* Urban culture, architecture, housing, master-builders

* The Bazaar-core of the town

1l The mosque complex-nucleus of the settlement

*Christian elements in Islamic architecture-'Islamic.influence in Christian architecture

* Sarajevo, Mostar... heritage destroyed in the 1992-94 war

'"Reconstruction and preservation

The colourful cultural life nurtured in Bosnia andHercegovina for centuries has embellished this land

with marvelous structures. Each of its differentcommunities which blended together have contributed

to the creation of a harmoniously diversified culture.Mosques, churches, and synagogues, houses, schools,

and markets of Bosnia- and Hercegovina symbolizethe spirit of multicultural unity which has been the

essence of the Bosnian identity.

This architecture represents an undeniably distinctcultural identity. Its ruins will continue to speak for

themselves until reconstruction.

. Ekmeleddin ihsanoglu

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTUREIN BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA

AMIR PASle

Foreword byEkmeleddin iHSANOGLU

ORGANISATION OF THE ISLAMIC CONFERENCERESEARCH CENTRE FOR ISLAMIC HISTORY, ART, AND CULTURE

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTUREIN BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA

AMIR PASIC

Translated byMidhat Ridjanovi6

Foreword byEkmeleddin lhsanoqlu

Istanbul / 1994

STUDIES ON THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA, NO.2PC/94-2

ISBN 92-9063-050-7

Organisation ofthe Islamic Conference (OIC)Research Centre for Islamic History, Art, and Culture (IRCICA)

Location: Yildiz Sarayi, Seyir Kosku Barbaros Bulvan Besiktas, istanbul, TurkiyeMailing address: P.O. Box 24, Besiktas 80692, lstanbul-Turkiye

Printed at Ylldlz Matbaacihk A~. 1994

Cover design:Hatice PolatIndex and layout : Acar Tanlak

Transcription of Bosnian Words

A large number of Bosnian words appear in this book. They are either proper nouns(names of Bosnian places, persons, institutions, etc.) or common nouns used to de-note various aspects of the life-style specific to Bosnian Muslims, and as a rule loanwords from Turkish. Words of Arabic and Persian origin were also largely adopted intheir Turkish form.

All the Bosnian words in this book are written in the Latin alphabet of the Bosnian(Serbo-Croatian) language. The sound values of the letters correspond roughly tothose of other European languages. The sounds peculiar to Bosnian are explainedbelow.

Letter Pronounced approximately as the bold-faced letters in

Pasic, AmirIslamic architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina /by Amir Pasic; translated by

Mithat Ridjanovic; foreword bv Ekmeleddin lhsanozlu. - Istanbul: Research Centrefor Islamic History, Art, and Culture, 1994.

viii, 259 : ill.; 27.5 cm.-(Studies on the history and culture of Bosnia andHercegovina; no. 2) .

Bibliography: p.228-235.Includes index.ISBN 92-9063-050-7I.Architecture. Turkish-Bosnia and Hercegovina 2.Architecture, Islamic-Bosnia

and Hercegovina ' I. Ridjanovic, Midhat 11.lhsanoglu, Ekmel~ddin III.TitleIV.Series

720.94792

c

-c or cdz or djjljnjSZ

Englishcatschipjoyyesvalueonionshoemeasure

III

Turkishsatsac;okcarniyemekbilyeKonyaekerajans

FOREWORD

This book is about a centuries-old heritage now being gratuitouslydestroyed.

The colourful cultural life nurtured in Bosnia and Hercegovina for centurieshas embellished this land with marvelous structures. Each of its differentcommuntties which blended together have contributed to the creation of aharmoniously diversified culture. Mosques, churches, and synagogues,houses, schools, and markets of Bosnia and Herzegovina symbolize the spiritof multicultural unity which has been the essence of the Bosnian identity forcenturies. This spirit Or'llullticultural coexistence, kept intact from the 15thcentury onwards through different periods and under differentcircumstances in the history of Bosnia, is threatened today by a dreadful andiniquitous attack on the Bosnian nation and its cultural heritage.

The Serbian aggression struck a heavy blow to the Bosnian historicalheritage. In their monstrous policy of annihilation of the unique Bosniancharacter, Serbs, and lately Croats too, not only attacked the Bosnian peoplewith the most lethal weapons at their disposal but also subjected them to theworst kind of torture. From the beginning of the war in April 1992 until now,the massacre and mayhem of innocent people became more brutal day afterday. Cities, houses, monuments, and most of the architectural and literaryheritage of the country were turned to rubble. The atrocities perpetratedagainst the people of 'Bos n ia and Hercegovina have added a new tenn to thevocabulary of genocide and vandalism in their twentieth-century version:"ethnic cleansing", The outrageous plan of the aggressors is to "clean'! amajor part of the Bosnian territory and merge it with Serbia, which involvesthe annihilation of the Bosnian cultural identity by an "eradication of theculture", another inhuman policy devised by Serbs.

This genocide and eradication of culture are perpetrated on a land whereonce reigned an atmosphere of peaceful coexistence of communities ofdifferent ethnic. cultural, and religious origins. A system of rights and valuesbased on mutual respect between different communities was established inBosnia and Hercegovina as early as the fIfteen hundreds. Islam, introducedto Bosnia by Ottoman Turks in the 15th century, defended and preservedthe Christtan population and their property on this land. For centuries,communtties of Orthodox, Catholic. and Judaic faith lived togetherpeacefully with Muslims. under the Islamic principle which teaches thatthere is no enforcement in religion. Unfortunately, the aggressors' fanaticideas managed to sway milltons of people, and prevented those communitiesfrom carrying this ethic into the civilised world of the last decade of the 20thcentury. Furthermore, the world community has been quasi-indifferent tosuch flagrant and repeated violations of basic human rights in the middle ofEurope. In spite of persistent breaches of the right of the Bosnian people tolife. liberty, security, to freedom of religious belief and cultural identity, theworld powers and international organisations have adopted an utterly

v

insensitive attitude. Their indifference also threw serious doubts on theconcept of universal human rights, because if this concept is not workable inthe geographical context in which it originated, it is to be questioned whetherit can have any validity or applicability on a universal scale. Whilecontinuing its heroic struggle for survival, the Bosnian nation does not giveup the hope that the world will regain its moral sense and take action to stopthe aggression against its existence, its identity, and its territory.

This book is probably the first comprehensive review of the arts andarchitecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina published in the English language. Itis one of the products of a large-scale research project on the history andculture of Bosnia and Hercegovina which was undertaken by IRCICA soonafter the beginning of the war.

The Centre's first publication in this field was a study on the demographichistory of Bosnia and Hercegovina, by Dr. Adem Handzic. The present book,second in the series , resulted from extensive research carried out under thecoordination of the Bosnian architect and urban planner Dr. Amtr Paste, whojoined the Centre after the beginning of the war. This book holds a specialplace in this series of publications, because it is a record of indisputableevidences of the Bosnian national and cultural identity.

The centuries-old architecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina represents anunquestionable national existence and a distinct cultural identity. Its ruinswill continue to speak 'for themselves until reconstruction and prove thatsuch attempts as "ethnic cleansing" and "eradication of the culture" of theBosnian nation will never be possible.

Hoping wholeheartedly that the time for peace and reconstruction is not toofar away. I would Iike to express my appreciation to Dr. Amir Pasic for hisscholarly contribution to the right cause of his country. My special gratitudegoes to Professor Midhat Ridjanovic for the excellent translation and editingof the text. I would also like to thank my colleagues Zeynep Durukal andAcar Tanlak for their contributions in flnaltstng this publication, as well asthe staff of the Yildi z printing house.

Prof.Dr. Ekmeleddin ItisanoqluDirector General. IRCICAFebruary 1994

VI

CONTENTS

PrefaceChapter I IntroductionAn Ou tline of the History of Bosnia and Hercegovina (Medi eval Bosnia. Bosnia and Herce-govina a s an adm in is trative unit of the Ottoman State. Mu slims. post-Ottoman period)Chapter II Urban cultureCo mmo n e lements of Islamic c ityTh e or ig in a n d development of s everal cities (Fojn lca a n d Kresevo , Foca. Livno. Tr avnik.Banja Luka , S arajevo a n d Mostar) .Th e bazaar - the core of the townWa ter a n d the ci tyMahalas - residential m icro regionTh e mosque com p lex-the nucleus of the s ettlementChapter III ArchitectureMosque (space of the mosque. domed mosques. basic typ es of mosques. mosques withoutdomes. decoration of mo sque. the Karadjozbegova Mosque)Memorial a rc h itectu reEducatio nal fa ctlittes (mekteb, medresa , tekija )Co m m unal facilities (tr affi c n etwork. bridges. water supplies. hamam, clock-tower)Business facilities (hans a nd caravansaries. beztstans, shops and storehouses. dalre. mills.bakeries)Chapter IV HousingOrigin a n d dev elopment of the houseHouses in MostarFunctlonnal division of the hous eFurniture a ri d household eq u ipmen tInfluences a n d rela tionshipsOther kind of housing struc turesChapter V Buildings and BuildersMatertals a nd structuresBuilde rsChapter VI Decorative ArtsCa lligra phyOrnamen ta l Ar ts (book a r t . textile. em broide ries and carpets. wood-carving. metalhandiwork. stone decorations)Chapter VII Characteristics of the Islamic Architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina(Co nve r tlo n to [sl am. the Iexlcal Influence of Isl am. s ettlements and houses. Islamic e le-men ts in Ch r istia n a rch itectu re. intluences of pre-Ottoman period. Christian architecturalele men ts in mosques. C h ris tia n int1u ences in housing cons t ruction )Peculiarity of the house .Chapter VIII Preservation of Architectural Heritage in Bosnia and Hercegovina(Saraj evo. Mostar. con te m pora ry Islamic architecture. heritage destroyed in the 1992-93war. proposal for reconstruction and preservation.)Appendices1. List of Islamic monuments in Bosnia a nd Hercegovina2. List of destroyed Islamic monuments in Bosnia and Hercegovina3 . Bibliography4. List of illustration5. Glossary6 . Index of names

VII

Page1

4

13

2040434550

53707480

93103108116121127131135

141151

157

162

181196

199

209212226239242247

PREFACE

This book is a survey of the Is larnic cultural heritage in Bosnia and Hercegovina, es-pecially of its architecture, generally regarded as the main art form of Islamic civiliza-tion. Most extant books on Islamic architecture focus on public buildings withmoriurnenta l characteristics. The present monograph, however, airns to present inte-gral urban structures with different components and their interrelations.

Is lam appeared and developed "in a historically iInportant region, from which it spreadto thre e continents. For many centuries now it has been one of the most significantfa c tors influencing the s plritual and material development of nations across Asia ", Af-rica , a n d , to a lesser ex t e n t . Europe. particularly the Balkan lands of Bosnia-Herce-govina, Kosovo , and Macedonia. The rnajority of the people living in these lands inorigin. upbringing, and education relate closely to Is larnic culture and civilization,which may not be mirrored as much in religious practices as through a complexs p ir it u a l physiognomy with which every individual identifies hiInself.

Due to the large nurnber of Mus lims in Bosnia and Hercegovina and other regions ofthe Balka n peninsula , the influence of Is larnic culture is also evident in the non-Is-lamic e n vir on ru e rrt s of the area. as well as further beyond. This, therefore, requires astudy of the Is larnlc culture so that those elements of modern civilization that devel-oped under the influence of Is lam 111ay be better understood.

The town of IVIostar is described in greater detail because it can be used as an exam- ,pl e of the history of Bosnia and Hercegovina. The Is larnlc architecture and urbanculture of Mostar largely created in the period between the 16th and the 19th centu-ri es as an integral part of Ottoman culture. Most attention is devoted to housingunits, both because they represent the largest segment of the architectural heritageand because of their specific Bosnian characteristics , not encountered in other re-gions of the Ott0111an Empire. Mostar is compared with other important cities in "Bosnia-H ercegovina: Sarajevo , Banja Luka, Travnik . and Foca. Well-known structureswith Is larnic characteristics in other parts of Bosnia-Hercegovina are merrttoned , aswell.

The most unportarit fact to bear in mind about Bosnia and Hercegovina is that it washere that different ideologies , c u ltu res , and civilizations met or collided; here weretorn asunder great empires and religions , here was drawn the line marking the firsta n d 1110St tar-reaching division of Christianity into Orthodoxy and Catholicism.Equally important was the religious and cultural tolerance of the Ottomans . whichgave rise to numerous Christian and Jewish places of worship and other culturala ssets of inestiInable historical value.

IINTRODUCTION

Despite evident differences steuuning from social and national dlstinctioris , a uniqueIs larnic culture has developed which has for centuries defined the Is lamic people'sview of the world, moral and esthetic norrns , tradition, way of life. ideals. psychology.social institutions, and behavior. The Holy Qur'an is the book of Islam, the last of thecelestial religions. that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h).

The Arabian peninsula was the cradle of Islarn. Its southern parts depended onagriculture and trade.

This area was inhabited by peoples with an ancient culture based on different beliefs,custorns and rituals.

The North of the peninsula was characterized by vast deserts and oases. Peoples inthis area mainly lived on s tock- breeding that consisted of sheep and goats as well ascamels: thus they led a more modest life.

The holy Qaaba in the city of Mecca was built by Abraham. Since that time it wascircumambulated by Muslims during the pilgrimage.

Mecca also flourished as the most important center of trade and culture in thepeninsula.

The caravans of trade that were loaded here travelled to Syria, Yernen,and the city ofKufa.

linguistic and literary taste was very advanced in Mecca at the tirne when the Prophetemerged.

Is lamic belief had spread all over the peninsula and the life style began to be shapedby the Is lamic identity when Prophet Muhammad passed away in Mecca in 632 .

The Mus lim mujahids began to spread the lnessage of Islam from the North to theEast and West of the peninsula during the period of the Four Righteous Caliphs.

Is larn spread up to Morocco in the West, the walls of istanbul in the northwest, Trari- 'soxiana and northwestern India in the East during the first half century of the Hegira.

Various peoples with different languages, cultures, arts and social compositions livedin this 'w id e geographical area.

They influenced one another and ass umed a new identity by becoming Muslirns.They. however, also kept their own identities within the principles specified by Islam.

Thus. Is larnic Civilization carne into being and contributed greatly to the history ofhurnaruty.

Movernerits of culture. art and learning that emerged within this framework wereinf1uenced by the different identities of these peoples under the Is larnic principle oftawhid.

3

An Outline of the History of Bosnia and Hercegovina

The oldest setrlernerrts found on the territory of present-day Bosnia and Hercegovinadate back to the Paleolithic Age and represent the Mousterian culture.

They are located in central Bosnia.

Archeological finds indicate that. during the Neolithic Age . there were two groups ofs ettlemerits with different socio-cultural characteristics. one in the Bosnia river valleyand another in the valleys linked with the Neretva river.

There is also evidence of relatively large settlements in the Bronze Age. Two culturalgroups are known to have lived here during the Iron Age, starting from the middle ofthe 8th century B.C.: the Illyric group in the South and the Panonic group in theNorth.

Position of Bosnia and Hercegovina in Europe

Illyrians are the oldest ethnic group known to have lived in this territory. Differentsites dating from the Bronze and the Iron Ages, Le., fr0111 about 2 ,000 B.C. to the be-ginning of the Christian era, have provided arnple and varied archeological evidencefor students of European history and culture.

They also revealed the continuous contacts between Illyrians and the Greek colonieson the Adriatic coast during the last centuries before Christ, which left manyinteresting examples of cultural symbiosis. In the first centuries A.D ., the naturalwealth of the country attracted the Romans.

4

The struggle of the native Illyrians against the invading Romans was a protracted ag-oriy which lasted almost two centuries and culrninated in the definitive inclusion ofthis region in the Reman Empire.

Remains of Roman settlements, thermal baths, houses, temples, sculptures andartistically fashioned artifacts testify to the new level of civilization introduced byRoman legionaries and colonists and to the Romanized Illyrian population which setupon it the s tamp of its own spirit and traditions. In the early Middle Ages, the regionof today's Bosnia was a temporary settlement area for migrant cornmuruttes.

A variety of nations sojourned in the territory before moving on elsewhere. untilfinally the original population was replaced by a new one of Slavic origin.

Frorn the long-lasting process of symbiosis involving the cultural heritage of theindigenous and trnmigrant populations, a new Romano-Slavic entity emerged.

The tribal communitles gradually underwent transformations which led to the laterfeudal structures.

The name of medieval Bosnia was mentioned for the first time in the year 948 A.D. inthe book De administrando imperio by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VIIPorphyrogenitus .

5

Medieval Bosnia. The country's constitutional and socio-political integrity dates frornthe middle of the 12th century. At that time, several "ba n s" ruled in different parts ofBosnia. The rnost powerful ruler of the period was Ban Kulin (1180-1204), who madeBosnia a signifIcant factor in Balkan politics. Ban Kulin's 1189 Charter, preserved inthe St. Petersburg Academy of Arts and Science, is not only an important diplornaticdocurnent that deals with socio-political circurnstances of its time, but the oldestdocurnent written in a living. corrternporary, national language in the entire Slavicworld.

In the second part of the 14th century Bosnia became a kingdom. It was the mostpowerful Slav state in the Balkans, In 1377, Tvrtko I Kotromanic (1353-1391) carne tothe throne under the Hungarian influence , as the "King of the Serbs and Bosnia andthe Coastland". He and his successors laid clairn to the throne of the disintegratingS erbian Empire. Meanwhile, opposing this kingdom, in 1448, Stefan Vukcic tookpower in the southern part of country, and assumed the title "Herceg of St. Sava". Itwas frorn this title that the region of Hercegovina acquired its name.

Rel ations with the governrnents of neighboring countries played a significant role inthe mutual battles between feudal lords. Leaning to one side or another was a ployoften used in battles for property and other advantages.

The remains dating from the period between of the 12th and the 15th centuries in-clude sorne three hundred fortified towns and a number of palaces and churches.They show peripheral reflections of the Mediterranean and Central European Roman-esque and Gothic styles and , in certain cases, of Byzantine art.

FrOIn the religious viewpoint, medieval Bosnia was not unified. The so-called BosnianChurch" was the dominant religion of the time. There was also a sizable Catholic com-muriity as well as small groups of Orthodox along the left bank of the Drina river.

The political circurnstances were favorable for the Ottoman conquerors. The local feu-dal lords invited the Ottornans as "allies" in their mutual battles. Thus, in battlesfought in 1435 between the Kosaca's and the Pavlovic IS , the Ottomans sometimessupported one side and sometimes the other.

Vladislav, the Herceg's eldest son, pursued a policy similar to his father's and theTurks sometimes fought on his side, too . Such relations with Ottomans were charac-teristic for that time. The king of Naples, the Hungarians, and the Venetians also al -lied themselves with Ottomans occasionally if it served them in their battles againstthetr opponents.

1\ IYIH:' of d ua lis tic religion known a s Boq otntl, ortglnally a her esy d ertvered from Ch rts tla ru ty.

The aesthetic and artistic ideas of the religiously tolerant medieval Bosnian society are re-flected in the srnall number of illuminated manuscripts which have been preserved. Arich repository of those ideas, however , is to be found in the art of the stecak; medie-val tornbstones, sorne 70,000 of which are found, in clusters of varying numbers ,throughout the country. In their reliefs and inscriptions crudely carved in stone ismirrored the distinct and unique reality of life in the Bosnian valleys, on the periph-ery of the great European cultures.

Bosnia and Hercegovina as an administrative unit of the Ottoman State. A centurybefore conquering Bosnia, the Ottoman Turks "vis it ed " these territories for the firsttime. In the a uturnn of 1386 the Ottornans carne to these regions for the flrs t time andreached the Neretva ' river. Later they made other incursions. From then on, thestrings of almost all important political and milltary actions in this region were heldby the Ott0111an Sultan and his regiments stationed on its borders .

4

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HISTORICMAP

OF TIlE MEDIEVALBOSNIAN STATE

Map of medieval Bosnia

The medieval Bosnian state was gradually weakened by several factors which un-dermined its social structure and integrity, namely:

internal battles caused by opposing interests of individual feudal lords,constant changes in the size of the Bosnian state brought about by fluctuating po-wer of local lords and the central government, as well as by changmg relationswith neighboring states,lack of the shared national consciousness (frequently a feudal lord from one stateor e t h n ic tribe would join forces with one from another state or from an ethnicallydifferent tribe). .

6 7

Th e B",n i411 ~,., "nround 1606Borders or " nJ. b

- - - Bord... or the ~I., In 1718SllI'l1jcvo . The a:~'er or .he c)'lb'

Bosnia and Hercegovina as a part of the Ottoman State

In rnid-15th century Ottornan armies penetrated the territory of Bosnia. The BosnianKingdom fell in 1463. Several subdivisions were created as military and adrninistra-tive units (sa nclialc) of the Ottoman State. From 1463 to 1528, Ottornans and Hun-garians fought successive wars claiming parts of the territory. In 1580, Bosnia be-carne a beglerbeglulc. a province with the highest military and administrative rankwithin the provincial organization of the Ottornan State. Its first seat was In BanjaLuka, rnoving to Sarajevo in 1639. then to Travnik in 1697, and back to Sarajevo in1850. By 1463 the medieval feudal society of Bosnia was structurally destroyed. Aconsiderable proportion of former feudal lords, especially from the petty nobility, soonadapted to the Ottornan spahi-timar feudal system.

In introducing their rule the Ottomans acted in a way which did not disrupt the ear-lier socio-econornic establishrnent. Their policy was one of a conservative adjustmentto local conditions with the aim of gradually removing the pre-existing and Irrtroduc-illg the new Ottoman social order.

Every Christian could become a land-owner (spahija) if he was of noble origln andloyal to the State. Even mariy powerful Christian feudal lords became owners of largeestates and thus retained a great part of their heritage. If they converted to Is lam theyacquired the title of beg and were able to advance to the highest positions , includingthe position of Grand Vizier.

The largest part of the Bosnian population was Itving outside of the township areas. Itwas divided into two categories with regard to their dominant economic activity: land-tillers and livestock raisers. the former being mostly Muslims. the latter Christians.The basic unit of social structure of the livestock raisers was a form of extended fam-ily organized on a cooperative basis and known as the zaclruga. Each consisted of 20to 60 members, Iiving in a common houshold headed by an elder who represented hiscornrnunity before authorities. paid taxes, settled debts, and looked after the affairs ofthe cooperative in general.

8

These social institutions survived numerous rulers and their different systems ofadministration, from the Byzantine era through the Ottoman period until our ownday, keeping as its main characteristics an extraordinary sense of group loyalty and apermanent fear of urban civilization.

Followtng the Siege of Vienna in the period between 1683 and 1699, the borders ofthe Bosnian beylerbeylik were almost identical with those of present day Bosnia andHercegovina. The Ottoman State recognised the inherttarice rights of Bosnia's feudallords. Muslim lords In the region enjoyed considerable independence. This enabledthern to rise ill. open rebellion against reforms unposed from Istanbul In the 19thcentury and to seek Bosnian autonomy. The strongest expression of this rebellionwas the uprising by Captain Husein Gradascevic in 1831, which continued for yearsand was suppressed only in 1850.

During the period of Ottoman rule , the population of Bosnia gradually embraced Is-lam. This process created a basis for new cultural and civilizational developments ofan Islarnic and Middle-Eastern character. But here, arnidst medieval Bosnia's distinc-tive traditions, on the extreme periphery of the Ottornan state and in direct dailycontact with the Mediterranean and Central European world, emerged a most re-markable example of reconcilation and coexistence of peoples of different origins. Thestructure of this civilization, especially its urban part, assumed a peculiar Bosnian-Is lamlc character, which itself exhibited clear regional variations.

The religious pluralisrn of medieval Bosnia persisted to a certain extent. The BosnianChurch expired. while Catholicisrn was in the hands of Franciscans, who obtainedfrom Sultan Mehrnet II special guarantees allowing thern to carry out their work. Mostof the Orthodox land-owners adapted to the new feudal system, while the Church or-ganization itself recovered with the 1557 restoration of the Pee Patriarchate. OrthodoxSerb and Vlachs groups , s mall In number and clustered near the eastern border withSerbia cluring most of the Ottornan period at that time, later spread to western areas.

Muslims. Islam, the dominant religion of the Ottornan State, was very influential in so-cial. cultural, and economic life. Islam had appeared in Bosnia even before its con-quest by the "Ottomans. However , in the decades following the Ottoman conquest ofBosnia, Is lam became the most prominent spiritual dimenston in Bosnian life. Islamwas accepted by all social classes, from the peasantry to the aristocracy. The majorityof the Bosnian population adhered to Islarn. In this way, a particular group of peopleof Slavic ortgin and Islamic faith carne into being, This group differed fr0111 the "remaining population in its social, political, and econornic characteristics as well.

Contemporary studies have shown that the number of people of foreign origin livingamong Bosnian Mus lims was negligible. In the course of rnore than four centuries,Bosnian Muslims as a population group developed a culture of their own, incorporat-ing and assirnilating elements of both western and eastern civilization. Duriri.g thesecond half of the 16th century, Jewish refugees fr0111 Spain settled In Bosnia, espe-cially in Sarajevo, and developed a distinctive life style. in which most of their tradi-tlorial cultural and artistic elernents were well preserved. Throughout the Ottomanperiod , justice and tolerance "prevailed within this religiously cornplex community. inwhich people of different faiths were often close relatives. Ottomans showed an un-precedented and examplary tolerance towards various Christian denominations allthrough their centuries-long rule. Religious differences were to become grounds forpolitical manlpulation only at later times.

9

Post-Ottoman p e riod. Following a long period of decline of the Ottoman State, theEuropean powers decided at th e Congress of Berlin to have Austria-Hungary assume thea d minis t ra t ion of Bosnia and Hercegovina in 1878. This m a rked the end of over fource n t uries of Ottom a n rule and the beginning of new socio-economic relations in theregion. Bosnia was set on a path t owards Central European civilization. This orientationwas m arked by a n ew economic and administrative system, as well as by a m ore clear-cutreligious d ifferentiatio n within the Bosnian society.

c::::::J Serbl. nnd Montenegru 'III the wa" In 1876nBc:=:J E..'~pllrul(1n! of Serbin Atld Montenegro In 1878

UOllllht&Hcl7.cgovlnR In 1878BulDn,lo In 1878.~ 'Thrrf!onc'I whhln lhcOllumutl l lnlcc:=:J Tcrrilorlo'l within AtJ!lll roHuQgury after f878- - - State bord ers allcr the Congrc:M or Berlin in 1878- Botdct1 of Yugo,lnvla Me r 1945

Bosnia and Hercegovina as a part ofthe Austro-Hunqarian. monarchy

After World War 1, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes,later renamed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ("Yugoslavia", in fact, means the country ofSouth Slavs), a basis was created for the realization of a pan-Serbian hegemony aiming toachieve ethnic unity for Serbs and their dominant position among the South Slavs. Thisidea had been formulated much ear-lier, in 1844, in the formula "Serbs - together and eve-rywhere," launched in a secret document prepar-ed by the Serbian Minister of Internal M-fairs Ilija Garasanin and entitled "Nacertanije'' ( Plan).5

In the period between the two' World Wars Bosnia and Hercegovina was divided for theflrst time in its long history, which was a step towards the achievement of Serbian ideals.In order to destroy the identity of the country, the goverrunent divided it into several ad-ministrative units. Subsequently, as a consequence of increasing conflicts between Ser-bia and Croatia, Bosnia and Hercegovina was divided into thirteen administrative unitsby the 1939 Cvetkovic-Macek agreement. These units were then added to the newly-formed regional entity called the Banovina of Croatia.

DUling World War II, the kingdom of Yugoslavia disintegrated. In April 1941, the govern-m erit ca pit u la ted to Nazi rule and, together with the king and his entourage, fled abroad.The country was occupied and divided among Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria.Bosnia and Hercegovina became a par-t of the so-called Independent State of Croatia,created under foreign occupation.

The concept ofa federal Yugoslavia prevailed among the lead ers ofTito's Par-tisans. Within~he Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Hercegovina become a separ-atefederal unit, equal in status to the other five Republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia,Montenegro , and Macedonia). This was, actually, a recognition of the country's historicalexistence.

Vranduk: A settlement founded i n pre-Ottoman times

However, the centralist and unitarian policy based on the ruling totalitarian ideology con-tinued after World War" II. It brought about new ethnic and inter-Republic tensions, w hichcome to a head in the late sixties. In order to resolve these tensions, the regime had to re-SOli to a policy of ideological repression while at the same time recognizing and, by theConstitution of 1974, formally affirming the individual federal units as sovereign stateswithin a loose federation.

The loosening of Yugoslavia, originally a Serbian creation devised to enhance their na-tional interests, angered Serbian nationalists and revived their expansionist policy, expe-cially after Tito's death in 1980. Serbian actions took increasingly aggressive forms. Afterthe secession of Slovenia and Croatia in 199 1, and a same orientation of Macedonia,Bosnia a~d Hercegovina also held.a referendum in which the majority of the people votedfor independence from the curtailed "Yugoslavia" (Le. Serbia and Montenegro). Serbiannationalists refused to accept this democratic decision. They argued in favour of keepingBOSIlia and I!ercegovina within Yugoslavia or, at least, deviding it among Serbs, Croats,and Muslims in the hope of eventual annexation of the Serbian pari: to Serbia (andpresumably, of the Croatian section to Croatia), leaving Muslims, who made up 44 % ofthe population of Bosnia and Hercegovina, without a state of their own. The unresolvedpolitical disputes tliggered a brutal Serbian aggression on the now sovereigninternationally recognized Repubic of Bosnia and Hercegovina.

5 Belgrade was th e greatest Ottoman city in the western part of the State from the 16th to the 19 thcentury, Its 78 mosques. 11 Turkish baths. six large carava nsera is. 45 inns. a nd all other buildingswith Islamic chara c te ris tic s were later destroyed in the name of Serbian national gIOlY. .

10 11

II

URBAN CULTURE

Common Elements of the Islamic Urban Settlement

A city reflects the ' whole life of a cornmunity. Several elernents are common to everyIslarnic town.

The choice of a living space is essentially determined by factors of safety and by thenecessity for proper performance of Islamic worship.

An irnportant elernent is security of access to the town, which required good roads toconnect it to other important locations, as well as safety within the town itself, whichcalled for fortification. A third comrnon element of Islamic settlements is the existenceof various public facilities (rnosques, schools, hospitals, public baths) which wereusually endowed by the monarch or a member of his family as a religious duty, or byother rich persons, through the charitable religious foundation called valcuJ.

"A general and enduring characteristic of Islamic town planning and one which de-rives directly frorn sunnah, is that the commercial and residential areas are keptstrictly apart. 116

The rnarket (bazaar, suq, carsija ) is the vital part of a city, usually located at an im-portant junction on the main road, or near a fortification or a river crossing.Housing areas are situated outside and often around the market, connected to it by anetwork of usually narrow streets.

Houses are self-contained and detached with a courtyard and a garden enclosed by awall, particularly on the side facing the street.

Is lam favoured urban life because it rnade for easy access to mosques, public baths,schools and other institution of religious irnportance.

This .urban rnilieu is found in every Islarnic environrnent, frorn the Magreb in the Westto Indonesia and Malaysia in 't h e east, and from Arabia in the South to Bosnia in theNorth.

As a general rule, the Ottornans kept the basic pre-existing urban layout whereverthey settled.

In the transfonnation of existing settlements or in the creation of new ones, the con-struction of a religious complex (mosque with a mekteb or medresa, musafirhana,Imaret, several shops) represented the key element of change and, at the same time,created the nucleus of the new town.

When they seized a fortified town with an ernpty space inside the walls, they wouldbuild an annex to the existing structure. If an old town was overpopulated, theywould then build a new one on the grounds outside the city walls'? Medieval townsand fortifications were very numerous in the Balkans in the pre-Ottoman period, themain rnotivation for building them being defense frorn the Crusaders.

67

T. Burckhardt. Art QfIslam. Common. Language and Meaning. p. 189.A more detailed analysis is found in the book by S.H.Eldem: Turk Eoi, Ostnanli donemi I-III, Istanbul1984-87.

13

Medievalfortresses and towns: Ljubuski, Blagaj, Sto lae, and Sokol

The cities d iffered in size , year of foundation , surrounding terrain, purpose, structure,use of rnatertals and building technology, and availability of water, all of which influ-enced the livtng conditions of the inhabitants.

The building material used for city walls was mainly stone, while wood was predomi-nantly used for housing u nit s within t h e fortress and for supporting structures. Theci ties and fortifications in the Balkan area conquered by the Ottomans can be dividedinto fhree groups, each with a la rge number of common features: coastal towns ,inland towns and fortresses, and fort ified monastery complexes,

Coastal towns mainly originated in the antiquity. They were repeatedly demolished,rebuilt , and remodeled over the centuries

The best fortified structures alnong them are the military citadels. Inside the walls aredensely fitted buildings for habitation, and other facilities. The use of gun-powder andh eavy cannons required strengthening the original walls, which In G kedly changedtheir appearance.

The fea tures of t h e inla nd towns were determined by their military function a n d loca -tion on a particula r terra in, resulting in a remarkable view of the s u r rou n d ings. Theywere u sually s ituated on s teep c liffs or very high hills, a n d cou ld be rea ched on ly fromone sid e , wh ich wa s mas sively fortified . Their a rch itect u re refl ected both easter n a n dwestern influences . External s t ructu res were a dded as HIe towns grew a n d : in thecourse of time, developed into bi g sett le m en ts . The average distance between n eigh-bouring towns wa s a bou t a d ay 's walk.

Travnik

The Ottomans rarely erected co mpletely n ew urban settlements (among the few suchtowns are Rudo and Trebinje) , but generally built a new sect ion adjoining the medie-valone (as in Bitola, Prilep, Travnik, arid Banja Luka). This process of adaptation offormer settlements and their expansion over the course of several centuries has sothoroughly obliterated the older urban scheme and developed a new Ottoman-Balkanurban pattern that the pre-Ottoman aspects of these urban agglomerations canhardly be detected.f

Ottornari Turks quickly d eveloped the existing towns and established new settle-merits , both small (lcasaba) and large (seher). In fact, the conversion of t h e localpopulation to Islam and the rapid development of trade and crafts were accompaniedby physical changes in the settlements. Numerous new crafts that the Ottomansbrought along with them were added to the existing ones. Association of craftsmen(esna)l had a great impact upon the development of the Ottoman towns and signifi -cantly contributed to their Middle Eastern character.

The Vakuf. The vakuf was a religious endowment created on the basis of Islamictenets, It was of enormous Importance for the development of urban settlements.Various vakuf buildings, with their iInposing architecture, usually created the basicurban skeleton of a city. In the continuously expanding Ottoman State, the statedevoted most attention to the governlnent and the army, while concern about culturaland educational facilities was largely left to private Inrtiative, mainly through the in-stitution of vakuf. The vakuf usually supported a free realization of the will of itsfounders, and vakuf buildings served as a basis for the establtshment and further de-velopmerrt of the settlements around them.

14

8 S ee l-l .R edztc: Studtje 0 fslwllslcq} artiitekionskoj bastini, Saraj evo 1983.

15

We should stress the Importance of the investors - persons of Bosnian origin occupy-ing high adrnlnis'trative positions and frequently related to the sultan, AInong themwere Hercegzade Ahmet Pasa, son of Herceg Stjepan and son-in-law of Sultan BayazitII, become the Grand Vizier five times for more than eight years in the period between1497 and 1516; Rustem Pasa Hrvat, son-in-law to Suleyman the Magnificent, was theGrand Vizier for seventeen years, from 1544 to 1561, and Mehmed Pasa Sokolovic,also the Sultan's son-in-law, was the Grand Vizier for fourteen years, from 1565 to1579. There were many other highly positioned investors who contributed to thedevelopmerit of different towns or monuments.

Maglaj, Tesanj, Stolac, and Visegrad

The state had a vested interest in the establtshrnerrt of a city and its development be-cause all important government officials lived there and, especially, because it wasthere that artisan workshops were established to m~ke various items for the army. .The word Icasaba denotes a small urban settlement and at the same time represents alegal term, In order for a settlement to be named kasaba, it had to meet the followingminimal rcquirements.Pa ) It had to be permanently inhabited by a Muslim population filling at least one im-

portant residential district;b) There had to be a mosque in which all of the five daily prayers would can be

performed;c) It had to have a bazaar;d) A particular day of the week had to be declared as its "market-day".

When these requtremerrts were met, an official request by the local administratorswould lead to an imperial edict granting a settlement the status of a kasaba. This en-tailed exemption of the Muslim population of the kasaba from taxes which membersof other religious groups were obliged to pay.

A typical Ottoman-Islamic settlement centered around bazaar or carsu which isusually located at an intersection of regional roads, and the word carsija, as the coreof a future settlement, is etymologically related to the meaning 'square, intersection offour roads '. Another requirement is for the settlement to be situated near a stream ofrunning water, often a river, and to adjoin one or both of its banks. One of its maincom m u ruca t ion lines is approximately parallel to the river. Thernosque, thecaravanserai, and the public bath were interconnected with two or three streets. Fromthis basic core of a town a whole network of small often Irregular street branches offin all directIons. The shops, where more often that not consumer articles are bothmade and sold, are dispersed throughout the city. Besides the usually small shops,there were also several large buildings used as warehouses or for other tradepurposes.

The needs of the army, which was. constantly in motion, gave rise to the formation ofcraft-and-trade centers in every town. A large variety of things were Inade in the ba-zaar. SOIne fifteen guilds were involved in the equipping of a horseman. The bazaarwas a place of busy trading, and as a rule, did not contain family dwellings. In largertowns there came into existence, moreover, a smaller peripheral bazaar, which tooksome of the burden off the central one, such as at Vratnik and Hiseti in Sarajevo, inBanja Luka. J!' and in Belgrade. 11A further Importa.nt element in the formation of the cities is the administrative corn-plex. In addition to their residential quarters, the provincial governors (valija) inBanja Luka, Sarajevo, and Travnik erected a whole range of other public buildings astokens of their presence in the area and the power that they Wielded. The residenceshave lnos~ly been demolished (the exception is the konak in Sarajevo), while the pub-lic butld ings have been preserved through the institution of the vakuf,

In other towns (e.g. Belgrade and Bihac) the residential part was built on top of anold e r structure of medieval origin. A characteristic example of a fortified residentialtown is Gradacac.

Gradacac

9 S ee Adem Hand zic: "0 formiranju neklh gra ds kih nasel]a u Bosni 1I XVI vijeku ." POI" XXV. S arajevo1975 .

16

1011

S ee All]a Bej tic, "Banja Luka pod Turskorn upravorn". Nase s tu r ine I. S arajevo 1953.Dlvn a Durtc-Zimolo , Beograd k ao orijentalna [ lUras pod Turcinui 1521-1867. Beograd 1977. p. 197.

17

Sometimes . in a d d it ion to a fortified residential area. there was another one by theriv er. usually surrounded by pleasant greenery. (e .g. the inn for ove rn igh t guests .konak in Travnik, Begovina a t Stola c), or further away from the m ajor s ettlement. e .g.Havzi -P a stn Koriak at Bardovci, a n d the All-Pas a Rtzvanbegovica Konak at Buna nearMos tar.

Pocitelj

Ed ucatio nal a n d c u ltural fa cilities we re m ostly fit ted into the a rea a rou n d the ba za ar:institutions of higher ed ucat ion (Muslim school or niedresa, independent d epart-ments . the dar-ul- tefsir, dar-ul-hadis) a n d libraries were located in t he vicinity of thebig m osque . while primary ed ucation schools were built n ext to a peripheral m osque .S u fi centers (te 1cij a ) were a lso usually located further a way fro m the baza ar. but therewere some in town centers a n d res iden t ial areas as well .

Residential areas for t he most part surrounded the bazaar. A maliala , a resident iald istrict of forty to fifty hous es . had at its core a s mall mosque or mescizid , (in Bosniathis usually denotes a m osque w it hou t a mina ret). In the immediate vic inity of t h em osque wa s a m e/cteb (primary s chool), a graveyard . a fountain. a bakery. a nd a foo ds ho p. The Balkan Is lamic u rba n cu lture is m a rked by a keen sen s e of nature: buildersm ake good u s e of t he terrain configuration. build on hill slopes so a s to offer a n iceview of t he valley. a n d posit ion b uilding com plexes in a way that will provide t hemwi t h pl enty of s u ns h ine.

Water in eve ry imaginable pla ce a n d in quantities well beyond p ractical n eeds . lush .greenery bendin g over fa cades or acros s railin gs of staircases leading to dioanhane(u p per floo r h all ), t he s un cut by the eaves a n d penetrat in g through lines of windows d ee ply in to room s a n d creatin g colo r con tras ts on different building materials are theindispens a ble e lemen ts of the poetic a m b ien ce of a Balkan Islamic dwelling. They a ls ooffe r evidence of a highly d eveloped urban c u lt u re es tab lis hed for centu r ies .

18

Trebinje

Balkan-Is lamic cities are chiefly situated in valleys (Skopje. Bltola, Tetovo, Prtstina.Nis ), but a ls o on hill slopes and the valleys beneath them (Belgrade. Foca, Sarajevo.Ohrtd ), o r m ostly on slopes (Galicnik, Krusevo . Pocitelj), intertwined with greenery.

Intrusions or con q ues ts by European a rm ies (e.g. Venetian and Austrian) in the 17tha n d 18th cen t u r ies brought about a phas e of rapid fortification of the predominantlyMuslim settle men ts . Generally a s malle r. more eas ily d efendable part of a town wasfortified: for in stance Vratnik in Sarajevo or the a rea about the Stari Most (Old Bridge)in Mostar. The smaller towns in border areas were completely encircled by walls(Pocrtelj, Trebinje) or s queezed within the medieval fortified areas. Since s ecurity wasa n important cons iderat ion. an inhabitant of a Balkan-Islamic dwelling was protectedby a triple wall . the first went a ro u n d his own house complex. the second around thebaza ar with its controlled gates; the third was a thick wall with towers and c it a delsa ro u n d the military complex.

Maglaj. in the Bosna river valley

19

The Origin a nd De velop m ent of Several Selected Cities

- settle rn en ts founded in the Ottoman period as administrative and government cen-ters (Sarajevo, Banja Luka ), or iInportant strategic points (the bridge in Mostar).

Kreseoo

Fojnica and Kresevo. These settlernents whose economic prosperity was based onmining. date back to the '14t h century. Fojnlca was also a market-place where impor-tant cormnercial transactions took place. Merchants from Dubrovnik played a majorpart in t h is trade. When Ottornan rule was established the exploitation of the rninesin the Fojnica and Kresevo basins continued without interruption. For the Ottornans tate, too, these settlernents were primarily irnportant for their rnines of silver, copper,gold, and lapis lazuli.

The transformation of these towns into Ottornan type settlernents was very slow dur-ing the first century of Ottoman rule. Resistance was partly due to the activities of theCa t h olic church, because it was in this area that the Franciscans had founded t h e irmoriastertes in the 13th cen t u ry, a n d because the Ottornans were careful to rnaintaint h e local mining prod uction.

According to the land registers frorn the year 1468/9, Fojnica, with its 329 house-holds , h a d the largest population in all of the Bosnian sandzak. In the sarne year Kre-s evo had 299 hous eholds. As these settlements began to lose their former importance,due to a s ta gnation in the mining industry, especially in respect of silver, t h e ir popu-lation decreased so that in 1516 there were only 142 householders in Fojnica and 112in Kresev o , At the beginning of the 17th century. silver mining a t Fojnica was re-s urned.

During this period the religious structure of t h e population also changed, as a conse-quence of Muslirns moving into the area, but frorn the beginning of the 17th centuryon the process of converston to Islam was rather slow.

Positions of selected settlements

For more than a hun dred years Bobovac was the capital of the Bosnian King dom . It is situated on thes ho rt est corn m u nlcatton lin e between the Sosna a nd the Drtna rivers. It wa s a typical exam ple of forti-fled architectu re of th e medi eval lime, befo re the appearance of ca nnons. The fortres s is five hundredmeters long. and wa lls s urro u nd ed th e settleme nt. In 1463 Ottomans started s h elling Bobovac from th es u rro unding hills , a nd the local ga rrison s urrend ered the fortress quickly. In 1626 Bobova c, as a for-tr ess a nd settlement. wa s abando ned.

We now propose to describe two main groups of u rban settlements differing in respectof fou n d a t ion and development:- s ettlements founded in mediaeval tirnes, and continuing to exist in the Ottoman pe-riod as rnining centers (such as Fojnica and Kresevo), or market-places on a mainroad (Focal. o r fortresses (Travnik , Pocitelj , Ostrozac).

A rnajority of forttfled towns of the rnediaeval Bosnian state, such as Kraljeva Sutjeskaa n d Bobovac.I? mostly country seats of semi-independent local rulers, lost their im-portance in the great Ottoman State with its d ifferent state organization.

12

20 21

P"-f M..... ...U~T"'IJSKON\ I" l",,,,,'"Il. 1.'4\ .

FOCA

Foca,1895.

The oldest residential part, the Ortakolo mahala, is situated on the periphery of themediaeval settlement, its larger part occupying the valley towards the confluence ofthe Cehotina and the Orina. A second mahala was built on the right bank of theOrina river. A third section of the town occupies a favo rable position on the rightbank of the Cehotina. The fourth, the Atik mahala, was built on the south side of thePazarrs te . the fifth was nestled in a land corner bounded by the two rivers, while thesixth was attached to the Aladza Mosque on the right bank of the Cehotina river.

With the construction of its six separate sections , Foca was iInplicitly defined as aspacious urban area spreading to both banks of the Cehotina river and along theright bank of the Orina. In the 17th century the modern layout of Foca was alreadyestablished based on a plan drafted as far back as the second half of the 15th cen-tury. The polycentric principle of urban development marked a great advancement inrelation to the medieval towns and settlements in Bosnia.

The changes in the structure of the population and the architectural transformationof the settlement during the Ottoman period are recorded in numerous census books- clefters. The new settlement did not spread in concentric circles around the mediae-val Foca. Rather, its general plan of development was based on configurational andsocio-economic factors.

By building its mesdztd or mosque, the future mahala was allotted sufficient space forfurther construction and growth. The choice of urban areas and their urbanizationwere carried out with careful attention to the terrain, particularly with respect towater utilization. Whenever it was possible, the Ottomans founded settlements onboth banks of a river or stream. Thus , t he river becomes the spine of a settlement. Fo-ca is a paramount example of this concern for water. From its very beginning, thetown was built on both banks of the Cehotina river. As the left bank of the Orina riveris very steep and unfit for construction Foca spread only along its right bank.

A con t in u o u s development of Foca during the previous two and a half centuries wasa rres ted in the 18th century. The following century was also a period of stagnation inthe development of this interesting town in southeastern Bosnia.

Foca: an example of transformation of a medieval sett lement into an Ottoman town

Th e market-place. was ca lled by th e Latin word: mercatwII in pre-Ottoman tim es. a n d by the Sl avicword try olliste or by Turkish root words pazarts! a nd carsija in Ottoman times. This marke t-pla ce wasmentioned for th e first tim e in 1366..S ee: H.Redzic. Studije 0 lslattiskoj bastilli. "Urbani razvoj Face". Saraj evo 1983.14

13

.Foca. The town of Foca can serve as a model illustrating the standard mode of trans-formation of a medieval Bosnian settlement into an Ottoman town. The medieval townof Foca owes its development prtmarily to its favorable position. It is situated betweenthe Orina and the Cehotina rivers on the Dubrovnik road connecting the Adriaticcoast to the central areas of the Balkans. The embryo of the town was a market-place.F' around which were built houses, shops, and workshops . The original urbanpattern created by what are now Prijeka Carslja and Pazariste, and a part of the Oub-rovnik road, has remained unchanged.

Before 1465, when the Ottomaris conquered this area, there had been three importantbuildings in Foca: a caravan station, on the Oubrovnik Road 650 meters south fromthe confluence of the Cehotlna and the Orina, the Roman Catholic Church of OurLady on the south side of the market-place, and an Orthodox church with monasteryon the right bank of the Cehotina river.The residential quarters lay.on the north side of the road, towards the confluence ofthe Cehotina and Orina. Foca was not fortified. It thus differed from a big village onlyby the market-place and the shops around it. Historical records mention that 95shops were run by merchants frorn Oubrovnik and 82 by local merchants.I"

22 23

Livno. Livno was founded in the 9th century as a varas. 15 and in medieval Bosniahad a history stmilar to those of other s mall fortified towns. During the Ottoman pe-riod, Livno was developing as a settlement in the borderland of the Empire. In Otto-man sources it was first mentioned in 1485, as a settlement with 37 households and26 inhabitants without permanent dwellings. The population were stock-raisingVlachs, who lived a sernl-nornadic life. It was a policy of Ottoman rulers to organize atype of "movable" economy in frontier areas where conditions had not yet becomestabilized .

Livno, the Glavica Mosque with a clocktower

Within the next forty years there occurred profound changes in the development ofLivno. There arose an embryo of a new settlement with Ottoman characteristics, witha developed handicraft economy and first Islarnic buildings. In 1537 Livno become theseat of the sandzak of Klis, the border was moved further west, and crafts and tradewere developed to serve the needs of the military garrison. In that time, Livno wasfonnallya kasaba, with four mahalas , three mesdzids. and one mosque. In 1574 Livnohad seven Muslim mahalas and a Christian one, with 653 Muslim and six Christianhouseholds. In the second part of the 17th century, the township of Livno began tolose its former importance and started on a path of stagnation and decline.

Travnik. The Ottomans conquered the medieval fortress of this town, added to itsfortification, and stationed a powerful garrison there because Travnik was in the bor-derland at the tune. After Jajce was conquered in 1527 and the border was movedfarther North, Travnik began to develop more intensively. This was particularly true inthe period between 1697 and 1850, when it was the seat of the Bosnian beglerbegluk.There the Bosnian viziers built more than a hundred public facilities, including fivemosques , five rnekrebs , three medresas, eight public water taps, two fountains, and awater supply system, and thus gave the town its Bosnian-Islamic urban and architec-rural characteristic.

Travnik15 Vnro.;:;. ,-I word of Hungarian origin. is used in Bosnia. to denote a s ettlement at the loot of a fortlflca-

tion. with a c h u rc h and a square .

24 25

Banja Luka. The first structure out of which the town developed was the medievalfortress on the Londza hill. It was situated in a natural triangle formed by the Vrbasriver, the Suturlija stream, and the mountainous area of Sibovo.The fortress was con-quered by the Ottomans in 1527, at the sarne time as Jajce. Settlement of the towncontinued along the old road in the area of the Vrbas river. The first big investor wasSofu Mehmed Pasa, who built a mosque, a caravanserai, a hamam, several shops, anda pedestrian bridge over the Vrbas river.

In 1580 Banja Luka become the capital of the newly founded Bosnian ,beglerbegluk.Until 1639, when the governing body of the Beglerbegluk was moved to Sarajevo,Banja Luka acquired rnost of its Islamic style buildings. The greatest benefactor inBanja Luka was Ferhat' Pasa Sokolovid, the first beglerbeg of Bosnia. He built amosque with t hree mausoleums (turbe), a medresa, a mekteb, a darul-hadis, a ha-mam, a fountain, the clock-tower, the caravanserai, the bezistan with several shops,the water supply system, and the governor's palace (saraj).

Banja Luka:a map of 1882.

Sarajevo. The oldest traces of human habitation in the area of present-day Sarajevogo back to the third mlllermium B.C. There are also remains of a Roman colonia 8. 16 Itwas Isa-Beg Isakovic.Vthe second Ottoman governor (sandzaJc-beg) of Bosnia, wholaid the foundation of a new town here in the middle of the 15th century. Its namederives from the Turkish word saray meaning 'palace' or 'court'.

The choice of the location for the city was a deliberate act by the governor, mainly inthe light of the following factors:1. There was already a fortress (Hodidjed).2. There was a good east-west road along the Miljacka river valley and another onecrossing it at a right angle.3. The existence of a marketplace in the area at a place called Stara Yaros.4. Presumed existence of a colony occasionally inhabited by merchants from Dub-rovnik (LaiinluJc).5. The existence of a settlement the village of Brodac on the banks of the Miljackariver at the foot of the hill topped by the Hodidjed fortress.

)

;i ,I' .--

I~

Sarajevo in 1462

After having a bridge constructed across the Miljacka river (latter named Carevacuprija, 'the Tzar bridge') at the main crossroads, Isa-beg Isakovic built a mosque, apalace, a hamam. a barracks, and a hippodrome on the left bank, as well as a big car-avanserai (Kolobara han) on the right bank close to a former square, on an axis to themosque. This structure , with its several adjoining shops, was the nucleus of the fu-ture grand bazaar, to be called Bascarsija. The bazaar was thus set between the newbridge, the Latinluk quarter, and a nascent Christian-Orthodox quarter (today's areaaround the Old Orthodox Church). In the Brodac village, Isa-Beg had a dervish home(ieleija) built with a guest-house (musaji.rhana) and a public kitchen (imaret), as wellas several water-mills.

26

16

17

Thus called because in the only archeological find bearing the colony's name all but initial letter Shadbeen obliterated.Isa-begova vakufnama written in 1462. contains many details about the urban development of Sara-jevo .

27

The surrounding settlements on hillsides were transformed into , housing micro-re-gions, the mahalas, There, streets followed the natural configuration of the terrain,while the bazaar itself was laid out in an orthogonal network, with streets parallel andperpendicular to the Miljacka river. The name Saray-ovasi ("the plain around the pal-ace") was merrtloried for the first time in 1455, and the form Sarajevo is first encoun-tered in a letter written in Cyrillic by one Firuz Beg in 1507.

After the fall of the Bosnian Kingdom to the Ottomans in 1463, Sarajevo quicklyspread westward, through the Miljacka valley, and onto the surrounding hills. Duringthe last decades of the 15th century, two sandzak-begs, Mehmed Beg Minatovtc andAyaz Beg, built mesdzids , a hamarn, and several shops. This resulted in integratingthe Latin.luk quarter into the bazaar.

In the first decade of the 16th century Skender Pasa Mihajlovlc revived the StaraVaras quarter. He had a bridge (known as Skendertja) built there over the Miljackariver and close to the bridge, on the left bank, a tekija, a musaflrhana and an imaret,as well as a caravanserai, eleven shops, and several water-mills art the Kosevo streamon the right bank of the Miljacka. In 1509 Firuz Beg had the Cifte hamam, several ,shops in the bazaar, and a water supply system from the Sedrenik hill in the North tothe bazaar, as well as a medresa. In 1518 Mustaj Beg, the son of Skender Pasa, builtthe first domed rnosque in the vicinity of the tekija constructed by his father. MehmedBeg, the son of Isa Beg, built a mesdzid with a medresa, and the first bezistan in thebazaar. IS The second domed mosque was built in 1526 as a donation by MuslihudinCekrekcija, and a third one located in the bazaar was donated by Havadza Durak in1528. Sarajevo: a panoramic view

In 1530 Sarajevo had 35 lnal~alas with 6 mosques and 23 mesdztds , two caravanse-rais , four hamarns , six tekijas, and several hundreds shops.

In the second part of the 16th century several important structures were built inSarajevo: the Brusa bezistan (1551) and four new domed mosques the Buzadzi HadziHasanova Mosque (1555/6), .t h e Ali Pasina Mosque (1560/1), and the Ferhad PasaVukovic-Destsallc Mosque (1561/2). The Careva Mosque was remodelled and pro-vided with a dome.

The biggest contribution to the development of Sarajevo, came from the sandzak-begGazi Husrevbeg Ferhatpaaic.U' Among some three hundred buildings built with hisdonations, several are regarded as the most valuable structures in the whole architec-ture of Bosnia and Hercegovina: the mosque (1530/1, architect Ajim Esir Ali),tianika): (a higher school of Sufi philosophy), the medresa (1537),20 the harnarn, the

, ca ra va n s e ra i, the bezistan, and the musafirhana with the imaret. Gazi Husrevbegthen gave the Sarajevo bazaar, which came to be called the Bascarslja.f! and madethe city into the cultural and social center of Bosnia.

In addition to the monumental domed mosques. many small mosques and mesdztdswere built using traditional construction, methods and local material; they usuallyhad wooden porches, four-eaved roofs, and stone or wooden minarets. In the courseof the 17th century construction slowed down considerably, but by this time the totalnumber of mosques had exceeded one hundred, with numerous mektebs, madrasas,and ten tekijas.Although Islamic culture is dorninarrt in Sarajevo, it has never been a town of one re-ligion.

Sarajevo: The Old Orthodox Church, The Jewish Synagogue

Burnt down in a big fire in 1697~His father was from Hercegovina a n d his mother was the granddaugther of Sultan Beyazit.The medresa is knowns as Kllrs!1Illlya. because Its domes a re covered with lead (the Turkish word forlead is kursuui;From Turkish bo.s- care: "main bazaar".

IS1920

21

28 29

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In the Latin1uk quarter, where merchants from Dubrovnik lived both in pre-Ottomanand in Ottoman times, there was a Catholic church.22

During the second half of the 16th century, at the time of the consolidation of theOrthodox Church in the Balkans prompted by the restoration of the Pee Patriarchate,the Orthodox population settled in the vicinity of the bazaar and built their church,today known as the Old Orthodox Church.

In the same period Sefardic Jews, expelled from Spain, founded their community inthe central part of the bazaar, mostly in and around the Stjavus Pasa daire. In thatdistrict the first synagogue was built in 1581.

More than 80 craftsmen carried on their business at Bascarstja. They were organizedin various esnaJs (guilds), each with its shops concentrated in a particular street ofthe larger area of the bazaar.23

More than fifty hans and caravanserais provided lodging for 2 000 guests with horsesand merchandise.

Mostar. The large area of Mostar has favorable living conditions. The mouritatns onthe north side of the town enclose the whole region within a typically Mediterraneanclimate. This makes for very high temperatures in summer and moderate tempera-tures in winter, a great number of sunny days in the course of one year, planty of rainin auturnri and spring, refreshing showers in wann seasons, north-easterly winds inwinter, and pleasant southerly breezes in spring and auturnn.

Mostar has a remarkable position on the Neretva river and its tributary, the Ra-dobolja. The Radobolja offers its inhabitants as many advantages as the Neretva takesaway because of its violent temper. Nevertheless, the valley along the Neretva is veryfertile, as well as allowing easy southward access to the sea and northward into theinterior. The valley of the Radobolja river, however, is surrounded by hills on all sides .The residential part of the city first spread to the hillside of Stolac, a foothill of theVelez mountain. The oldest housing center was the Atik or Sinan Pasina mahala, tobe followed by the quarters of Brankovac, Bjelusine and, Mazoljice.

Building houses on hill slopes was advantageous not only from point of view of se-curity, but also with regard to public hygiene because of the possibility of using rainas a natural street cleaner. Not least of all, it provided a pleasant view of the valley.

The Careva cuprija,24 the Latinska cuprija built in 1541, the ~eher-Cehajinacupri]a(1585), the bridge near the village of Brodac, named Kozja Cuprija (1572), and theSkenderija Bridge, made for easy communlcation between the two banks of the Mil-jacka river.

In 1879, the first year of the Austro-Hungartan occupation, a big fire destroyed over-night the entire part of the town situated in the valley, from the Gazi Husrevbegova 'mosque westward. This fire reduced the bazaar area to half of its former size andopened the way to a rapid transformation of Ottoman Sarajevo into a Middle Euro-pean provinclal center.

The use of wood as construction material was the main reason for many fires in thehistory of Sarajevo, especially in the area of the bazaar. In 1697 Prince Eugene ofSavoy broke through the Ottoman defense line,25 and set flre to Sarajevo, destroyingit almost corripletely. In the aftermath of this event the seat of the beglerbeg wasmoved to Travnik, where it remained until 1851.1n the time following the return of thebeglerbegluk seat to Sarajevo, in 1851, the architecture of the city began to showsigns of West-European ,influences. They are visible in the new barracks at Bistrik,the Jajce barracks, the Military and vakuf hospitals, and the Konak at Bistrik.In 1872an Orthodox church in the vicinity of Bascarstja was built in a Byzantine-Baroquestyle.

A shop in the bazaar, a house in the mahala, a barn for a cow or perhaps a horse, avineyard ill. the vicinity of the city and several bee hives nearby the average citydwelling craftsman from Mostar owned all of this!

V. Corovld. Moster i njeqora srpsico-pravoslanna opiittna, Beograd 1933, page 9 : ". .vha preso quello eleTogenac . Vra tar in S'utischa , Blagay et do castell al ponte ele Neretva" :M. Vega in the book: Nascija srednjoojekonne boscuiske driave, Sarajevo 1957, gives the fasclmlle of theoriginal document with the translation and the correct elate .July 3, 1452.

The housing microregtons on the western bank of the Neretva originated at a laterperiod. The terrain had a very gentle downhill grade and the Radobolja with its armsand little canals offered exceptional housing conditions.

Agricultural products typical of this climate were grown in the city gardens mostly onthe west bank of the Neretva and on land outside the city, 5 -15 krn away, the mostimportant alnong them being grapes. sweet cherries, apricots, peaches, pomegran-ates. figs, and various vegetables. The craggy hills around the city were rich in sageand heather, which rnade possible the developrnerit of apiculture.

Traces of the prehistoric era and the Roman days, discovered at more than one local-ity, provide evidence that the valley of Mostar has been inhabited since very ancienttimes . An old settlement in the Immediate vicinity of Mostar - the Old Town at Blagaj -developed from a Roman settlement into an important medieval town which becamehorne to Herceg Stjepan Vukcic, the ruler of the region in the 15th century, who gaveHercegovina its name. .

26

A document written in 1440 refers to a fort next to a bridge on the Neretva river, as-sociated with the name of Oost Radivoje, a member of Herceg Stjepan's suite. This isin fact, the first historic reference to the locality of present-day Mostar. Another his-toric record dated April 3, 1452, is letter by two Dubrovnik merchants informing theirwrote to their compatriots ill. the service of the Serbian king Djuradj Brarikovic thatVladislav Hercegovic had fled from his father Herceg Stjepan and conquered, alnongothers, the bridge with adjoining forts on the Neretva river. 26

It burned down for the ftrst time in a fire in 1697, was later rebuilt and flnally destroyed in the big fireof 1879.More than forty streets still bear names related to the craft that were (and still are. through to a lesserdegre practiced in them: Kujundztluk = "goldsmiU1's" street (from Turkish kuywncu "goldsmith"). Kovacl= blacksmiths street (from the Slavic word kovac "blacksmith"), Saracl =sadd1er. Ascilul{ = place withrestaurants.(~uprUu, is Slavic adaptation of the Turkish word Jcopn! "bridge".His troops passed the Vrancluk fortress above the Bosnia river. 30 kilometers to the north of Sarajevo,and used the road through the Bilino Polje. near Zeruca. Later. the Ottomans built a fortress at BilinoPolje.

2524

23

22

32 33

In 1468 the Ottomans took Blagaj and, most likely, the fortresses close to the nearbybridge over the Neretva. The small settlement around the bridge got its name from itskeepers, because mostar, in fact, means 'bridge keeper'. This settlement was first re-ferred to as Mostar in 1474, when it was described as the seat of the Ottomans suba-sa (police superintendent) Skender. 27Because of the strategic importance of this crossing over the Neretva, the insecurebridge was replaced by a new timbered one in the period of Mehmed Fatih's rule, be-fore 1481. Since the main road from Bosnia towards the Adriatic coast used thiscrossing over the Neretva, the bridge brought about a rapid expansion of the city anda concomitant development of crafts and trade. The city became also the center ofculture and education in this part of the Ottoman State. It was rounded off as acompleted urban entity about 1670, and did not change significantly until 1878, theyear of the Austro-Hungarian .occupation.

The reign of S u leyrna.n II the Magnificent (1520-1566) was the tiIne of the greatest riseand prosperity of the Ottoman State. In that period, huge wealth flowed into Istanbul,brtnging about unprecedented economic and social progress. The Sultan's aspirationsafter the glory of the antique world supported cultural development, especially the artand architecture of Islam.

Numerous structures of extraordinary beauty were built in this period: mosques,bridges, and harnams. It was at this tune that Ottoman architecture established cer-tain spatial, constructional and decorative systems, based on its own aesthetic prin-ciples. It was also during this period that the most important architectural moriu-merits of Mostar carne into being: the Stari Most (Old Bridge), the large Karadjozbe-gova and the Vucijakovica mosques together with some smaller ones, schools , Ira-Inal11S , and a large rrurnber of other public buildings and housing structures.

I

Mostar's favorable geographic location caused it to be considered one of the most im-portant cormnercial centers of the area with Widely developed connections to othercenters. This factor stimulated the development of craftsmanship, which thrived inmore than 30 different crafts.

The city was at its peak in the late 17th century, when its population reached 10 000,when it boasted over 30 mosques, 7 medresas and several mektebs. 2 hamams, and anumber of other importan~public facilities.

The dominant Muslim population developed their cultural activities to a considerableextent during the Ottoman period. There were many learned persons, writers and po-ets, some of whom some were famous and recognized far beyond from their native re-gion. The city also became the seat of the muftija. (supreme religious leader of thearea) from lnid-17th century. Almost all trades and crafts were in the hands of Mos-lerns in the 16th and 17th century.

Christians (Orthodox and Catholic) have always lived in the city along with Muslims,with their nurnbers increasing since the early 18th century, The first record of Chris-tian population in Mostar dates back to 1575.28 The Orthodox population had theirown church in the 18th century and Mostar became the seat of the Metropolitan(head of an ecclesiastical province) in 1767. Another Eastern Orthodox church, thelargest in all of Bosnia and Hercegovina, was built in Mostar in 1873.

Mostar: panorama, 1 9 0 8

Catholics built their first church in 1847 along with the Bishop's restderice at Vu-kodol. A cathedral was built at Podhum in 1866 to meet the needs of the IncreastngCatholic population. These two churches represent the last large-scale architecturalstructures built during the Ottoman administratton.

27

The Stan Most

See Nedlm Ftlipovtc : "Pogl ed na osmanskl feudalizarn sa narocltlm osvrtom n a agrarne odnose."Goriislljuk istorijslcog drustoa [--W-I IV. Sarajevo 1952. He cited the TU]Ju tahrir d efter from 1477. whenthere ~ere only 20 households in Mostar, All the houses were on the left bank of the Neretva river. be-tw een the bridge a n d the s q u a re (1lU.jdanl

34

28 Vl adirnir (Y:o rovi c . ibid .. p.16

35

The Hercegovinian Sandiak as a part of the Bosnian Beglerbegluk was established atthe beginning of 1470 and lasted until 1878. Its seat was in Foca, then at Pljevlje and,in 1833, it rn oved to Mostar. The sandzak-beg resided in Mostar from 1522 to 1530.29Mostar also becarne the seat of the regional JcadiluJc (area covered by a Jcadija - thesharia judge) in the late 15th century.P? The kadija had legal authority and the vojvo-cia with his 50 soldiers had police authority. All of those high officials had numerousclerks under them, who also resided in Mostar.

The janissary headquarters with their commander (serdar) were also located in Mo-star until the abohshment of janissary troops in 1826.

Mos t a r : Urban scheme

The dizclar commanded the soldiers defending the bridge forts during the period up tothe establishment of a regular European-style army in the middle of the 19th century.A captaincy was also set up in Mostar between 1700 and 1706 and was revoked in1835. The offices of the captaincy and the dizdar were hereditary. Captains were cho-s en frorn the farnily of Vucijakovic and the housing complex that they occupied is stillcalled Kapetanovina.

Mostar had its Mimar-Aga (builder), its ajans (representatives in the Bosnian gover-nor's council), and, for a time, a musellim - the Pasa's representative.

A part of Mostar was walled in the Ottornan period, and the fortification was rein-forced several tunes during the wars with Venice, especially after the armistice atKarlovci. During the Holy Alliance War, mercenaries from Venice headed by StojanJankovic attacked Mostar in 1687 and burned sorne housing areas on the west bankof the Neretva, but could not penetrate within the walled part of the city. Another at-tack , by the duke of Venice Mezzenigo in 1717, was even less successful.

Two other rnajor armed conflicts in Mostar were the Basas' rebellion in 1782 and thecon flict between the feudal lords Ali-Aga Dedic and Ali-Aga Voljevica in the seconddecade of the 19th century,

Mostar 1895: A viewfrom the south2930

H . Kr esevljakovic . Esnofi i obrti 11 Bosni i Herz eqonini, II Mostar /1 4 6.'3-1878/. Zagreb. p . 72.Ibid .. p . 129.

36 37

But Mostar also had its share of other misfortunes. It was hit by the plague in 1507,1689, 1731 and 1813, and a cholera epidemic raged through the city in 1845. Thereare historic records about these epidernics as well as references to thern in folk po-etry.

There are no records of the exact number of fires but we are certain abolit two bigones, which occurred in 1852 and 1861/1862, burning down a large number ofshops and houses. A powerful earthquake occurred in 1563 and floods caused greatdamage several times.

The conflict between Ali-Pasa Rlzvanbegovlc and Orner Pasa Latas brought about tu-multuous events in 1851.

Diseases, disasters, rebellions, and wars were elernents of a larger picture of theweakening Ottornan State, which in turn weakened the economic potential of the cityand the Itving standards of its people .

The decline of the Ottoman State led to the occupation of Bosnia and Hercegovina byAustria-Hungary in 1878. Mostar was taken on August 5, 1878. This date rnarked thebeginning of a new era, introducing radical changes in the economic and socialrelations.

The foregoing outline of the historical developrnent of Mostar during the time of theOttornan State is meant to serve as a typical example of the transformation of anurban environment in Bosnia and Hercegovina from a rnedieval settlement to an impor-tant Ottoman-style town.

The Ottomans considered the rnedieval fortress next to the bridge as the central pointof the cornmunlcation system for this region. The fortress also became the nucleusaround which the city developed very rapidly. The bridge was replaced by a more solids t ru ctu re before 1481 , but only the stone bridge completed in 1566 was able to with-stand the intense military and commercial traffic over it. The bridge was built mostprobably within a period of two years from designs by Mimar Hajrudin with thelTIOney collected in Hecegovinian counties (lcadilulc). The adjacent towers of Tara andHalebija were rebuilt during the construction of the stone bridge.

The new bridge was a powerful stirnulus to the growth of the city. The bazaar wasconsiderably enlarged and the city fortification system was expanded and reinforced.All cornrrrurricatiori leading to the Old Bridge was protected by the towers, which werelinked by walls . A systern 'of towers and gates rnade up a genuine fortress next to thebridge itself.

The main bastion (Labija) of the town walls was situated at Suhodolina , with thecomma n de rs " residence located nearby. These structures dominated the city. Thekonak (the governor's residence) was restored by Ali-Pasa Rlzvaribegovic , who alsoa d d ed another section to it. In that period he also had a second residence built forhirn outside the city at a place also called Buna, close to the Buna river.

38

Mostar : Urban development

39

The Bazaar: the Core of the Town

The bazaar, or carsija3 1 is the vital focus of any Islamic town. It is usually located at aroad junction, at an important point on the main road, around an important fortifica-tion, or at a river crossing. The bazaar attracted craftsmen and merchants of everyknown kind. There was usually a central square with many small streets around it,each designated for a particular craft. Craftsmen were organized in associations(esnajl, rnuch in the way they still are in certain European countries. The esnaf was atypically urban institution set up to stimulate development of the particular, craft andto rnairitain a good balance between individual initiative and the solidarity in thegroup. In Islarnic towns, these group never aspired to political power, as was often thecase with siInilar groups in western Europe.

The biggest bazaar in Bosnia and Hercegovina is the Bascars ija in Sarajevo, whichhas all the structures typical of a large eastern bazaar: a mosque complex, a bezistan,a hamam, a claire, and a multitude of shops.

Bascarsija in SarajevoThe Austro-Hungarian survey at the end of the 19th century

31 In Bosnia and Hercegovina the word carsija is always used to refer to a Ottoman style bazaar.

40

The bazaar is the center of an Ottornan town's commercial zone, where most of thetown's econornic activities take place. In larger towns these activities spread out toother points outside the rnain market, For example, in Istanbul, which was dividedinto three separate sections, there were, besides the main bazaar, other smaller ba-zaars in each of these sections. Belgrade had six bazaars. Banja Luka, consisting ofseveral completely separate settlements, had four smaller merchant-trade centers.There was us ually no roorn in the bazaar for family houses.

In Mostar, the bazaar was formed on both sides of the Old Bridge, on the left bankfrom behind the Halebija tower in the south to the clock tower in the east and to Si-nan Pasina Mosque in the north. The "upper" bazaar was located on the main roadand was called Velika Tepa, while the "lower" bazaar, called Mala Tepa,32 was situatedin the vicinity of the Koski Mehmed Pas ina Mosque. A third part of the bazaar wascalled Kujundziluk and was situated between the Mala Tepa and the Stari Most. ThePrijecka business area was located on the right bank of the Neretva - from the Bridgeto the Tabacica Mosque and the tabhana (the tanners district). There was' a line ofimportant watennills in the area, too.

The bazaar in Mostar was particularly important during the construction of the OldBridge between 1550 and 1570 when only 'three donors had 153 shops an~ manyother facilities built there. The donors were Hadzi Mehrnedbeg-Karadjozbeg, Cejvan-cehaja, and Nasuh-Aga Vucijakovic. Their donations gave rise to mosques, hamams,mektebs, rnedresas, iInarets, shops, warehouses, water-mills, as well as water supply-ing facilities. This period of 'intensive building gave the city all its public structuresand influenced the formation of the housing mlcroregions. the mahalas, which pro-vided housing space to all those who worked in the bazaar. Evlija Celebi, the famousOttornan traver-writer, described the bazaar very briefly: " It (i.e. Mostar) has a bazaarwith 350 solidly built shops." This estimated nurnber of shops is probably accurateand the term "solidly built' no doubt refers to the stone partition walls and roof clad-ding.

There were 30 different guilds in Mostar. The following 11 existed in 1762: ekmekcizije(bakers" guild), ierzije (tailors), baemakcije (shoemakers). dyers, cUT'cije (furriers), ce-bed.zije (mariufacturers of shaggy homespun blanket), kujurict.zijo: (goldsrniths),titnurdzija (blacksmiths, locksmiths. makers of sabres and rifles), iabaciztje (tanner's),berber! (barbers) and duncizeri (builders). In 1875 these 11 crafts comprised 122shops with 199 rnaster-craftsmen and 563 workmen.

The tanners' guild was the rnost developed. Their shops were the most solidly builtand a row of tanners' shops was located within the northern section of the city walls.The tanners also had their own mosque, the only one of its kind. Red sahtijan or ka-jser (goat leather), one of their products, was considered the best in the Islamlc worldat the time and was a valuable export commodity.

After watering rnany a garden and s upplying water to the inhabitants of the westbank of the Neretva, the Radobolja river rarnified into several streams flowing throughthe bazaar. There, it provide power for numerous rnills. A water-mill was particularlyprecious at the tirne, and a leasehold on it was more costly than on a shop, a harnam,or a house with a garden.

32 Tepa derives lrorn th e Turkish word for "hill": the Bosnian word ueliica and malo me,111 "b ig" a nd"small." Both places are on a h igh er level in relation to the Olel Bridge.

41

All business activity in the bazaar (outside the public facilities) was carried out in twotypes of structures: shops and storehouses. Shops were srnall ground-floor structuresattached to each other C?n both sides of narrow streets. They were usually built ofwood, combined with lateral stone walls and stone roofcladding. They were raised alittle above the street level and closed with two horizontal wooden shutters in frontmaking up the so-called cepetiak: The lower shutter was used to sit on and workwhen the shop was open. This means that people sat on the floor as they did at home.

There were also shops with storage r00111 behind them, because the downhill grade ofthe bazaar made it fairly easy to construct them.

A third type of shop, the "storehouse" (magaza), was occasionally a two-story struc-ture. At the ground floor was a shop, while the upstairs or the basement was used fora storage. Thick stone walls, ceilings made with timber beams, vaulted stone roofswith roof cladding made of stone slates, windows protected by it-on bars (demir) andiron shutters were features of this new type of shop. Stone storehouses were built onlots "cleared" by fire, a practice begun in the middle of the 19th century under Oal-marian influence .

The bazaar in Mostar, in 1905

The mosques, the inns, and the public baths dominated the bazaar together with theStari Most and its fortifications. Those structures were built of cut stone of a higherquality, on a considerably larger scale, separated from rows of shops, placed freely onthe ground. All these structures added to a harmonious composition of an outstand-ingly urban character.

Those who worked in the bazaar used the bazaar's mosques for prayer during the day.The harnams were used by all the inhabitants of the city.

42

It is very interesting to note that a major portion of the trade was in the hands of mer-chants of Orthodox faith from the middle of the 19th century onward. Orthodox mer-chants lived in several mahalas, especially at Bjelusine in houses that were slightlydifferent from those of the Muslims of the same economic class. They lived andworked in the bazaar together with Muslims and shar