Invasion of NormandyPart of Operation Overlord (World War II)

Into the Jaws of Death by Robert F. Sargent. Assaultcraft land one of the first waves at Omaha Beach.The U.S. Coast Guard caption identifies the unit asCompany E, 16th Infantry, 1st Infantry Division.

Date 6 June 1944 – mid­July 1944

Location Normandy, France

Result Allied victory

Belligerents

Allies

United Kingdom United States Canada Free France Poland

Australia[nb 1]

Free Belgian Forces New Zealand Netherlands

Norway[1]

Free CzechoslovakForces

Greece

Axis

Germany

Commanders and leaders

Invasion of NormandyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the first few weeks of the invasion of Normandy. The first day of the landings(commonly known as D­Day) is covered in more detail at Normandy landings.For earlier invasions of Normandy in other wars, see Invasions of Normandy (disambiguation).

The Invasion of Normandy was the invasion byand establishment of Western Allied forces inNormandy, during Operation Overlord in 1944during World War II; the largest amphibiousinvasion to ever take place.

D­Day, the day of the initial assaults, was Tuesday6 June 1944. Allied land forces that saw combat inNormandy on that day came from Canada, the FreeFrench forces, the United Kingdom, and the UnitedStates. In the weeks following the invasion, Polishforces also participated, as well as contingents fromBelgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, and theNetherlands.[4] Most of the above countries alsoprovided air and naval support, as did the RoyalAustralian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand AirForce,[nb 1] and the Royal Norwegian Navy.[1]

The Normandy invasion began with overnightparachute and glider landings, massive air attacksand naval bombardments. In the early morning,amphibious landings on five beaches codenamedJuno, Gold, Omaha, Utah, and Sword began andduring the evening the remaining elements of theparachute divisions landed. Land forces used on D­Day deployed from bases along the south coast ofEngland, the most important of these beingPortsmouth.[5]

Contents

1 Planning of the Invasion2 Codenames3 Allied order of battle

3.1 D­Day3.2 Subsequent days3.3 Naval participants

4 German order of battle4.1 Atlantic Wall

4.1.1 Divisional areas4.1.2 Adjacent divisional areas

4.2 Armoured reserves4.2.1 Army Group B reserve4.2.2 OKW reserve

Coordinates: 49°20′N 0°34′W

Dwight D.Eisenhower(Supreme AlliedCommander)

Arthur Tedder(Deputy Supreme AlliedCommander)

BernardMontgomery (21st ArmyGroup, Ground ForcesCommander in Chief)

Trafford Leigh­Mallory (Air Commanderin Chief)

Bertram Ramsay(Naval Commander inChief)

Miles Dempsey(British 2nd Army)

Omar Bradley (U.S.1st Army)

Gerd von Rundstedt(Oberbefehlshaber West)

Erwin Rommel(Heeresgruppe B)

Friedrich Dollmann(7 Armeeoberkommando)

Leo Geyr vonSchweppenburg (PanzerGroup West)

Strength1,332,000 (by 24 July)[2] 380,000 (by 23 July)[3]

Casualties and lossesby 24 July:≈120,000 casualties[2]

by 24 July:113,059 casualties[2]

U.S. soldiers march throughWeymouth, Dorset en route to boardlanding ships for the invasion ofFrance.

4.2.2 OKW reserve5 Landings6 Allied establishment in France7 Assessment of the battle

7.1 German leadership8 War memorials and tourism9 Dramatisations10 Notes11 References12 Further reading13 External links

Planning of the Invasion

Allied forces rehearsed their D­Day roles formonths before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, insouth Devon on the English coast, 638 U.S. soldiersand sailors were killed when German torpedo boatssurprised one of these landing exercises, ExerciseTiger.[6]

In the months leading up to the invasion, the Alliedforces conducted a deception operation, OperationFortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans withrespect to the date and place of the invasion.

There were several leaks prior to or on D­Day.Through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtaineddocuments containing references to Overlord, butthese documents lacked all detail.[7] Double Crossagents, such as the Spaniard Joan Pujol (codenamed Garbo), played an important role in convincing theGerman High Command that Normandy was at best adiversionary attack. U.S. Major General Henry Miller, chiefsupply officer of the US 9th Air Force, during a party atClaridge's Hotel in London complained to guests of the supplyproblems he was having but that after the invasion, which he toldthem would be before 15 June, supply would be easier. Afterbeing told, Eisenhower reduced Miller to lieutenant colonel[Associated Press, June 10, 1944] and sent him back to the U.S.where he retired.[8] Another such leak was General Charles deGaulle's radio message after D­Day. He, unlike all the otherleaders, stated that this invasion was the real invasion. This hadthe potential to ruin the Allied deceptions Fortitude North andFortitude South. In contrast, Gen. Eisenhower referred to the landings as the initial invasion.

Only ten days each month were suitable for launching the operation: a day near the full moon wasneeded both for illumination during the hours of darkness and for the spring tide, the former toilluminate navigational landmarks for the crews of aircraft, gliders and landing craft, and the latter toexpose defensive obstacles placed by the German forces in the surf on the seaward approaches to the

beaches. A full moon occurred on 6 June. Allied Expeditionary Force Supreme Commander Dwight D.Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. The weather was fine during mostof May, but deteriorated in early June. On 4 June, conditions were clearly unsuitable for a landing; windand high seas would make it impossible to launch landing craft from larger ships at sea, low cloudswould prevent aircraft finding their targets. The Allied troop convoys already at sea were forced to takeshelter in bays and inlets on the south coast of Britain for the night.

It seemed possible that everything would have to be cancelled and the troops returned to theirembarkation camps (which would be almost impossible, as the enormous movement of follow­upformations into them was already proceeding).[9] The next full moon period would be nearly a monthaway. At a vital meeting on 5 June, Eisenhower's chief meteorologist (Group Captain J.M. Stagg)forecast a brief improvement for 6 June.[10] Commander of all land forces for the invasion GeneralBernard Montgomery and Eisenhower's Chief of Staff General Walter Bedell Smith wished to proceedwith the invasion. Commander of the Allied Air Forces Air Chief Marshal Leigh Mallory was doubtful,but Allied Naval Commander­in­Chief Admiral Bertram Ramsay believed that conditions would bemarginally favorable.[9] On the strength of Stagg's forecast, Eisenhower ordered the invasion toproceed.[11] As a result, prevailing overcast skies limited Allied air support, and no serious damagewould be done to the beach defences on Omaha and Juno.[12]

The Germans meanwhile took comfort from the existing poor conditions, which were worse overNorthern France than over the English Channel itself, and believed no invasion would be possible forseveral days. Some troops stood down and many senior officers were away for the weekend. FieldMarshal Erwin Rommel took a few days' leave to celebrate his wife's birthday,[13] while dozens ofdivision, regimental and battalion commanders were away from their posts conducting war games justprior to the invasion.[14]

Codenames

The Allies assigned codenames to the various operations involved in the invasion. Overlord was thename assigned to the establishment of a large­scale lodgement on the northern portion of the Continent.The first phase, the establishment of a secure foothold, was codenamed Neptune. According to the D­daymuseum:

The armed forces use codenames to refer to the planning and execution of specific militaryoperations. Operation Overlord was the codename for the Allied invasion of northwest Europe.The assault phase of Operation Overlord was known as Operation Neptune. (…) OperationNeptune began on D­Day (6 June 1944) and ended on 30 June 1944. By this time, the Allies hadestablished a firm foothold in Normandy. Operation Overlord also began on D­Day, and continueduntil Allied forces crossed the River Seine on 19 August 1944.[15]

Officers with knowledge of D­Day were not to be sent where there was the slightest danger of beingcaptured. These officers were given the codename of "Bigot", derived from the words "To Gib" (ToGibraltar) that was stamped on the papers of officers who took part in the North African invasion in1942.[16] On the night of 27 April, during Exercise Tiger, a pre­invasion exercise off the coast of SlaptonSands beach, several American LSTs were attacked by German E boats and among the 638 Americanskilled in the attack and a further 308 killed by friendly fire, ten "Bigots" were listed as missing. As theinvasion would be cancelled if any were captured or unaccounted for, their fate was given the highestpriority and eventually all ten bodies were recovered.

D­day assault routes into Normandy.

Off Omaha Beach, American Libertyships – 'Corn Cobs' were scuttled toprovide a makeshift breakwaterduring the early days of the invasion.

Allied order of battle

D­Day

The following major units were landed on D­Day (6 June 1944).A more detailed order of battle for D­Day itself can be found atNormandy landings.

British 6th Airborne Division.[17]British I Corps, 3rd British Infantry Division and theBritish 27th Armoured Brigade.3rd Canadian Infantry Division, 2nd Canadian ArmouredBrigadeBritish XXX Corps, British 50th Infantry Division andBritish 8th Armoured Brigade.[18]British 79th Armoured DivisionU.S. V Corps, U.S. 1st Infantry Division and U.S. 29th Infantry Division.[17][19]

U.S. VII Corps, U.S. 4th Infantry Division.,[19] U.S. 101st Airborne Division.,[19] U.S. 82ndAirborne Division.[19][20][21]

The total number of troops landed on D­Day was around 130,000[22]–156,000[23] roughly half Americanand the other from the Commonwealth Realms.

Subsequent days

Main article: Mulberry harbour

The total troops, vehicles and supplies landed over the period ofthe invasion were:

By the end of 11 June (D + 5), 326,547 troops, 54,186vehicles and 104,428 tons of supplies.[23]By 30 June (D+24) over 850,000 men, 148,000 vehicles,and 570,000 tons of supplies.[22]

By 4 July one million men had been landed.[24]

Naval participants

Main article: Normandy landings

The invasion fleet was drawn from eight different navies,comprising 6,939 vessels: 1,213 warships, 4,126 transportvessels (landing ships and landing craft), and 736 ancillary craft and 864 merchant vessels.[17]

The overall commander of the Allied Naval Expeditionary Force, providing close protection andbombardment at the beaches, was Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay. The Allied Naval Expeditionary Forcewas divided into two Naval Task Forces: Western (Rear­Admiral Alan G Kirk) and Eastern (Rear­Admiral Sir Philip Vian).

Large landing craft convoy crossesthe English Channel on 6 June 1944.

A map of the Atlantic Wall.

The warships provided cover for the transports against the enemy—whether in the form of surfacewarships, submarines, or as an aerial attack—and gave support to the landings through shorebombardment. These ships included the Allied Task Force "O".

German order of battle

The number of military forces at the disposal of Nazi Germany reached its peak during 1944. Tanks onthe east front peaked at 5,202 in November 1944, while total aircraft in the Luftwaffe inventory peakedat 5,041 in December 1944. By D­Day 157 German divisionswere stationed in the Soviet Union, 6 in Finland, 12 in Norway, 6in Denmark, 9 in Germany, 21 in the Balkans, 26 in Italy and 59in France, Belgium and the Netherlands.[25] However, thesestatistics are somewhat misleading since a significant number ofthe divisions in the east were depleted; German records indicatethat the average personnel complement was at about 50% in thespring of 1944.[26]

A more detailed order of battle for D­Day itself can be found atNormandy landings.

Atlantic Wall

Main articles: Atlantic Wall and English Channel

Standing in the way of the Allies was the English Channel, acrossing which had eluded the Spanish Armada and NapoleonBonaparte's Navy. Compounding the invasion efforts was theextensive Atlantic Wall, ordered by Hitler in his Directive 51.Believing that any forthcoming landings would be timed for hightide (this caused the landings to be timed for low tide), Hitler hadthe entire wall fortified with tank top turrets and extensive barbedwire, and laid a million mines to deter landing craft. The sectorwhich was attacked was guarded by four divisions.

Divisional areas

The following units were deployed in a static defensive mode inthe areas of the actual landings:

716th Infantry Division (Static) consisted mainly of those'unfit for active duty' and released prisoners.352nd Infantry Division, a well­trained unit containingcombat veterans.91st Air Landing Division (Luftlande – air transported), a regular infantry division, trained, andequipped to be transported by air.709th Infantry Division (Static). Like the 716th, this division included a number of "Ost"battalions who were provided with German leadership to manage them.

Adjacent divisional areas

Other divisions occupied the areas around the landing zones, including:

German Cross­Channel gun of theAtlantic Wall. One of three 40.6cmguns at Batterie "Lindemann"

German infantrymen scan the skiesfor Allied aircraft in Normandy, 1944

243rd Infantry Division (Static) (Generalleutnant HeinzHellmich), comprising the 920th Infantry Regiment (twobattalions), 921st Infantry Regiment, and 922nd InfantryRegiment. This coastal defense division protected thewestern coast of the Cotentin Peninsula.711th Infantry Division (Static) (Generalleutnant JosefReichert), comprising the 731st Infantry Regiment, and744th Infantry Regiment. This division defended thewestern part of the Pays de Caux.30th Mobile Brigade (Oberstleutnant Freiherr von und zuAufsess), comprising three bicycle battalions.

Armoured reserves

Rommel's defensive measures were also frustrated by a disputeover armoured doctrine. In addition to his two army groups, vonRundstedt also commanded the headquarters of Panzer GroupWest under General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg (usuallyreferred to as von Geyr). This formation was nominally anadministrative HQ for von Rundstedt's armoured and mobileformations, but it was later to be renamed Fifth Panzer Army andbrought into the line in Normandy. Von Geyr and Rommeldisagreed over the deployment and use of the vital Panzerdivisions.

Rommel recognised that the Allies would possess air superiorityand would be able to harass his movements from the air. He therefore proposed that the armouredformations be deployed close to the invasion beaches. In his words, it was better to have one Panzerdivision facing the invaders on the first day, than three Panzer divisions three days later when the Allieswould already have established a firm beachhead. Von Geyr argued for the standard doctrine that thePanzer formations should be concentrated in a central position around Paris and Rouen, and deployed enmasse against the main Allied beachhead when this had been identified.

The argument was eventually brought before Hitler for arbitration. He characteristically imposed anunworkable compromise solution. Only three Panzer divisions were given to Rommel, too few to coverall the threatened sectors. The remainder, nominally under Von Geyr's control, were actually designatedas being in "OKW Reserve". Only three of these were deployed close enough to intervene immediatelyagainst any invasion of Northern France; the other four were dispersed in southern France and theNetherlands. Hitler reserved to himself the authority to move the divisions in OKW Reserve, or committhem to action. On 6 June many Panzer division commanders were unable to move because Hitler hadnot given the necessary authorisation, and his staff refused to wake him upon news of the invasion.

Army Group B reserve

The 21st Panzer Division (Generalmajor Edgar Feuchtinger) was deployed near Caen as a mobilestriking force as part of the Army Group B reserve. However, Rommel placed it so close to thecoastal defenses that, under standing orders in case of invasion, several of its infantry and anti­aircraft units would come under the orders of the fortress divisions on the coast, reducing theeffective strength of the division.

Landing supplies at Normandy

The other two armoured divisions over which Rommel had operational control, the 2nd Panzer Divisionand 116th Panzer Division, were deployed near the Pas de Calais in accordance with German viewsabout the likely Allied landing sites. Neither was moved from the Pas de Calais for at least fourteen daysafter the invasion.

OKW reserve

The other mechanized divisions capable of intervening in Normandy were retained under the directcontrol of the German Armed Forces HQ (OKW) and were initially denied to Rommel:

Four divisions were deployed to Normandy within seven days of the invasion:

The 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend (Brigadeführer Fritz Witt) was stationed to thesoutheast. Its officers and NCOs (this division had a very weak core of NCOs in Normandy withonly slightly more than 50% of its authorised strength[27]) were long­serving veterans, but thejunior soldiers had all been recruited directly from the Hitler Youth movement at the age ofseventeen in 1943. It was to acquire a reputation for ferocity and war crimes in the coming battle.Further to the southwest was the Panzer­Lehr­Division (Generalmajor Fritz Bayerlein), an eliteunit originally formed by amalgamating the instructing staff at various training establishments.Not only were its personnel of high quality, but the division also had unusually high numbers ofthe latest and most capable armoured vehicles.1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler was refitting in Belgium on the Netherlandsborder after being decimated on the Eastern Front.17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Götz von Berlichingen (Generalmajor Werner Ostendorff) wasbased on Thouars, south of the Loire River, and although equipped with Assault guns instead oftanks and lacking in other transport (such that one battalion each from the 37th and 38thPanzergrenadier Regiments moved by bicycle), it provided the first major counterattack againstthe American advance at Carentan on 13 June.

Three other divisions (the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich,which had been refitting at Montauban in Southern France, andthe 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS PanzerDivision Frundsberg which had been in transit from the EasternFront on 6 June), were committed to battle in Normandy aroundtwenty­one days after the first landings.

One more armoured division (the 9th Panzer Division) sawaction only after the American breakout from the beachhead.Two other armoured divisions which had been in the west on 6June (the 11th Panzer Division and 19th Panzer Division) did notsee action in Normandy.

Landings

Main article: Normandy landings

Allied establishment in France

The Allied invasion plans had called for the capture of Saint­Lô, Caen, and Bayeux on the first day, withall the beaches linked except Utah, and Sword (the last linked with paratroopers) and a front line 10 to16 kilometres (6–10 mi) from the beaches. However, practically none of these objectives had been

The build­up of Omaha Beach:reinforcements of men and equipmentmoving inland

La Cambe German war cemetery

achieved. It took two months for British and Canadian troops to capture Caen, as they faced 7 heavyPanzer divisions, while their American allies, although advancing more rapidly, faced only 2 of thesedivisions. Overall the casualties had not been as heavy as some had feared (around 10,000 compared tothe 20,000 Churchill had estimated) and the bridgeheads had withstood the expected counterattacks.

Once the beachhead was established, two artificial Mulberry harbours were towed across the EnglishChannel in segments and made operational around D+3 (9 June).One was constructed at Arromanches by British forces, the otherat Omaha Beach by American forces. By 19 June, when severestorms interrupted the landing of supplies for several days anddestroyed the Omaha harbour, the British had landed 314,547men, 54,000 vehicles, and 102,000 tons of supplies, while theAmericans put ashore 314,504 men, 41,000 vehicles, and116,000 tons of supplies.[28] Around 9,000 tons of materiel werelanded daily at the Arromanches harbour until the end of August1944, by which time the port of Cherbourg had been secured bythe Allies and had begun to return to service.

In addition, with the installation of PLUTO in August 1944 theAllies had fuel piped over directly from England without havingto rely on vulnerable tankers.

Assessment of the battle

The Normandy landings were the first successful opposedlandings across the English Channel in over eight centuries. Theywere costly in terms of men, but the defeat inflicted on theGermans was one of the largest of the war. Strategically, thecampaign led to the loss of the German position in most ofFrance and the secure establishment of a new major front. Inlarger context the Normandy landings helped the Soviets on theEastern Front, who were facing the bulk of the German forcesand, to a certain extent, contributed to the shortening of theconflict there.

Although there was a shortage of artillery ammunition, at no timewere the Allies critically short of any necessity. This was a remarkable achievement considering they didnot hold a port until Cherbourg fell. By the time of the breakout the Allies also enjoyed a considerablesuperiority in numbers of troops (approximately 7:2) and armoured vehicles (approximately 4:1) whichhelped overcome the natural advantages the terrain gave to the German defenders.

Allied intelligence and counterintelligence efforts were successful beyond expectations. The OperationFortitude deception before the invasion kept German attention focused on the Pas de Calais, and indeedhigh­quality German forces were kept in this area, away from Normandy, until July. Prior to theinvasion, few German reconnaissance flights took place over Britain, and those that did saw only thedummy staging areas. Ultra decrypts of German communications had been helpful as well, exposingGerman dispositions and revealing their plans such as the Mortain counterattack.

Allied air operations also contributed significantly to the invasion, via close tactical support, interdictionof German lines of communication (preventing timely movement of supplies and reinforcements—particularly the critical Panzer units), and rendering the Luftwaffe ineffective in Normandy.[nb 2]

General Bernard Montgomery withBritish troops in Normandy, July1944

Although the impact upon armoured vehicles was less than expected, air activity intimidated these unitsand cut their supplies.

Despite initial heavy losses in the assault phase, Allied moraleremained high. Casualty rates among all the armies weretremendous, and the Commonwealth forces had to use a recentlycreated category—Double Intense—to be able to describe them.

German leadership

German commanders at all levels failed to react to the assaultphase in a timely manner. Communications problemsexacerbated the difficulties caused by Allied air and navalfirepower. Local commanders also seemed incapable of the taskof fighting an aggressive defense on the beach, as Rommel hadenvisioned.

The German High Command remained fixated on the Calaisarea, and von Rundstedt was not permitted to commit thearmoured reserve. When it was finally released late in the day,any chance of success was much more difficult. Overall, despiteconsiderable Allied material superiority, the Germans kept the Allies bottled up in a small beachhead fornearly two months, aided immeasurably by terrain factors.

Although there were several known disputes among the Allied commanders, their tactics and strategywere essentially determined by agreement between the main commanders. By contrast, the Germanleaders were bullied and their decisions interfered with by Hitler, controlling the battle from a distancewith little knowledge of local conditions. Field Marshals von Rundstedt and Rommel repeatedly askedHitler for more discretion but were refused. Von Rundstedt was removed from his command on 29 Juneafter he bluntly told the Chief of Staff at Hitler's Armed Forces HQ (Field Marshal Keitel) to "Makepeace, you idiots!" Rommel was severely injured by Allied aircraft on 17 July.

The German commanders also suffered in the quality of the available troops. Sixty thousand of the850,000 in Rundstedt's command were raised from the many prisoners of war captured on the EasternFront.[29] These "Ost" units had volunteered to fight against Stalin, but when instead unwisely used todefend France against the Western Allies, ended up being unreliable. Many surrendered or deserted atthe first available opportunity.

War memorials and tourism

Paratroop memorial inSainte­Mère­Église

The Bény­sur­Mer Canadian War Cemetery

The beaches at Normandy are still referred to on maps and signposts by their invasion codenames. Thereare several vast cemeteries in the area. The American cemetery, in Colleville­sur­Mer, contains rowupon row of identical white crosses and Stars of David, immaculately kept, commemorating theAmerican dead. Commonwealth graves, maintained in many locations by the Commonwealth WarGraves Commission, uses white headstones engraved with the person's religious or medal (VictoriaCross or George Cross only) symbol and their unit insignia. The Bayeux War Cemetery, with 4,648burials, is the largest British cemetery of the war.[30] The largest cemetery in Normandy is the La CambeGerman war cemetery, with 21,222 burials, which features granite stones almost flush with the groundand groups of low­set crosses. There is also a Polish cemetery.

At the Bayeux Memorial, a monument erected by Britain has a Latininscription on the memorial reads "Nos a gulielmo victi victoris patriamliberavimus" – freely translated, this reads "We, once conquered byWilliam, have now set free the Conqueror's native land".[30]

Streets near the beaches are still named after the units that fought there,and occasional markers commemorate notable incidents. At significantpoints, such as Pointe du Hoc and Pegasus Bridge, there are plaques,memorials or small museums. The Mulberry harbour still sits in the seaat Arromanches. In Sainte­Mère­Église, a dummy paratrooper hangsfrom the church spire. On Juno Beach, the Canadian government hasbuilt the Juno Beach Information Centre, commemorating one of themost significant events in Canadian military history.

In England the most significant memorial is the D­Day Museum inSouthsea, Hampshire. The Museum was opened in 1984 tocommemorate the 40th anniversary of D­Day. Its centrepiece is the Overlord embroidery commissionedby Lord Dulverton of Batsford (1915–92) as a tribute to the sacrifice and heroism of those men andwomen who took part in Operation Overlord.

On 5 June 1994 a drumhead service was held on Southsea Common adjacent the D­Day Museum. Thisservice was attended by US President Bill Clinton, Queen Elizabeth II and over 100,000 members of thepublic.

Dramatisations

The battle of Normandy has been the topic of many films, television shows, songs, computer games andbooks. Many dramatisations focus on the initial landings, and these are covered at Normandy Landings.Some examples that cover the wider battle include:

Films

Le Bataillon du ciel (sky's battalion), a 1947 French film directed by Alexandre Esway based onthe book of Joseph Kessel: Free French SAS paratroopers (Special Air Service) in Brittany from 5June to August 1944.Band of Brothers, a 2001 American miniseries produced by Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanksbased on the book of the same name by Stephen Ambrose.Ike: Countdown to D­Day, a 2004 American television film directed by Robert Harmon andwritten by Lionel Chetwynd which emphasizes the difficult decisions General Dwight D.Eisenhower had to make, while dealing with the varied personalities of his direct subordinates, inorder to lead Operation Overlord.The Longest Day a 1962 film based on the book of the same name by Cornelius RyanSaving Private Ryan, a 1998 Academy Award­winning American film directed by StevenSpielberg and starring Tom Hanks and Matt Damon.Un jour avant l'aube (One day before dawn), a 1994 French TV film directed by Jacques Ertaud:Free French SAS in Brittany.The Big Red One, a 1980 film directed by Samuel Fuller and starring Lee Marvin.The Americanization of Emily, a 1964 film written by Paddy Chayefsky, directed by Arthur Hillerand starring James Garner and Julie Andrews.My Way, a joint South Korean and US war film by Kang Je­gyu, stars Jang Dong­gun along withJapanese actor Joe Odagiri and Chinese actress Fan Bingbing.Overlord, a 1975 black­and­white film written and directed by Stuart Cooper, set around the D­Day invasion.

Notes

Footnotes

1. Defence against a mass U­boat attack relied on "19 Group of [RAF] Coastal Command … [it] included oneCzech, one Polish, one New Zealander, two Australian and three Canadian squadrons. Even the RAF's own224 Squadron was a mixed bag of nationalities with 137 Britons, forty­four Canadians, thirty­three Anzacs,two Americans, a Swiss, a Chilean, a South African and a Brazilian" [31] "The D­Day air offensive wasanother [RAF] multinational operation. It included five New Zealander, seven Australian, twenty­eightCanadian, one Rhodesian, six French, fourteen Polish, three Czech, two Belgian, two Dutch and twoNorwegian squadrons" [32] At 05:37 the Norwegian destroyer Sevenner, one of 37 destroyers in the EasternTask Force, was sunk by a torpedo launched from a German E­boat .[33] "In addition to the Cruiser ORPDragon, the Polish destroyers ORP Krakowiak and Slazak took part in beach support operations, while thedestroyers OKP Blyskewica and Piorun were employed as part of the covering force" [34]

2. Following Normandy, a joke regarding their lack of air support became common and widely spread byWehrmacht soldiers: "If the plane in the sky is silver, it's American, if it's blue, it's British, if it's invisible,it's ours!"

Citations

1. "Title: The Norwegian Navy in the Second World War" (http://www.resdal.org/Archivo/d00000a5.htm).Resdal. Retrieved 24 May 2008.

2. Tamelander, M, Zetterling, N (2004), Avgörandes Ögonblick: Invasionen i Normandie. Norstedts Förlag, p.295

3. Zetterling 2000, p. 32.4. Williams, Jeffery (1988). The long left flank: the hard fought way to the Reich, 1944–1945. London: Cooper.

p. . ISBN 0­85052­880­1.

ReferencesBeevor, Antony (2009). D­Day:The Battle for Normandy (First ed.). London: Viking an imprint of Penguin

p. . ISBN 0­85052­880­1.5. Keegan 1989.6. Small, Ken; Rogerson, Mark (1988). The Forgotten Dead – Why 946 American Servicemen Died Off TheCoast Of Devon In 1944 – And The Man Who Discovered Their True Story. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN 0­7475­0309­5.

7. Keegan 1989, p. 279.8. F Pogue, The Supreme Command, Department of the Army, 1954, pp. 163–649. Wilmot, p. 22510. Wilmot, p. 22411. Wilmot, p. 22612. Juno Beach (http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/juno­beach­feature/) from The Canadian

Encyclopedia.13. "D­Day, People & Events: Erwin Rommel (1891–1944)"

(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/dday/peopleevents/p_rommel.html). American Experience, PBS. Retrieved5 June 2009.

14. David White and Daniel P. Murphy, Ph.D. "The Normandy Invasion" (http://www.netplaces.com/world­war­ii/europe/the­normandy­invasion.htm). netplaces. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 6 June 2012.

15. "D­Day and the Battle of Normandy: Your Questions Answered" (http://www.ddaymuseum.co.uk/faq.htm).D­Day Museum. Retrieved 24 May 2008.

16. Untold Stories of D­Day (http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2002/06/D­Day/allen­text/3), NationalGeographic, June 2002.

17. Keegan, John. "Britannica guide to D­Day 1944" (http://www.britannica.com/dday/article­236192).Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 October 2007.

18. Keegan, John. "Britannica guide to D­Day 1944" (http://www.britannica.com/dday/article­9389939).Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 October 2007.

19. Map 81, M.R.D. Foot, I.C.B. Dear, ed. (2005). The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford UniversityPress. p. 663. ISBN 978­0­19­280666­6.

20. Bradley, John H. (2002). The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean (http://books.google.com/?id=HP3­9NNz71sC&pg=PA290&lpg=PA290). Square One Publishers. p. 290. ISBN 0­7570­0162­9.Retrieved 16 November 2007.

21. Patrick Elie – Normandie – France. "D­Day : Normandy 1944 – UTAH BEACH : U.S. Troops"(http://www.6juin1944.com/assaut/utah/en_page.php?page=fo1_11). 6juin1944.com. Retrieved 2012­08­25.

22. D­Day 6 June 1944 (http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/dl/dday/ddaypage.html) Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20080509122049/http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/dl/dday/ddaypage.html) 9May 2008 at the Wayback Machine

23. "Frequently Asked Questions for D­Day and the Battle of Normandy"(http://www.ddaymuseum.co.uk/faq.htm). Ddaymuseum.co.uk. Retrieved 2012­08­25.

24. "HyperWar: The War in Western Europe: Part 1 (June to December, 1944) [Chapter 3]"(http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USMA/WEurope1/WEurope1­3.html). Ibiblio.org. Retrieved 2012­08­25.

25. Wilmot 1997.26. Tippelskirch, Kurt von, Gechichte der Zweiten Weltkrieg. 195627. Zetterling 2000, p. 350.28. Pogue, Forrest C. (1954). "The Supreme Command," (http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA­E­

Supreme/USA­E­Supreme­10.html). United States Army in World War II: European Theater of Operations.Washington D.C.: CMH Publication 7–1, Office of the chief of military history, Department of the Army.

29. Keegan 1994, p. 61.30. Reed, Paul. "Normandy War Cemeteries: Bayeux Memorial"

(http://www.battlefieldsww2.50megs.com/bayeux_memorial.htm). Battlefields of WW2 website. Retrieved10 October 2008.

31. Beevor 2009, p. 76.32. Beevor 2009, p. 77.33. Beevor 2009, p. 82.34. Beevor 2009, p. 82 footnotes.

Books. ISBN 978­0­670­88703­3.Keegan, John (1994) [1982]. Six Armies in Normandy: From D­Day to the Liberation of Paris. New York:Penguin Books. ISBN 0­14­023542­6.Keegan, John (1989). The Second World War. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 0­09­174011­8..Wilmot, Chester (1997) [1952]. The Struggle For Europe. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions.ISBN 1­85326­677­9.Zetterling, Niklas (2000). Normandy 1944: German Military Organisation, Combat Power andOrganizational Effectiveness. Winnipeg: J.J. Fedorowicz Publishing. ISBN 0­921991­56­8..

Further readingAmbrose, Stephen. D­Day June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II. New york: Simon &Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0­671­88403­4.Badsey, Stephen. Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout. Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1990.ISBN 978­0­85045­921­0.D'Este, Carlo. Decision in Normandy: The Unwritten Story of Montgomery and the Allied Campaign.London: William Collins Sons, 1983. ISBN 0­00­217056­6.Foot, M. R. D. SOE: An Outline History of the Special Operations Executive 1940–46.. BBC Publications,1984. ISBN 0­563­20193­2.Ford, Ken. D­Day 1944 (3): Sword Beach & the British Airborne Landings. Botley, Oxford: OspreyPublishing, 2002. ISBN 978­1­84176­366­8.Ford, Ken. D­Day 1944 (4): Gold & Juno Beaches. Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002. ISBN 978­1­84176­368­2.Herington, John. Air Power Over Europe, 1944–1945, 1st edition (Official History of Australia in the SecondWorld War Volume IV). Canberra: Australian War Memorial 1963.Holderfield, Randal J., and Michael J. Varhola. D­Day: The Invasion of Normandy, June 6, 1944. MasonCity, Iowa: Savas Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1­882810­45­7, ISBN 1­882810­46­5.Kershaw, Alex. The Bedford Boys: One American Town's Ultimate D­Day Sacrifice. Cambridge, Mass.: DaCapo Press, 2003. ISBN 0­306­81355­6."Morning: Normandy Invasion (June–August 1944)". The World at War episode 17. British BroadcastingCorporation. 1974.Neillands, Robin. The Battle of Normandy, 1944. London: Cassell, 2002. ISBN 0­304­35837­1.Rozhnov, Konstantin. Who won World War II? (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4508901.stm). BBC News,5 May 2005.Stacey, C.P. Canada's Battle in Normandy: The Canadian Army's Share in the Operations, 6 June – 1September 1944. Ottawa: King's Printer, 1946.Stacey, C.P. Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War: Volume III. The VictoryCampaign, The Operations in North­West Europe 1944–1945. Ottawa: Department of National Defence,1960.Tute, Warren, John Costello, Terry Hughes. D­Day. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1975. ISBN 0­330­24418­3.Whitlock, Flint. The Fighting First: The Untold Story of The Big Red One on D­Day. Boulder, Colo.:Westview Press, 2004. ISBN 0­8133­4218­X.Zaloga, Steven J. D­Day 1944 (1): Omaha Beach. Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978­1­84176­367­5.Zaloga, Steven J. D­Day 1944 (2): Utah Beach & the US Airborne Landings. Botley, Oxford: OspreyPublishing, 2004. ISBN 978­1­84176­365­1.Zaloga, Steven J. Operation Cobra 1944: Breakout from Normandy. Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing,2001. ISBN 978­1­84176­296­8.

Numerous volumes in the U.S. Army in World War II series, produced by the United States Army Center ofMilitary History, Gordon A. Harrison, Cross­Channel­Attack (http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/7­4/7­4_Contents.htm) (1951), remains a basic source, but several other studies bear heavily upon the operation.They include:

1. Robert W. Coakley and Richard M. Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy (1968);2. Martin Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit (1961);3. Forrest C. Pogue, The Supreme Command (1954);

4. Roland G. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies (1953); and5. Graham A. Cosmas and Albert E. Cowdrey, The Medical Department: Medical Service in the EuropeanTheater of Operations (1992).

The Historical Division of the War Department produced three volumes on the event. All have been reprintedby the Center of Military History. Classified as the American Forces in Action series, they are:

1. OMAHA Beachhead (http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/100­11/100­11.htm) (1989);2. UTAH Beach to Cherbourg (http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/utah/utah.htm) (1990); and3. St. Lo (1984).

The British Government following the war also issued an official history of the British involvement in thewar to be researched and published, the final result being the massive series known as History of the SecondWorld War. The following cover the Normandy Campaign:

1. L.F. Ellis, Victory in the West: The Battle of Normandy, Official Campaign History v. I (History of theSecond World War: United Kingdom Military), Naval & Military Press Ltd; New Ed edition (Sep 2004)., 1­84574­058­0

2. Michael Howard, British Intelligence in the Second World War: Volume 5, Strategic Deception,Cambridge University Press (26 October 1990). ISBN 0­521­40145­3 (Series edited by F. H. Hinsley)

3. Grand Strategy, Volume 5: August 1943 – September 1944, 1956

Numerous abbreviated histories have been written. Among the most useful are:

1. Charles MacDonald, The Mighty Endeavor: American Armed Forces in the European Theater in World WarII (1969); and

2. Charles MacDonald and Martin Blumenson, "Recovery of France", in Vincent J. Esposito, ed., A ConciseHistory of World War II (1965).

Memoirs by Allied commanders contain considerable information. Among the best are:

1. Omar N. Bradley, A Soldier's Story (1951);2. Omar N. Bradley and Clay Blair, A General's Life (1983);3. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (1948);4. Sir Bernard Law Montgomery of Alamein, Normandy to the Baltic (1948);5. Sir Bernard Law Montgomery of Alamein, The Memoirs of Field Marshal the Viscount Montgomery of

Alamein, K.G., Collins (1958). and6. Sir Frederick Edgeworth Morgan, Overture to Overlord (1950).

Memoirs by Allied and German soldiers of various ranks also give a good insight into the campaign.

1. Kurt Meyer, Grenadiers, Stackpole Books,U.S., New Ed edition (15 May 2005)., ISBN 0­8117­3197­92. Stuart Hills, By Tank Into Normandy, Cassell military; New Ed edition (11 September 2003)., 0­30436­640­

43. Hans von Luck, Panzer Commander: The Memoirs of Colonel Hans von Luck, Cassell military; New Ed

edition (9 March 2006)., ISBN 0­304­36401­0

Almost as useful are biographies of leading commanders. Among the most prominent are:

1. Stephen E. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander: The War Years of General Dwight D. Eisenhower (1970),and Eisenhower, Soldier, General of the Army, President­Elect, 1890–1952 (1983);

2. Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield: Monty's War Years, 1942–1944 (1983);3. Richard Lamb, Montgomery in Europe, 1943–1945: Success or Failure (1984);4. Hamilton, Nigel. "Montgomery, Bernard Law" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford; New

York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0­19­861411­X, ISBN 0­19­861351­2.5. Ronald Lewin, Rommel as Military Commander (1968).6. B.H. Liddell­Hart, The Rommel Papers (section on Normandy written by Lt.Gen Fritz Bayerlein)7. Hans Speidel, Invasion 1944: Rommel and the Normandy Campaign. Chicago: Henry Regnery (1950)

(Speidel was Rommel's chief of staff).

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Battle ofNormandy.

Numerous general histories also exist, many centering on the controversies that continue to surround thecampaign and its commanders. See, in particular:

1. John Colby, War From the Ground Up: The 90th Division in World War II (1989);2. Carlo D'Este, Decision in Normandy: The Unwritten Story of Montgomery and the Allied Campaign (1983);3. Max Hastings, Overlord, D­Day, June 6, 1944 (1984);4. John Keegan, Six Armies in Normandy: From D­Day to the Liberation of Paris (1982);5. Robin Neillands, The Battle of Normandy 1944 (2002);6. Stephen T. Powers, "Battle of Normandy: The Lingering Controversy", Journal of Military History 56

(1992):455–71.7. Russell F. Weigley, Eisenhower's Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944–45 (1981);8. Cornelius Ryan, The Longest Day, (1959);9. Stephen Ambrose, D­Day: June 6, 1944, The Battle for the Normandy Beaches, (1994);10. Milton Shulman, Defeat in the West, (New Ed edition 2003)11. Richard Holmes, The D­Day Experience: From the Invasion to the Liberation of Paris with Other and Map

and CD,(2004);12. Chester Wilmot, The Struggle for Europe, (New Ed edition 1997), and13. Stephen Ashley Hart, Colossal Cracks: Montgomery's 21st Army Group in Northwest Europe, 1944–45,

(2007)

Journalists were among the foremost observers of the invasion. Two studies of their work that stand out are:

1. Barney Oldfield, Never a Shot in Anger (1956); and2. Richard Collier, Fighting Words: The Correspondents of World War II (1989). CMH Pub 72–18

External links

DDay­Overlord: a fight for freedom (http://www.dday­overlord.com/eng/) The Normandy campaign: history,documents, testimonies, mapsU.S. Army's official interactive D­Day website(http://www.army.mil/d­day/)The Normandy Invasion (http://www.history.army.mil/html/reference/Normandy/normandy.html)at the United States Army Center of Military HistoryU.S. Navy Online Library of Selected Images: Normandy invasion(http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii­eur/normandy/normandy.htm)Original Document: D­Day Statement from Dwight D. Eisenhower(http://www.footnote.com/viewer.php?image=4346703)D­Day Museum Portsmouth (http://www.ddaymuseum.co.uk/)BBC Archive of personal recollections of D­Day(http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/categories/c54665/index.shtml)Illustrated article about Omaha Beach at 'Battlefields Europe'(http://battlefieldseurope.co.uk/omaha.aspx)

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