investigating the impacts of habitat degradation on wildlife tourism

8/3/2019 Investigating the Impacts of Habitat Degradation on Wildlife Tourism

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INVESTIGATING THE IMPACTS OF HABITAT

LOSSDEGRADATION IN TOURIST DESTINATION areasON

WILDLIFE TOURISM: A CASE STUDY OF MAASAI MARA GAME RESERVE

Impacts of habitat loss

Causes of habitat loss

Causes of degradation of wildlife tourism acase of MMNR

EFFECTS OF TOURISM ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN TOURIST DESTINATION

AREAS

A CASE OF MMNR

Presented by:

NANCY NYAKUNDI

BTM/30/08

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A Proposal Submitted to Moi University, School of Business and Economics,

Department of Tourism and Tour Operations Management in Partial fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Bachelor of Tourism Management.

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ABSTRACT

Tourism is one of the worlds largest and fast growing industries that is closely intertwined

with the environmental. Its rapid growth has resulted in destinations facing a myriad of

environmental issues associated with the industry resulting to environmental degradation,

with habitat degradation being the leading. The main purpose of this study is to assess the

impacts of habitat degradation on wildlife tourism. The specific objectives will include: to

determine the extent to which human activities impact on wildlife tourism, to establish how

community land use practises impact on wildlife tourism, to investigate how tourism

activities impact on wildlife tourism and to determine possible solutions to habitat

degradation. Descriptive research design will be used. The target population will be 569

respondents from Maasai Mara area. Purposive sampling technique will be used to selectSekenani as a study area. Simple random sampling technique will be used to identify

respondents for the study; the sample size will be 59 respondents. Both primary and

secondary data will be used. Structured questionnaires and interviews will be used to collect

primary data from the respondents while secondary data will be collected from published

dossiers, books and the internet. Descriptive statistics will be used to analyse data and present

it in the form of pie charts, bar graphs, tables and line graphs. The study will contribute

towards creating awareness on habitat degradation and its impacts and giving of strategies to

enhance conservation of habitats.

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Table of ContentsTable of Contents ................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................. 7

1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 7

1.1 Background .................................................................................................. 7

1.2 Problem statement ....................................................................................... 8

1.3 Justification ................................................................................................... 8

1.4 Purpose of the study ..................................................................................... 9

1.5 Research objectives ...................................................................................... 9

1.5.1 Main objective ........................................................................................ 9

1.5.2 Specific objective .................................................................................... 9

1.5.3 Research questions ................................................................................ 9

1.6 Significance of the study .............................................................................. 9

1.7 Scope of the study ...................................................................................... 10

1.8 Assumptions of the study ........................................................................... 10

1.9 Conceptual framework ................................................................................ 11

CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................... 12

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 12

2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................ 12

2.1 definitions ................................................................................................... 12

2.1.1 Habitat .................................................................................................. 12

2.1.2 Habitat degradation .............................................................................. 12

2.1.3 Wildlife .................................................................................................. 12

2.1.4 Wildlife based tourism .......................................................................... 12

2.2 Habitat degradation .................................................................................... 12

2.2.1Causes of habitat degradation ............................................................... 13

2.2.2 Effects of habitat degradation .............................................................. 14

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2.3 Wildlife based tourism ................................................................................ 15

2.3.1 Importance of wildlife based tourism ................................................... 16

2.4 Impacts of habitat degradation on wildlife tourism.................................16

CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................... 18

RESEARCH METHODOLODY ................................................................................. 18

3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................ 18

3.1 Study area .................................................................................................. 18

3.2 Research design ......................................................................................... 18

3.3 Target populations ...................................................................................... 19

3.4 Sampling Design ......................................................................................... 19

3.4.1 Sample size .......................................................................................... 19

3.4.2 Sampling Procedure ............................................................................. 19

3.5 Data Collection ........................................................................................... 19

3.5.1 Data types and sources ........................................................................ 20

3.5.3 Validity of Research instruments.......................................................... 20

3.6 Data Analysis Procedures ........................................................................... 20

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 21

APPENDIX 1 .......................................................................................................... 24

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EMPLOYEES AND COMMUNITY ........................................24

APPENDIX 2 .......................................................................................................... 27

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ...................................................................................... 27

APPENDIX 3 .......................................................................................................... 28

3.1 Work plan ................................................................................................... 28

APPENDIX 4 .......................................................................................................... 29

4.2 Projected Budget ........................................................................................ 29

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment

GDP: Gross domestic product

IUCN: International Union for the Conservation of Nature

MEA: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Scientists

WWF: World Wildlife Fund

MMNR: Maasai Mara National Reserve

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CHAPTER 1

1.0 IntroductionThis chapter looks at the background information, statement of the problem, purpose of the

study that entails research objectives and research questions, scope of the study, justification

of the study, assumptions of the study, the limitations of the study and the conceptual

framework.

1.1 Background

Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) was first established as a Wildlife Sanctuary in

1948 (Koikai, 1992). It comprised a smaller area than the present reserve and included the

Mara Triangle, a 520 kilometre area between the Siria Escarpment, the Tanzanian border and

the Mara River. Some 1,672 km of this area was given the status of National Reserve in 1974,

under Legal Notice 271 (WPU, 1983).

Historically, the area was inhabited by semi-nomadic pastoralist Maasai communities

(Homewood & Rogers, 1991). Land was held in trust for communities by the government,

and some areas in the east of the ecosystem retain this arrangement. From the 1970s, these

trust lands were converted into group ranches under local administration. More recently,

subdivision of group ranches into parcels of privately owned land has been widely promoted

(Thompson & Homewood, 2002). The sale of private land, and inward migration by

neighbouring agricultural groups, has resulted in significant land transformation of the

ecosystem, where mechanised wheat production and intensive small-scale agriculture,

respectively, are spreading (Homewood et al., 2001; Serneelset al, 2001; Sitati, 1997; 2003).

These changes may be responsible for an observed twenty-year decline in resident herbivores

on the Kenyan side of the ecosystem (Ottichiloet al., 2000, 2001; Homewood et al., 2001,

Serneels&Lambin, 2001).

Tourist accommodation facilities started developing after MMNR was gazetted in 1963. In

1965, Keekorok Lodge was established from former self-catering chalets. Further facilities

were established inside MMNR between 1972 and 1986. Facilities outside MMNR started

developing in 1977 and have continued to the present day, despite the existence of amoratorium on further establishment of facilities (Walpole 2003)

Today, the wildlife of Maasailand is threatened by poaching and the destruction of habitat.

This is because the region's popularity as a tourist destination is growing, and large-scale

tourist facilities are being built in pristine areas. Habitat is being lost to large-scale agriculture

and commercial development. Population pressures from the surrounding regions of Eastern

Africa are further distressing the land and its resources. Traditional migratory routes for

wildlife are being lost, as indiscriminate development fragments Maasailand. All of these

pressures, plus pollution associated with the tourism industry and illegal bush meat trade, are

bearing irreversible impacts on the wildlife of Maasailand (Krista Jensen 2011).

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If the degradation of Maasailand is allowed to continue, one of the last homes for the wild

African elephant, wild rhinoceros, cheetah, leopard and giraffe will disappear. It also means

losing the greatest and most spectacular large mammal migration on earth which is the most

highly visited tourist area in the East African region.

1.2 Problem statement

Despite the considerable worldwide efforts to establish the wildlife protected areas a

strategy perceived as the most feasible in maintaining the high quality habitats for healthy

wildlife populations - destruction of wildlife habitats has remained the leading threat to

biodiversity (Kidegheshoet al 2006).This degradation is prompted by factors such as

population pressure evident in the 2009 census thus prompting encroachment into protected

areas in search for settlement and farming land resulting in pressure on wildlife

habitats.Changingland uses and land tenure systems from community land to individual

parcels have fragmented ecosystems further deteriorating the situation.Thegrowth in

prominence of Maasai Mara region as a tourist destination has enhanced tourism activities

and the continued establishment of facilities within the reserve despite the existence of a

moratorium on further establishment of facilities. These factors have significantly impacted

on the habitats of large mammals and carnivores which need a lot of space to survive. It is

also threatening the existence biodiversity within this ecosystem as population are declining

which may result in extinction.The situation however, is no better in spite of thepreparation

of tourism management plans for the Reserve in the 1980s (Thorsell, 1980; WPU, 1983), and

the existence of visitor regulations. Environmental impacts remain largely unchecked

(Onyeanusi, 1986; Gakahu, 1992; Bhandari 1998).Though presently there has been an

enormous amount of efforts and regulations that have been put forward to address this

concern of habitat degradation in theMara ecosystem, the situation is still wanting. Thus this

study aims to find out if the existing policies on sustainability in the Mara are being

implemented and are bearing fruits or if there is a rise in new challenges concerning

environmental degradation and how they are affecting wildlife based tourism.

1.3 Justification

The study is justified in that Kenyas tourism industry is wildlife based and has been

recognised internationally as a leading wildlife safaris destination. This clearly outlines the

significance of managing negative environmental impacts such as habitat degradation that are

having extreme impacts on this resource base. According to the IUCN's Red List, 85 percent

of the entire world's wildlife is threatened by habitat loss. The shrinking of living space can

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lead to several problems, including competition for resources such as food and shelter, and

can threaten the biodiversity of the species. It is also currently the leading cause of species

extinction throughout the world. (Sierra Club.2010).Thus the impact of habitat degradation

on wildlife cannot be down played especially in the tourism industry

1.4 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study will be to establish the effects of habitat degradation on the current

state and the future of wildlife tourism.

1.5 Research objectives

1.5.1 Main objective

The main objective of the study will be to determine the impacts of habitat degradation on

wildlife tourism

1.5.2 Specific objective

a) To determine the extent to which human activities impact on wildlife tourism.

b) To establish how community land use practises impact on wildlife tourism.

c) To investigate how tourism activities impact on wildlife tourism.

d) To determine possible solutions to habitat degradation.

1.5.3 Research questions

a) What is the extent to which human activities impact on wildlife tourism?

b) How do community land use practises impact on wildlife tourism?

c) How do tourism activities impact on wildlife tourism?

d) What are the possible solutions to habitat degradation?

1.6 Significance of the studyThis research will be geared towards sensitizing the various stakeholders of tourism on the

significance of habitats and the vital role they play in enhancing the survival and well-being

of wildlife species upon which our tourism industry relies upon. This will be achieved

through an assessment of the various contributors to habitat degradation and their

implications on various habitats.

The findings of this research will work towards assisting the tourism industry improve the

nature of wildlife tourism by enhancing good practice among tourists and tourees through

awareness on the relevance of habitats to wildlife and best tourist practises among the various

actors in the industry.

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The various protected areas will use the findings of this research to formulate policies and

strategies to conserve habitats and the environment at large thus promoting responsible

tourism. This will be achieved through extenuating the various causes of habitat degradation

within protected areas, setting policies on sustainable land use practices among communities

adjacent to protected areas and setting of acceptable codes of conduct for tourist withinprotected areas

This research will work towards sensitizing establishments within protected areas on the

impact of their activities on habitats such as improper waste management strategies which

lead to pollution resulting in various direct and indirect impacts. This will enhance practice of

sustainable tourism

The study will also work towards enlightening the local communities surrounding protected

areas on the significant roles they will play in conservation of habitats through activities such

as proper waste management and planting of trees

1.7 Scope of the study

This study will be carried out in Maasai Mara game reserve and specifically Sekenani area.

This study will look at the various forms of human based habitat degradation in Mara and

will not look at the natural caused habitat degradation. The study will be carried out between

the months of December 2011 to April 2012.

1.8 Assumptions of the study

This study will assume that Maasai Mara experiences some of the forms of habitat

degradation that the researcher will be studying and that they have a direct impact on thewildlife tourism.

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1.9 Conceptual framework

Independent variables dependent variable

Source:Authors own compilation 2011

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Land use

Agriculture

Settlement

Pastoralism

Ranching

Tourismactivities

Off road driving

Littering

Overcrowding

pollution

Human activities

Logging

Mining sand

Charcoal burning

Medicinal use

Wildlife tourism

Economic benefits

Social benefits

Cultural benefits

Environmental

benefits

Solution

Policies

Education

and

awarenes

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter will look at the definitions of habitat degradation and wildlife based tourism, the

forms of habitat degradation, causes of habitat degradation, effects of habitat degradation,

wildlife based tourism activities, importance of wildlife based tourism and the impacts of

habitat degradation on wildlife based tourism

2.1 definitions

2.1.1 Habitat

A habitat is an area with a combination of resources (like food, cover, water) and

environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, presence or absence of predators and

competitors) that promotes occupancy by individuals of a given species (or population) and

allows those individuals to survive and reproduce. (Morrison L.M 2006).

2.1.2 Habitat degradation

Habitat degradation is the process by which habitat quality for a given species is diminished

(Hunter 2002:193). Moreover Connect states that habitat degradation occurs when there is a

disruption to an ecosystem that leaves it unable to support the species that inhabit it (Jeff

Corwin Connect 2011).

2.1.3 Wildlife

Wildlife is essentially undomesticated, free-ranging terrestrial vertebrates that arereptiles,

amphibians, birds, and mammals (Yarrow 2009).

2.1.4 Wildlife based tourism

Wildlife based tourism is tourism undertaken to view and/or encounter wildlife. It can takeplace in a range of settings, from captive, semi-captive, to in the wild and it encompasses a

variety of interactions from passive observation to feeding and/ or touching the species

viewed (David Newsome et al. 2005).

2.2 Habitat degradation

Habitat loss is the greatest threat to the natural world. Every living thing needs somewhere to

live, find food and reproduce. This is known as its habitat. In order for a species to be viable

its habitat must have sufficient territory, necessary food and water and a range of necessary

physical features. These features can include tree cover, rocky hills or deep pools, as well as

the organisms and ecosystems that are needed to complete the life cycle (Michael E. 2011).

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The Serengeti - Mara ecosystem supports the most diverse migration of grazing mammals on

earth. The Mara, although only a quarter of the total ecosystem area, is crucial to the survival

of the entire system because it is the source of forage for wildlife migrating through the

Serengeti during critical points in the dry season ( Reidet al2003)

However, only 25% of the wildlife habitat in the Mara part of the ecosystem is protected (in

the Mara Reserve); the rest lies within pastoral and agricultural areas north of the reserve.

These lands outside the reserve are also under more pressure than the rest of the ecosystem,

with recent unprecedented human population growth, expansion of wheat farming in

wildebeest calving grounds and expansion of tourism facilities ( Reidet al2003).

Moreover, when large numbers of tourists come to high-biodiversity areas, and the associated

development is not well managed, there can be extremely negative effects on habitat integrity

and drastically increased threat to vulnerable species.

The most pronounced threat to biodiversity posed by tourism is land clearance and

degradation resulting from tourism development. Developers in the hotspots and high-

biodiversity wilderness areas are clearing out littoral forest, ripping up mangrove stands,

dredging through sea grass beds, and filling in wetlands for tourism infrastructure and

developments. From hotel parking lots to golf courses and marinas, thousands of hectares of

critical habitat are being altered in ways that no longer support wildlife (Honey and Krantz

2007).

2.2.1Causes of habitat degradation

Habitat can be destroyed directly by many human activities, most of which involve theclearing of land for other uses such as agriculture, mining, logging, hydroelectric dams and

urbanization. Habitat can also be destroyed indirectly by human activities such as pollution,

fragmentation, climate change and the introduction of invasive species. It is also as a result of

natural events such as floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and climate fluctuations

(Klappenbach 2011).

The Maasai Mara region's popularity as a tourist destination is growing, and large-scale

tourist facilities are being built in pristine areas. The Habitat is being lost to large-scale

agriculture and commercial development. Population pressures from the surrounding regions

of Eastern Africa are further distressing the land and its resources (Gonomad 2011). Facilitiesoutside MMNR started developing in 1977 and have continued to the present day, despite the

existence of a moratorium on further establishment of facilities (Walpole 2003).

In addition the development of roadways often cuts directly through habitats, creating

fragmented sections of land that are not large or well-connected enough to support the species

living there. Animals inhabiting these areas are often left isolated and unable to reach other

suitable areas to feed or find mates. Animals that attempt to reach other habitats by crossing

roads and highways may be killed or injured by cars. Aquatic animals can be affected by

habitat fragmentation as well. The damming and rerouting of rivers may cause certain areas

such as swamps and riverbeds to shrink or completely dry up. This poses a serious problem

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for the wildlife such as fish, turtles and alligators that rely on these wetland habitats (Connect

2011)

Furthermore, uncontrolled and unregulated tourist use in some wildlife areas is a source of

concern for a variety of perceived or actual ecological and social impacts, including wildlife

disturbance and displacement, habitat damage and pollution. Much of this impact is due to

ignorance or a lack of effective management and control (Roe et al., 1997).

Uncontrolled off-road driving that occurs in accessible areas in the Mara where vehicle

pressure is greatest, has also damaged or destroyed several square kilometres of grassland,

although its aesthetic significance may be greater than its ecological effects (Walpole 2003).

Moreover, invasive species are also tied to habitat loss as they degrade the quality of healthy

habitat, forcing both predators and prey to search for more suitable habitats (defenders of

wildlife 2011).

Climate change is also a major threat to species all over the world as it continues to rapidly

exasperate habitat loss. Unless emissions are curbed and stronger efforts to conserve and

protect wildlife habitat are soon put in place, the many complex negative impacts of climate

change will continue to worsen. (Defenders of wildlife 2011)

2.2.2 Effects of habitat degradation

The effects of habitat destruction not only impact native species and communities, but they

impact human populations as well. Although habitat destruction primarily causes species

extinctions, it can also open up new habitat that might provide an environment in which new

species can evolve, thus demonstrating the resiliency of life on Earth (Klappenbach 2011)

When habitats are destroyed humans (tourists) lose direct uses of the natural habitat.

Aesthetic uses such as bird watching, recreational uses like hunting and fishing, and

ecotourism usually rely upon virtually undisturbed habitat. Many people value the complexity

of the natural world and are disturbed by the loss of natural habitats and animal or plant

species worldwide (MEA 2005).

Habitat degradation may alter the fitness of a landscape to such an extent that the species is

no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the

environment becoming toxic, or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete

effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species. That is, when a

habitat is destroyed, the plants, animals, and other organisms that occupied the habitat have a

reduced carrying capacity so that populations decline and extinction becomes more likely.

Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be

found within a certain ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may take place very

long after the destruction of habitat through a phenomenon known as extinction debt. (Stuart

and Raven 2000).

Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This canresult in the reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of infertile off-springs,

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as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within

their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon

China's Giant Panda, once found across the nation. Now it is only found in fragmented and

isolated regions in the south-west of the country, as a result of widespread deforestation in the

20th Century (Stuart and Raven 2000).

Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many

valuable ecosystem services. Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur,

and carbon cycles, which has increased the frequency and severity of acid rain, algae blooms,

and fish kills in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global climate change

(MEA 2005).

Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as a result of habitat

destruction include watershed management, nitrogen fixation, oxygen production, pollination,

waste treatment (i.e., the breaking down and immobilization of toxic pollutants), and nutrient

recycling of sewage or agricultural runoff. The loss of trees from the tropical rainforests

alone represents a substantial diminishing of the earths ability to produce oxygen and use up

carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing carbon

dioxide levels is one of the main contributors to global climate change (MEA 2005).

2.3 Wildlife based tourism

Wildlife tourism is based on encounters with non-domesticated (non-human) animals in

either their natural environment or in captivity. It includes both non-consumptive forms of

wildlife tourism, such as viewing, photography and feeding; and consumptive forms, such as

hunting and recreational fishing (Conway 1995). Technically wildlife includes both flora and

faunawith more emphasis on fauna, as usually understood in the tourism industry.

It has further been classified as Wildlife-dependent vs wildlife-independent. Wildlife-

dependent wildlife tourism occurswhen it is the tourists deliberate intention to view wildlife,

whereas wildlife-independentwildlife tourism relates to tourists who travel without the

specific intention of experiencingwildlife, but consider their wildlife encounter adds value to

their recreational experience. Analternative terminology sometimes presented for this is

primary vs secondary wildlife watching.(Higginbottom et al.2001).

The common wildlife based products on offer in the tourism industry include: animal

watching, thrill seeking tours, artificial wildlife attractions, fishing and hunting tours and

habitat specific tours (Reynolds and Braithwaite 2001) which are mainly non- consumptive.

These benefits are accrued from the wide range of

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2.3.1 Importance of wildlife based tourism

2.3.1.1 Economic benefits

Tourism currently accounts for about 10 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP),

making it the third largest contributor to GDP after agriculture and manufacturing, andKenyas third largest foreign exchange earner after tea and horticulture. The sector is also a

major source of employment estimated in 1998 at over 500,000 jobs, of which some 360,000

jobs were in the formal sector and 180,000 jobs in the informal sector. The sector is also a

major source of Government Revenue in the form of taxes, duties, licence fees, entry fees,

etc., while the spatial distribution of tourist attractions contributes to equitable distributions of

economic and infrastructural development (National tourism policy 2006).

2.3.1.2 Socio-cultural benefits

Communities in Kenya have lived amongst, and used, wildlife resources since timeimmemorial without formal policy and legislation. These communities ensured conservation

of the wildlife resource through cultural and social bonds, and traditional practices. Sacred

beliefs centred on certain wildlife species ensured that conservation principles were part of

their way of life (Kenya Wildlife Policy 2006).

Tourism is a force of peace. Sustainable tourism has an educational element in that it can

foster understanding between people and cultures and provide cultural exchange between

hosts and guests. This increases chances of people to develop mutual sympathy and

understanding and to reduce prejudices. It also strengthens communities through events and

festivals of the local residents where they have been primary participants and spectators. Jobscreated can be a very important motivation to reduce migration from rural areas. Locals can

also benefit from social amenities such as upgraded infrastructures, health and transport

improvements, new sport and recreational facilities and food (global summit on peace 2000)

2.3.1.3 Ecological benefits

Tourism has fostered conservation and preservation of natural, cultural, and historical

resources. It has encouraged community beautification and revitalization (Barcelona field

study centre 2011).Tourism has been partly responsible for increased interest in, and concern

for, the natural and built environment and its condition. Effective visitor information services,interpretative signing, guided tours can raise the profile of natural assets and issues

surrounding them. In many cases tourism has provided an economic argument for

conservation, preservation and restoration of natural and built resources (tourism victoria

2010)

2.4 Impacts of habitat degradation on wildlife tourism.

Tourism is the worlds largest industry, and nature-based tourism is an increasingly

significant proportion of global tourism. It provides an economic rationale for protected areas

and has the potential to generate significant benefits for conservation, local communities and

national governments. (Walpole 2003).However, Kenyas great reservoir of wildlife is

increasingly under threat and consequently opportunities are being lost for it to positively

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contribute to economic growth, wealth creation and increased employment. This is because of

various challenges such as land use changes, destruction of wildlife habitats, insecure tenure

to land and illegal and unsustainable off-take of wildlife and bush meat (Kenya Wildlife

Policy 2007).

Although previously habitat changes were relatively a minor factor in decline of species,

being overshadowed for centuries by overexploitation and introduction of exotic species

(Soule et al. 1979; WCMC 1992), their relative importance has increased in recent decades.

Habitat loss has emerged the most severe threat to biodiversity worldwide (Brooks et al.

2002b; IUCN 2004; Naeemet al. 1999; Smith and Smith 2003) threatening some 85% of all

species classified as "threatened" and "endangered in the IUCN'sRed Lists (IUCN 2004). It

is the most pervasive to birds, mammals and amphibians (ibid). Continued degradation

impliesloss of wildlife leading to a decline in wildlife tourism and its eventual extinction. The

benefits of tourism will in turn be lost.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLODY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter will look at the area of study, the study design, Research design, Target

populations, Sampling design, Sample size, Sampling procedure, Data collection and

instruments; Validity of research instruments and Data analysis procedures

3.1 Study area

The Maasai Mara game reserve is situated 168 kilometres (105) miles south of equator, about

247 kilometres southwest of Kenyas capital city, Nairobi. It lies in southwest Kenya, in the

Narok district of Kenyas Maasai land. The reserve covers a total of 1510 square kilometres,with the Maasai triangle covering about 690 square kilometres (the area west of Mara river)

and 820 square kilometres covering that areas east of the Mara river. It is bounded by

Serengeti Park to the south, the Siria escarpment to the west, the Loita hills lie to the east, the

Loita plains to the north and the Maasai pastoral ranches to the north, east and west. Rainfall

in the ecosystem increases markedly a long a southeast-northwest bimodal.The Maasai Mara

game reserve is only a fraction of the greater Mara ecosystem, which includes the following

group ranches: Koiyaki, Lemek, OlChorroOirowua, OlKinyei, Siana, Majimoto, Naikara,

OlDerkesi, Kerinkani, Oloirien and Kimintet.

The sand, Talek and Mara rivers are the main rivers draining the reserve. Shrubs and trees

cover most drainage lines and cover hill slopes and hilltops. The terrain of the reserve is

primarily open grasslands with seasonal riverlets in the southeast region are clumps of the

acacia tree. The western border is the Esoit (Siria) escarpment of the Great Rift Valley.

Wildlife seems to be more concentrated here as the swampy ground means that access to

water is always good, while tourist disruption is minimal. The easternmost border is 224

kilometres from Nairobi and hence it is the eastern regions which are most visited by tourists.

The population of the Narok town is 40000 people as per the 2009 census.

3.2 Research design

According to Mugenda (1999), research design is the plan, structure and strategy of

investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions.

Based on the research problem and the research questions formulated for the study, the

research design that will be used is the descriptive survey design. The reason for selecting

this design is because the research requires the respondents to give information that will be

used to determine the effects of habitat degradation on wildlife tourism.Apart from just

describing, the survey design will be used for explaining the existing status of habitat

degradation. Descriptive studies generally take raw data and summarize it in a usable form.

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3.3 Target populations

According to Mugenda (1999), target population is a population to which a researcher would

like to generalize the results of a study. The target population for this study will be 69 game

employees who will include 62 rangers and 7 wardens in Maasai Mara and 500 local people

within 5km of Mara nature reserve.

Sampling frame showing target population

3.4 Sampling Design

According to Mugenda (1999), the term sample design refers to the procedures or processes

used to obtain the sample size for the study. The sample size on the other hand, is the

number of cases involved in the study from which the researcher collects data. The sampling

designs to be used will be purposive sampling to select sekenani area as a study case because

of the evident land use practices and incidences of habitat degradation, and simple random

sampling will be used to select the respondents for the questionnaires.

3.4.1 Sample sizeAccording to Mugenda (1999) if descriptive study is used 10% of the target population is

adequate.

Target group Population Sampling Sample size

Rangers 62 10% x 62 6

Local residents 500 10% x 500 50

Total 56

6 questionnaires will be administered to the rangers, 50 to the local people and 3 wardens will

be selected for interviewing

3.4.2 Sampling Procedure

Simple random procedure will be used to select the respondents for the questionnaires.

3.5 Data Collection

This subsection discussed the data types and sources to be used in the study, the data

collection instruments and validity of the instruments.

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Maasai Mara game reserve

Employees Wardens Rangers Local residents Total

69 7 62 500 569


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3.5.1 Data types and sources

3.5.1.1 Primary data

This data will be collected through administration of structured and semi structured

questionnaires and interviews with the wardens.

3.5.1.2 Secondary data

This data will be collected from published dossiers and books from the library and the

internet to supplement the information about degradation in Maasai Mara.

3.5.2 Data collection instruments

3.5.2.1 Questionnaires

Questionnaires will be designed based on the research problem to be administered to the

wardens and the rangers of Maasai Mara game reserve. All the questionnaires will constitute

close-ended questions and likert scale as they will be easier to code and analyse. They will be

taken to Maasai Mara by the researcher, monitored and then collected when duly filled for the

analysis of the information. Advantages of using questionnaires include gathering

information in a standardized way, it is cost effective, and they permit anonymity

3.5.2.2 Interview schedules

This will involve oral presentation of the questions to the respondents. The oral interviews

will be conducted in such a manner to tally with the objectives of the research and hence

enable the researcher to obtain in-depth information. The interview schedule will have open-ended questions so as to collect in-depth information that the questionnaire could not. The

advantage of the interview schedule is that it can be used to seek personal opinion of the

respondents regarding habitat degradation.

3.5.3 Validity of Research instruments.

According to Mugenda (1999), validity is the degree to which results obtained from the

analysis of the data actually represent the phenomenon under study. A pilot study will be

conducted in Maasai ,Mara game reserve where seven questionnaires will be given out to test

questionnaires for ambiguous questions or ease of answering and understanding thequestionnaires.

3.6 Data Analysis Procedures

Quantitative data from the study will be cleaned, coded and analyzed through descriptive

statistics by the help of Scientific Packages for Social Scientists software (S.P.S.S) and

Microsoft excel. Descriptive statistics makes use of measures of central tendency such as

means, median and mode and measures of dispersion such as range deviation and variance to

describe a group of subjects. Counts and percentages of the individuals will be used to

interpret the data. The data will be presented by use of graphs, charts and table

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geographyfieldwork.com/TourismProsCons.htm

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loss viewed on 29 September)

Defenders of wildlife (2011), Threats to wildlife due to habitat loss

(http://www.defenders.org/programs_and_policy/wildlife_conservation/threats/habitat_loss.p

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Delener N. (2010), Current trends in the global tourism industry evidence from the United

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Eagles P. F. J et al. (2002) Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning

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Fredline and Faulkner (2001) cited in Wildlife Tourism: challenges, opportunities and

L. Mastny, Traveling Light: New Paths for International Tourism, Worldwatch Institute,

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Honey,M and Krantz D. (2007). Global trends in coastal tourism. Stanford university press.

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Gonomad (2011) .Keeping the Faith: The Maasai Environmental Resource Coalition

(MERC) http://www.gonomad.com/helps/0009/merc.html viewed on 2 December

managing the future. CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd .Australia

Geist, H. J., and Lambin E. F. Dynamic causal patterns of desertification Bioscience

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tourism, Thailand

Higginbottom Karen (2004) Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and Planning.Common

Ground Publishing. australia

Homewood, K.M. & Rodgers, W.A. (1991) Maasailand ecology: pastoralist development

and wildlife conservation in Ngorongoro, Tanzania. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

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Homewood, K., Lambin, E.F., Coast, E., Kariuki, A., Kikula, I., Kivelia, J., Said, M.,

Serneels, S. & Thompson, M. (2001) Long-term changes in Serengeti-Mara wildlbeest and

land cover: Pastoralism, population or policies? Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences, 98, 12544-12549.

Honey and Krantz (2007), Global trends in coastal tourism, Stanford University press:

Washington DC

Kideghesho1a, J. R, Nyahongo, J.W 2b, Shombe N. H.1c, Tarimo1d T. C.& Mbije1e E. N.

(2006).Factors and Ecological Impacts of Wildlife Habitat Destruction in the Serengeti

Ecosystem in Northern Tanzania.Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA). Tanzania

Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI),Tanzania.(11) p17-32

Klappenchab L. (2011) Habitat destruction (http://animals.about.com/od/h/g/habitat-

destruction.htm viewed on 27 September)

Tourism Victoria (2010) Benefits of Tourism: Growing Destinations viewed on 3 November

www.tourimexcellence.com.au/Growing-Destinations/Benefits-of-Tourism.html

Laurance, W. F. 1999. Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis, Biological

Conservation 91: 109-117

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25 September

MEA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. IslandPress, Covelo, CA

Mugenda, M. (1994), Research Methods, Nairobi Press: Kenya

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species. In: Gakahu, C.G. (ed.), Tourist attitudes and use impacts in Masai Mara National

Reserve. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, pp. 18-38.

Newsome D et al. (2005)Wildlife tourism: Aspects of Tourism. Channel view publishers.

Toronto

Ottichilo, W.K., de Leeuw, J., Skidmore, A.K., Prins, H.H.T. & Said, M.Y. (2000)

Population trends of large non-migratory wild herbivores and livestock in the Masai Mara

ecosystem, Kenya, between 1977 and 1997.African Journal of Ecology, 38, 202-216.

Ottichilo, W.K., de Leeuw, J. &Prins, H.T. (2001) Population dynamics of resident

wildebeest [Connochaetestaurinushecki (Neumann)] and factors influencing them in the

Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya.Biological Conservation, 97, 271-282

Reid, R.S. et al (2003). People, Wildlife and Livestock in the Mara Ecosystem: The Mara

Count 2002 Report, Mara Count 2002, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi,Kenya.

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wildlife tourism, IIED Wildlife and Development Series: London

Serneels, S. &Lambin, E.F. (2001) Impact of land-use changes on the wildebeest migration in

thenorthern part of the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem.Journal of Biogeography, 28, 391-407

Sitati, N.W. (1997) The impact of changing land use patterns in the adjacent Masai Mara

group ranches on the large herbivore populations. MPhil Thesis, Moi University, Eldoret.

Sitati, N.W. (2003)Human-elephant conflict in TransMara district adjacent to Masai Mara

National Reserve. PhD thesis, University of Kent, Canterbury.

Smith E. K and Dr. Welch A. (2004) Habitat Destruction: ecology

Stuart and Raven (2000) cited in Morrison M. et al (2006)Wildlife-Habitat Relationships:

Concepts and Applications Island press : Washington D.C

Primack, R. B. 2006. Essentials of Conservation Biology. 4th Ed. Habitat destruction, pages

177-188. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland

Walpole M, Karanja GG, Sitati NW and Leader-Williams N (2003) Wildlife and People:

Conflict and Conservation in Masai Mara,Kenya.Wildlife and Development Series No.14,

International Institute for Environment and Development, London.

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Largest Industry for the Worlds Poor, international institute for environment and

development press: (http://www.propoortourism.org.uk/Dilys%20IIED%20paper.pdf as at 17

October)

WPU (Wildlife Planning Unit) (1983) Masai Mara National Reserve Management

Plan.Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi.

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ClemsonAJEAM-RAGEE ( 110)April 2006 p917-32

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EMPLOYEES AND COMMUNITYDear respondent

I am a fourth year student at Moi University undertaking a bachelors degree course in

Tourism Management. This questionnaire is a research tool that was designed to assess the

impacts of habitat degradation on wildlife tourism. Your assistance towards achieving this

objective will be highly appreciated. The information that you will provide will be treated

with utmost confidentiality and will be for academic purposes only.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Yours sincerely,

Nancy Nyakundi

==================================================================

===

Please tick against each item.

SECTION A: PERSONAL INFORMATION

1. What is your gender?

Male ( ) Female ( )

2. Indicate your marital status.

Single ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Widowed ( )

3. Indicate your present age

18 24 ( ) 25 32( ) 33 40( ) 40 50 ( ) Above 51 ( )

4. What is your profession?

Work in a lodge ( ) game ranger ( ) game warden ( ) resident around the Mara ( )

If other please specify____________________

5. How long have you worked in Mara or lived around Maasai Mara ?

Less than one year ( ) 1-3years ( ) 4-6 years ( ) 7-12years ( ) 12-23 years ( )

Over 24 years ( )

SECTION B: HUMAN ACTIVITIES

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Please tick in the appropriate box if you think the following activities do happen in

Maasai Mara game reserve.

Statement Most

frequently

Frequently Dont

know

Rarely Not at

all

There is cutting down of trees and

shrubs for charcoal burning in Mara

Firewood is collected from Mara

game reserve

Sand for building comes from Mara,

Talek and Sand rivers

Trees and logs for construction of

manyattas, fencing and building ofhouses comes from Maasai Mara

Local medicine is gotten from tree

barks, herbs and shrubs from Maasai

Mara

Cutting down of trees for timber used

by lodges to make furniture, trails and

beautify their lodges.

Any other

....

SECTION C: LAND USES

Statement Strongly

agree

Agree Dont

know

Disagree Strongly

disagree

People graze their animals in Maasai

Mara game reserve.

Land in some areas is being used for

agricultural purposes.

There are settlements in the Mara reserve

with some built with bricks.

Group ranches are found around Mara

game reserve and some are fenced.

Lodges have bush dinners, lunches,

breakfast and sun-downers in the heart of

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the Mara game reserve.

There is an increase in the number of

lodges and tented camps being built in

Maasai Mara game reserve.

Lodges and tented camps are built near

or on rivers and springs that are found in

Maasai Mara game reserve

Any other

.

SECTION D: TOURISM ACTIVITIES

Statement Strongly

agree

Agree Dont

know

Disagree Strongly

disagree

Tourists and local people throw litter in

the reserve when they are in the reserve

Tourists crowd when animals are

sighted i.e. lions, rhinos, leopards and

cheetahs.

Tour guides drive off the roads for a

closer view of the animals or to search

for some of the animals like the rhino

and leopard

Vehicles cause air and noise pollution

in the game reserve.

Tourists collect flowers plants and

fungi when in the game reserve..

Any other

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APPENDIX 2

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. How long have you been working in Maasai Mara?

2. In your opinion what are the various human activities that occur in Maasai Mara and

to what extent do they affect the habitat?

3. Are there any measures that have been put in place to mitigate them?

4. What are the various land use activities that are practised in Maasai Mara game

reserve and their impact on the environment?

5. Do tourist activities really have any effect on the wildlife and the environment in

Maasai Mara?

6. What would you recommend that should be done to curb environmental destruction?

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APPENDIX 3

3.1 Work plan

Table 1: Work plan

28

Activities Duration Input By whom Output

Month Year

Deciding on a

researchable topic

of study

August 2011 Writing the

research topic

Researcher Title of the

research

proposal

Writing of the

research proposal

in consultation

with supervisors

September

to October

2011 Writing the

research

proposal

Researcher A research

proposal

Proposal

presentation and

corrections

November 2011 Presentation

and

Corrections

Researcher/

Supervisors

Questionnaire

and interview

schedule

Development and

validating of the

data collection

instruments;

questionnaires and

interview schedule

September

to

November

2011 Construction

of

questionnaire

and interview

schedule

Researcher/

Supervisors

Questionnaire

and interview

schedule

Piloting of the

instruments to the

sampled

respondents

December 2011 Administering

data collection

instruments

Researcher Research data

Analysis of data February 2012 Researchers

collection data

Researcher Analysed data

Project

presentation

March 2012 Researchers

final project

Researcher/

Supervisors

Final project

Project submission March 2012 Researchers

final project

Researcher Final project


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APPENDIX 4

4.2 Projected Budget

Table 2: Projected Budget

Description No. @ Kshs Total (Kshs)

Equipment

Flash disk

Modem

1

1

1000

3000

1000

3000

Sub-total 4000 4000

Publication

Photocopying

Binding of the project

Binding of the

proposal

-

3

2

2000

200

200

2000

600

400

Sub-total - - 3000

Travelling costs

Piloting questionnaire

Data collection

1 day

3 weeks

3500

5000

3500

5000

Sub-total - 8000 8000

Other expenses

Communication

Modem airtime

Miscellaneous

1500

1000

2700

2000

3000

2700

Sub-total - - 7700

GRAND TOTAL 22700

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investigating the impacts of habitat degradation on wildlife tourism

Documents