of Judaism did not accept this belief, and so this is the basic difference between Judaism & Christianity. Their ways parted from early on and Judaism developed into Rabbinic Judaism which did not emphasize the Prophetic books of the Tanak but the Torah whereas early Christians considered all the Tanak Scriptures as equally divinely inspired and saw Jesus through and through them

An Overview/Review of Judaism An Overview/Review of Judaism from B.C.E. times to Rabbinic Era:from B.C.E. times to Rabbinic Era:

Type/Class: Monotheism Founders: Moses, and Ezra (latter two

are the main founders) Sacred Texts: Torah (&Tanak) & Talmud Places: Canaan/Israel and Diaspora BCE times: Cult center at tabernacle then

temple in Jerusalem with offerings & animal sacrifices

Post 70 C.E. times: Torah readings & prayers in synagogues

Main Spiritual Center: Jerusalem

Religious Institutions and Offices:Religious Institutions and Offices:Intertestamental Pd. to 70 C.E. (2)Intertestamental Pd. to 70 C.E. (2)

Post-Babylonian Captivity till 70 C.E. Pharisees and Sadducees and Scribes

together made up the religious leaders and professionals in addition to the priests

The Sanhedrin was the high Jewish Ruling Authority/Council in Jerusalem from 2nd cent. B.C.E. to 70 C.E. made up of Pharisees and Sadducees

The Synagogue (from Gk. “assembly”), the main institution since 70 C.E.

Religious Institutions and Offices: Religious Institutions and Offices: Rabbinic AgeRabbinic Age

1st Cent. C.E. to the present: The Synagogue The Rabbi: Literally means “my master,” also means

“teacher” or “great learned one.” With the temple destroyed, priests were no longer needed. The Torah was established as the voice of God, so the Jewish communities needed someone to spend time studying the Scriptures and teaching the people. They are also congregational and worship leaders, but in modern Judaism, a lay person can also lead worship.

The Sacred Texts (in review)The Sacred Texts (in review)

Torah – The “Law of Moses”, Pentateuch (1st 5 books of the Bible/Old Testament) (The Hebrew Scriptures: see Tanak below) Mishnah: (legal commentary): 2nd cent. C.E. Talmud: (oral tradition, rabbinic teachings,

etc.) compiled 5th cent. C.E. (Palestinian) and Babylonian Talmud 600-1000 C.E.

The Sacred Texts:The Sacred Texts:The Tanak acronymThe Tanak acronym

Tanak: acronym: T = Torah, N = Nevi’im, the “Prophets,” & K = Kethi’vim, “Writings” (wisdom lit. and the Psalms, etc.Together, all these writings make up the Hebrew

Scriptures corresponding to the Old Testament of the Bible. They were all compiled by 3rd cent. B.C.E. by time when the Tanak was first translated into Greek, known as the Septuagint, in Alexandria, Egypt.

Tanak formally canonized in1st cent. B.C.E./C.E.

Judaism’ Main Beliefs OverviewJudaism’ Main Beliefs Overview God, the Creator of all, is one God has covenanted with the Jewish

People God gave the Torah including His Law on

Mt. Sinai to Moses Moses is the greatest prophet God works in history God is holy and is the Judge of All Human beings sin, are corruptible, but

God is merciful and forgives Heaven & Hell was also a prominent belief

in the 1st cent. CE, but not believed by many liberal Jews such as in Reformed Judaism today

Judaism: Main PracticesJudaism: Main Practices Rabbinic to Modern Period Rabbinic to Modern Period

Worshiping God & living in the covenantal relationship & life through:

Sabbath-Keeping Synagogue-attending Torah study Prayer Jewish Festivals (compare: Levitical Feasts) Circumcision, Bar & Bat-Mitzvahs (Puberty

Rite of Passage Kosher Dietary laws

Additional Jewish Faith PracticesAdditional Jewish Faith Practices

Mizzuzahs-small boxes w/tiny Torah scripture excerpts mounted on door post of home, touching in when going out or coming in for blessing (basis is in Torah, Deut. Ch. 6)

T’fillin and Phylacteries-(fr. Gk. For amulet) sm. Leather boxes w/ tiny Torah scrolls strapped to forehead & arms-Orthodox practice

Prayer: at the Wailing Wall, the most sacred place for Judaism in the world.

Judaism in Medieval Times (1)Judaism in Medieval Times (1) After the rise of Islam in the 7th cent, Arab

Muslim conquerors exploded out of Arabia. Jews living in Palestine/Israel, Egypt, North Africa, Turkey, Babylon, and Spain came under the influence of Muslim rulers. Muslims treated the Jews and Christians better than non-Muslims: they considered their Faiths to be God-given, they were not polytheists, and they had sacred books. A golden age followed with Baghdad becoming the center of Jewish religious authority, but it did not last long when the taxes levied them increased, and the center of Jewish authority shifted all the way to Spain.

Judaism in Medieval Times (2)Judaism in Medieval Times (2) The greatest figure in Spanish Judaism

was Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, 1135-1204) writing a 14 volume summary on the laws of the Talmud and other works.

This age also witnessed the violent time of the Crusades, European Christians going to the Holy Land to take it back from the Muslims who they viewed at that time as “infidels.” Christians sacked Jerusalem in 1099

Judaism in Medieval Times (3)Judaism in Medieval Times (3)

In the Medieval times, the 3 main branches of Judaism in the modern era had not yet formed, but they were in the development stage. One of these groups:Karaites: a Jewish group who believed in the divine authority of all the Hebrew Scriptures, not just the Torah, and they denied the authority of the Talmud. They tried to live exclusively by the rules of the Hebrew Bible.

Jewish Mysticism and the Kabbalah

Jewish mysticism is as old as Judaism. Elements of the occult in Judaism found in the Bible, the Talmud, and in the writings of many leading figures; concern for angels, demons, magical incantations, charms, witches, ghouls, interpretation of dreams, date of the coming Messiah, numerology, have all been lumped under the term Kabbalah (tradition). Codification of these elements prob. Began in Babylon 500-900 C.E. The outstanding book from this period is the Sefer HaZohar (Book of Splendor), or just Zohar. It also teaches that evil does not exist. It is but the negative side of good.

Jews in Europe, Counter Reformation, and Ghettos

Jews were living throughout Europe in the Middle Ages and up to Modern Times

In the Counter-Reformation efforts of the Rom. Catholic Church, they forced Jews to live in confined Ghettos, walled in, and with curfews, and they were often in the poorest sections of the city.

The 4th Lateran Council (Vatican) in 1216 decreed that Jews should wear a yellow badge

Pogroms, night attacks were done on Jews in various cities including Poland by the predominate Christian population

Judaism in Modern Times (1)Judaism in Modern Times (1)Responses to Modernity

Because of the misery of Jews living in the ghettos, there arose a strong messianic hope

Shabbatai Zevi, a charismatic figure in the 17th cent. gathered a band of disciples who followed him around the Middle East. He declared himself to be the Messiah, & this raised Jewish hopes. But they entered Constantinople to dethrone the sultan. Turkish rulers imprisoned him & gave him the choice of conversion to Islam or death. He converted, and this bitterly crushed the hopes of Jews everywhere

Judaism in Modern Times (2):Judaism in Modern Times (2):Hasidic & ModernityHasidic & Modernity

Mendelsohn, 1729- Germany, learned German, wrote essays in German gaining notoriety in Germany

Baal Shem Tov, (Israel ben Eliazer) Poland. Baal Shem Tov-founder of the Hasidic movement, strict Orthodox, located mostly in Eastern Europe

Judaism in Modern Times (3)Judaism in Modern Times (3)The Reformed branch of JudaismThe Reformed branch of Judaism

Following Mendelssohn’s lead on entering European society, in 1843, a group of German Jews met who felt some of the historical practices were out of place. They made these declarations:

There is a continuation in the development of Judaism,

The Talmud has no authority for the modern Jew We seek no Messiah, and we know no homeland

but the land of our birth. They called their synagogues “temples” to “prove” the point that they don’t look to Jerusalem’s ancient temple (e.g. being rebuilt)

Four Branches of Modern Four Branches of Modern JudaismJudaism

– Hasidic– Orthodox– Conservative– Reformed

Modern Zionism

Founder: Theodore Hertzl Main Idea: Jews having their own homeland Impetus for the creating the modern state

of Israel, 1948 Some Jewish and Christian believers

believed it was a part of biblical prophecy fulfillment

Hebrew was re-established as a spoken language among Jews

Holy Days/ FestivalsHoly Days/ Festivals(compare w/ Levitical Feasts)(compare w/ Levitical Feasts)

Sabbath (weekly, Saturday, day of rest) Passover (Pesach)-most holy, important Feast of Weeks (Shavuot)-harvest festival New Year (Rosh Hashanah) Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)-most holy Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot)-joyous celeb. Feast of Dedication (Chanukah) of temple Feast of Lots (Purim) Bar/Bat Mitzvah-Rite of passage to

adulthood

Persecutions and HolocaustPersecutions and Holocaust

Jews have been persecuted, killed, and attempted annihilation by adversaries throughout most of their history (enslaved by the ancient Egyptians, Haman of Persia attempted to annihilate them (Bk of Esther), Romans killed thousands of them, many Christians thru the Middle Ages persecuted them, then the great diabolical systematic extermination of Jews by the Nazi Germans in the 20th cent.

The Wailing Wall Most holy place

for Judaism today (esp. since their access from the 1967 war): the Wailing Wall, the western wall to Herod’s retaining wall for the Temple Mount

Judaism TodayJudaism Today

14 million Jewish peopleRemembering and understanding

the HolocaustThe State of Israel: A Homeland

realized; Zionism Fulfilled?Living in many parts of the world

among Gentiles (the Diaspora)

An Overview:An Overview:Historical Outline (1)Historical Outline (1)

2000 B.C.E. Abraham’s Call and Sojourn 1400/1200 B.C.E. Moses and the Exodus

from Egypt and Wilderness Wonderings 1200-1000 B.C.E. Time of Israel’s Tribal

Confederacy and the Judges 1000-722 B.C.E. Monarchy of Israel/Judah 722 B.C.E. Destruction of Northern

Kingdom of Israel by Assyrians

Historical Outline (2)Historical Outline (2)

721-586 B.C.E. Kingdom of Judah 586 B.C.E. Babylonian Kingdom destroys

Judah and Jerusalem including Solomonic Temple

721, 586 B.C.E., & 70 C.E: The Diaspora(s)/Dispersion 586-520 B.C.E. Babylonian Captivity 520-400 B.C.E. Judah returns, 2nd Temple

built, subject to Persian empire 1200-400 B.C.E. Period in which Torah

compiled (& Hebrew Scriptures-Tanak)

Historical Outline (3)Historical Outline (3)

400 B.C.E.-1 C.E. “400 Silent Years” no prophets (Ref: Josephus)

3rd-2nd centuries B.C.E. Hasmonean Period 70 C.E. Destruction of the 2nd Temple

and Jerusalem by the Romans 70 C.E. Period of Rabbinic Judaism begins

and continues to the present 219 C.E. Completion of the Mishnah 499 C.E. Completion of the Talmud

Summary of Main BeliefsSummary of Main Beliefs Belief in one God, YHWH, Creator of all God chose & covenanted w/ the Jewish people God gave the Torah to Moses-its Divine Law God spoke through the Hebrew prophets Strong belief in good/evil and right/wrong based

on the Torah & accentuated by the prophets Satan is the adversary & similarly, demons God is Judge who will judge all on the Last Day Heaven is gained by the keeping of the Torah

(Law and instructions) of God Some believe in a resurrection and some do not Most Jews today are no longer looking for a

Messiah

Judaism Review (1)Judaism Review (1)

About 4000 years of history It has undergone tremendous change It has adapted as its people have lived

in different parts of the world, dispersed It is diverse while yet maintaining a

distinct “Jewish” identity It is a religion AND a culture and also

has a distinct component of a race (physical descendency)

Judaism Review (2)Judaism Review (2)

The origin and development of Judaism and its key founders/leaders

How history is understood & God’s active role in historyGod’s covenant with the Hebrews

The main historical periods and key events The sacred scriptures The main beliefs The main practices The main branches/divisions

Judaism DiscussionJudaism Discussion Distinguish Judaism as a religion from its ethnicity

identify and cultural practices Explain the role of biblical priests and prophets

and why they are no more in Rabbinic Judaism What were the main historical factors in shaping

Judaism? What role did the synagogue play in dispersed

Judaism? Why are some synagogues called temples?

Extrapolate/ explain how Judaism provided a moral foundation for Western culture

What do you think are some of Judaism’s greatest contributions to religion and civilization?

What beliefs appears to have been influenced by Zoroastrianism?