instrumentation documents

Chapter 7

Instrumentation documents

Every technical discipline has its own standardized way(s) of making descriptive diagrams, andinstrumentation is no exception. The scope of instrumentation is so broad, however, that no oneform of diagram is sufficient to capture all we might need to represent. This chapter will discussthree different types of instrumentation diagrams:

• Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs)

• Process and Instrument diagrams (P&IDs)

• Loop diagrams (“loop sheets”)

• Functional diagrams

At the highest level, the instrument technician is interested in the interconnections of processvessels, pipes, and flow paths of process fluids. The proper form of diagram to represent the “bigpicture” of a process is called a process flow diagram. Individual instruments are sparsely representedin a PFD, because the focus of the diagram is the process itself.

At the lowest level, the instrument technician is interested in the interconnections of individualinstruments, including all the wire numbers, terminal numbers, cable types, instrument calibrationranges, etc. The proper form of diagram for this level of fine detail is called a loop diagram. Here,the process vessels and piping are sparsely represented, because the focus of the diagram is theinstruments themselves.

Process and instrument diagrams (P&IDs) lie somewhere in the middle between process flowdiagrams and loop diagrams. A P&ID shows the layout of all relevant process vessels, pipes, andmachinery, but with instruments superimposed on the diagram showing what gets measured andwhat gets controlled. Here, one can view the flow of the process as well as the “flow” of informationbetween instruments measuring and controlling the process.

Functional diagrams are used for an entirely different purpose: to document the strategy of acontrol system. In a functional diagram, emphasis is placed on the algorithms used to control aprocess, as opposed to piping, wiring, or instrument connections. These diagrams are commonlyfound within the power generation industry, but are sometimes used in other industries as well.

391

392 CHAPTER 7. INSTRUMENTATION DOCUMENTS

An instrument technician must often switch between different diagrams when troubleshooting acomplex control system. There is simply too much detail for any one diagram to show everything.Even if the page were large enough, a “show everything” diagram would be so chock-full of detailsthat it would be difficult to follow any one line of details you happened to be interested in at anyparticular time. The narrowing of scope with the progression from PFD to loop diagram may bevisualized as a process of “zooming in,” as though one were viewing a process through the lens ofa microscope at different powers. First you begin with a PFD or P&ID to get an overview of theprocess, to see how the major components interact. Then, once you have identified which instrument“loop” you need to investigate, you go to the appropriate loop diagram to see the interconnectiondetails of that instrument system so you know where to connect your test equipment and whatsignals you expect to find when you do.

Another analogy for this progression of documents is a map, or more precisely, a globe, anatlas, and a city street map. The globe gives you the “big picture” of the Earth, countries, andmajor cities. An atlas allows you to “zoom in” to see details of particular provinces, states, andprincipalities, and the routes of travel connecting them all. A city map shows you major and minorroads, canals, alleyways, and perhaps even some addresses in order for you to find your way to aparticular destination. It would be impractical to have a globe large enough to show you all thedetails of every city! Furthermore, a globe comprehensive enough to show you all these detailswould have to be updated very frequently to keep up with all cities’ road changes. There is a certaineconomy inherent to the omission of fine details, both in ease of use and in ease of maintenance.

7.1. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS 393

7.1 Process Flow Diagrams

To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system.In this fictitious process, water is being evaporated from a process solution under partial vacuum(provided by the compressor). The compressor then transports the vapors to a “knockout drum”where some of them condense into liquid form. As a typical PFD, this diagram shows the majorinterconnections of process vessels and equipment, but omits details such as instrument signal linesand auxiliary instruments:

CompressorM

Evaporator

Steam

Condensate

Brine

Water

LILV

TTTV

PT

Knockoutdrum

PVTI

LG

LVLT

FT

One might guess the instrument interconnections based on the instruments’ labels. For instance,a good guess would be that the level transmitter (LT) on the bottom of the knockout drum mightsend the signal that eventually controls the level valve (LV) on the bottom of that same vessel. Onemight also guess that the temperature transmitter (TT) on the top of the evaporator might be partof the temperature control system that lets steam into the heating jacket of that vessel.

Based on this diagram alone, one would be hard-pressed to determine what control system, if


any, controls the compressor itself. All the PFD shows relating directly to the compressor is a flowtransmitter (FT) on the suction line. This level of uncertainty is perfectly acceptable for a PFD,because its purpose is merely to show the general flow of the process itself, and only a bare minimumof control instrumentation.

7.2. PROCESS AND INSTRUMENT DIAGRAMS 395

7.2 Process and Instrument Diagrams

The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram1, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zoomingin” of scope from the whole evaporator process to the compressor as a unit. The evaporator andknockout vessels almost fade into the background, with their associated instruments absent fromview:

CompressorM

Evaporator

Knockoutdrum

FT

PDT

FIC

FV42

42

42

42

TT41

TIR

41

TIR

43

TT43

Now we see there is more instrumentation associated with the compressor than just a flowtransmitter. There is also a differential pressure transmitter (PDT), a flow indicating controller(FIC), and a “recycle” control valve that allows some of the vapor coming out of the compressor’sdischarge line to go back around into the compressor’s suction line. Additionally, we have a pairof temperature transmitters reporting suction and discharge line temperatures to an indicatingrecorder.

Some other noteworthy details emerge in the P&ID as well. We see that the flow transmitter, flow

1Sometimes P&ID stands for Piping and Instrument Diagram. Either way, it means the same thing.


controller, pressure transmitter, and flow valve all bear a common number: 42. This common “loopnumber” indicates these four instruments are all part of the same control system. An instrumentwith any other loop number is part of a different control system, measuring and/or controlling someother function in the process. Examples of this include the two temperature transmitters and theirrespective recorders, bearing the loop numbers 41 and 43.

Please note the differences in the instrument “bubbles” as shown on this P&ID. Some of thebubbles are just open circles, where others have lines going through the middle. Each of thesesymbols has meaning according to the ISA (Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation society)standard:

Field-mountedPanel-mounted

(main control room)Panel-mounted

(auxiliary location)

Front of panel

Rear of panel

Front of panel

Rear of panel

The type of “bubble” used for each instrument tells us something about its location. This,obviously, is quite important when working in a facility with many thousands of instruments scatteredover acres of facility area, structures, and buildings.

The rectangular box enclosing both temperature recorders shows they are part of the samephysical instrument. In other words, this indicates there is really only one temperature recorderinstrument, and that it plots both suction and discharge temperatures (most likely on the sametrend graph). This suggests that each bubble may not necessarily represent a discrete, physicalinstrument, but rather an instrument function that may reside in a multi-function device.

Details we do not see on this P&ID include cable types, wire numbers, terminal blocks, junctionboxes, instrument calibration ranges, failure modes, power sources, and the like. To examine thislevel of detail, we must go to the loop diagram we are interested in.

7.3. LOOP DIAGRAMS 397

7.3 Loop diagrams

Finally, we arrive at the loop diagram (sometimes called a loop sheet) for the compressor surgecontrol system (loop number 42):

+

-

L1

L2

G

ES 120VAC60 Hz

Fieldpanel

Field process area

Loop Diagram: Date:

8

9

April 1, 2003

PDT

Compressor surge control

+

-

FT

42

42

Compressor+

-

FY42b

10

1112

13

1415

16

JB30

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

+

-

FY

Panel frontPanel rear

+

- 42a

L1

L2

G

ES 120VAC60 Hz

FIC42

JB1

S

AS 20 PSI

0-200 PSID

4-20 mA

IP

0-1500 SCFM

4-20 mA

4-20 mA

0-1500 SCFM

CBL21

CBL22

CBL23

CBL24 CBL25

CBL26

CBL27

PR1

PR2

PR3

1

2

3

4

5

6

FV 42

Red

Blk

Red

Blk

Red

Blk

Red

Blk

Red

Blk Red

Blk

Red

Blk

Red

Blk

Tag number Description Input cal. Output cal. Notes

FT 42 Suction flow transmitter

FE42

FE 42 Venturi tube 0-1500 SCFM 0-100 "WC

0-100 "WC 4-20 mA

FY 42a Square root extractor 4-20 mA 4-20 mA

FY 42b Current-to-pressure converter 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI

FV 42 Anti-surge control valve 3-15 PSI

PDT 42 Differential pressure transmitter 0-200 PSI

100%-0% Air-to-close

Reverse action20-4 mA

FIC 42 Anti-surge controller 4-20 mA 4-20 mA

Here we see that the P&ID didn’t show us all the instruments in this control “loop.” Not only dowe have two transmitters, a controller, and a valve; we also have two signal transducers. Transducer42a modifies the flow transmitter’s signal before it goes into the controller, and transducer 42bconverts the electronic 4 to 20 mA signal into a pneumatic 3 to 15 PSI air pressure signal. Eachinstrument “bubble” in a loop diagram represents an individual device, with its own terminals forconnecting wires.

Note that dashed lines now represent individual copper wires instead of whole cables. Terminalblocks where these wires connect to are represented by squares with numbers in them. Cablenumbers, wire colors, junction block numbers, panel identification, and even grounding points areall shown in loop diagrams. The only type of diagram at a lower level of abstraction than a loopdiagram would be an electronic schematic diagram for an individual instrument, which of course


would only show details pertaining to that one instrument. Thus, the loop diagram is the mostdetailed form of diagram for a control system as a whole, and thus it must contain all detailsomitted by PFDs and P&IDs alike.

To the novice it may seem excessive to include such trivia as wire colors in a loop diagram. Tothe experienced instrument technician who has had to work on systems lacking such documenteddetail, this information is highly valued. The more detail you put into a loop diagram, the easierit makes the inevitable job of maintaining that system at some later date. When a loop diagramshows you exactly what wire color to expect at exactly what point in an instrumentation system,and exactly what terminal that wire should connect to, it becomes much easier to proceed with anytroubleshooting, calibration, or upgrade task.

Loop diagrams are fairly constrained in their layout. Field instruments are always placed on theleft-hand side, while control-panel or control-room instruments must be located on the right-handside. Text describing instrument tags, ranges, and notes are always placed on the bottom. UnlikePFDs and P&IDs where component layout is largely left to the whim of the designer drawing thediagram, loop sheets offer little room for creativity. This is intentional, as creativity and readabilityare mutually exclusive in cases where there is an immense amount of technical detail embedded ina diagram. It is simply easier to recognize details you’re looking for when you know exactly whereto look on the diagram to find them.

An interesting detail seen on this loop diagram is an entry specifying “input calibration” and“output calibration” for each and every instrument in the system. This is actually a very importantconcept to keep in mind when troubleshooting a complex instrumentation system: every instrumenthas at least one input and at least one output, with some sort of mathematical relationship betweenthe two. Diagnosing where a problem lies within a measurement or control system often reducesto testing various instruments to see if their output responses appropriately match their inputconditions.

For example, one way to test the flow transmitter in this system would be to subject it to anumber of different pressures within its range (specified in the diagram as 0 to 100 inches of watercolumn differential) and seeing whether or not the current signal output by the transmitter wasconsistently proportional to the applied pressure (e.g. 4 mA at 0 inches pressure, 20 mA at 100inches pressure, 12 mA at 50 inches pressure, etc.).

Given the fact that a calibration error or malfunction in any one of these instruments can causea problem for the control system as a whole, it is nice to know there is a way to determine whichinstrument is to blame and which instruments are not. This general principle holds true regardlessof the instrument’s type or technology. You can use the same input-versus-output test procedure toverify the proper operation of a pneumatic (3 to 15 PSI) level transmitter or an analog electronic(4 to 20 mA) flow transmitter or a digital (fieldbus) temperature transmitter alike. Each and everyinstrument has an input and an output, and there is always a predictable (and testable) correlationfrom one to the other.

7.3. LOOP DIAGRAMS 399

Another interesting detail seen on this loop diagram is the action of each instrument. You willnotice a box and arrow (pointing either up or down) next to each instrument bubble. An “up” arrow(↑) represents a direct-acting instrument: one whose output signal increases as the input stimulusincreases. A “down” arrow (↓) represents a reverse-acting instrument: one whose output signaldecreases as the input stimulus increases. All the instruments in this loop are direct-acting with theexception of the pressure differential transmitter PDT-42:

+

-PDT42

0-200 PSID

Here, the “down” arrow tells us the transmitter will output a full-range signal (20 mA) when itsenses zero differential pressure, and a 0% signal (4 mA) when sensing a full 200 PSI differential.While this calibration may seem confusing and unwarranted, it serves a definite purpose in thisparticular control system. Since the transmitter’s current signal decreases as pressure increases, andthe controller must be correspondingly configured, a decreasing current signal will be interpreted bythe controller as a high differential pressure. If any wire connection fails in the 4-20 mA current loopfor that transmitter, the resulting 0 mA signal will be naturally “seen” by the controller as a pressureover-range condition. Excessive pressure drop across a compressor is considered dangerous becauseit may lead to the compressor surging. Thus, the controller will naturally take action to preventsurge by commanding the anti-surge control valve to open, because it “thinks” the compressor isabout to surge. In other words, the transmitter is intentionally calibrated to be reverse-acting suchthat any break in the signal wiring will naturally bring the system to its safest condition.


7.4 Functional diagrams

A unique form of technical diagram for describing the abstract functions comprising a control system(e.g. PID controllers, rate limiters, manual loaders) is a functional diagram2. This form of documentfinds wide application in the power generation industry to document control strategies. Functionaldiagrams focus on the flow of information within a control system rather than on the process piping orinstrument interconnections (wires, tubes, etc.). The general flow of a functional diagram is top-to-bottom, with the process sensing instrument (transmitter) located at the top and the final controlelement (valve or variable-speed motor) located at the bottom. No attempt is made to arrangesymbols in a functional diagram to correspond with actual equipment layout: these diagrams are allabout the algorithms used to make control decisions, and nothing more.

A sample functional diagram appears here, showing a flow transmitter (FT) sending a processvariable signal to a PID controller, which then sends a manipulated variable signal to a flow controlvalve (FCV):

P I D

FCV

FT Flow transmitter

PID controller

Flow control valve

2Functional diagrams are sometimes referred to as SAMA diagrams in honor of the organization responsible fortheir standardization, the Scientific Apparatus Makers Association. This organization has been succeeded by theMeasurement, Control, and Automation Association (MCAA), thus obsoleting the “SAMA” acronym.

7.4. FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMS 401

A cascaded control system, where the output of one controller acts as the setpoint for anothercontroller to follow, appears in functional diagram form like this:

P I D

FCV

FT Flow transmitter

PID controller

Flow control valve

P I D

LT Leveltransmitter

In this case, the primary controller senses the level in a vessel, commanding the secondary (flow)controller to maintain the necessary amount of flow either in or out of the vessel as needed tomaintain level at some setpoint.


Functional diagrams may show varying degrees of detail about the control strategies theydocument. For example, you may see the auto/manual controls represented as separate entitiesin a functional diagram, apart from the basic PID controller function. In the following example,we see a transfer block (T) and two manual adjustment blocks (A) providing a human operatorthe ability to separately adjust the controller’s setpoint and output (manipulated) variables, and totransfer between automatic and manual modes:

P I D

FCV

FT Flow transmitter

PID controller

Flow control valve

TA A

7.5. INSTRUMENT AND PROCESS EQUIPMENT SYMBOLS 403

Rectangular blocks such as the ∆, P, I, and D shown in this diagram represent automaticfunctions. Diamond-shaped blocks such as the A and T blocks are manual functions which must beset by a human operator. Showing even more detail, the following functional diagram indicates thepresence of setpoint tracking in the controller algorithm, a feature that forces the setpoint value toequal the process variable value any time the controller is in manual mode:

P I D

FCV

FT Flow transmitter

PID controller

Flow control valve

T

A

A

T

Here we see a new type of line: dashed instead of solid. This too has meaning in the worldof functional diagrams. Solid lines represent analog (continuously variable) signals such as processvariable, setpoint, and manipulated variable. Dashed lines represent discrete (on/off) signal paths,in this case the auto/manual state of the controller commanding the PID algorithm to get its setpointeither from the operator’s input (A) or from the process variable input (the flow transmitter: FT).

7.5 Instrument and process equipment symbols

This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technicaldiagrams used to document instrument systems.

Administrador

Resaltado


7.5.1 Line types

Pneumatic signal(continuous) (discrete -- on/off)

Pneumatic signal

(continuous) (discrete -- on/off)Electric signal Electric signal

(or) (or)

Capillary tube Hydraulic signal

Instrument supplyor process connection

Process flow line Waveguide Undefined(impulse line)

Mechanical linkData link Data link

(independent systems)(common system) Radio link

Sonic or other wave

Fieldbus networkData link

(smart instrument)

Note: the single backslash signifying a “discrete” or “binary” signal type has been removedfrom the ISA standard as of the 2009 ANSI publication. Regular pneumatic and electrical linesymbols may represent either continuous or discrete states. The “triple-slash” alternative linetypefor electrical symbols is also absent from the 2009 ANSI/ISA standard.


7.5.2 Process/Instrument line connections

Flanged

Threaded Socket welded

(direct) Welded

Generic

Heat/cool traced

7.5.3 Instrument bubbles

Field mountedMain control panel

front-mounted front-mountedAuxiliary control panel

Discrete instruments

Main control panelrear-mounted

Auxiliary control panelrear-mounted

Sharedinstruments

Computerfunction

Logic


7.5.4 Process valve types

Valve(generic)

Ball valve

Butterfly valveGlobe valve

Characterizedball valve Plug valve

Saunders valve

Gate valve

Pneumatic pinch valve

Angle valve

Diaphragm valve

Three-way valve

Ball check valve

Check valve(generic)

Pressure regulatorPressure relief or safety valve

Valve status:

Open Closed(may pass fluid) (blocks fluid flow)

Valve status may or may not be shown in a process diagram.If you happen to see solid-colored valve symbols anywhere in a diagram, you know that status is being represented. If yousee no solid-colored valves anywhere in the diagram, either allvalves are shown open or else status is not represented at all.


7.5.5 Valve actuator types

M S

PistonSolenoidElectric motorDiaphragm

E/H

Electro-hydraulic

Hand (manual)

Diaphragmw/ hand jack

M

w/ hand jackElectric motor

P

Diaphragmw/ positioner

Pistonw/ positioner

P


7.5.6 Valve failure mode

FO

Fail open

(or) (or)

FC

Fail closed

(or)

FL

Fail locked

(or) (or)

Fail last/drift open

FL/DO

Fail last/drift closed

FL/DC

Fail indeterminate


7.5.7 Liquid level measurement devices

Air

Bubbler (dip tube)

LT

XFI

LT LT

LT

Capacitive

CA

Hydrostatic

(vessel) (vessel) (vessel)

(vessel)LT

(vessel)

Displacer

Tape-and-float

LT

(vessel)

Hydrostatic (w/ seals)

LT

(vessel)

Radar (guided)

Radar

LT

(vessel)

Radar

Radar (non-contact)

LT

(vessel)

US

Ultrasonic

LT

(vessel)

Laser

Laser


7.5.8 Flow measurement devices (flowing left-to-right)

Orifice plate

(or)

Pitot tube Averging pitot tubes

Flume Weir Turbine Target

Positive displacement

Rotameter

Vortex Coriolis


Ultrasonic

M

Magnetic Wedge V-cone

Flow nozzle Venturi

FE

Generic


7.5.9 Process equipment

Pressure vessels

Single-stagereciprocatingcompressor

reciprocatingcompressor

Dual-stage

compressor

Rotaryscrew

Centrifugalpump

M

Motor-drivenaxial compressor

G

Turbogenerator Turbocompressor

Compressor Turbine

M

Motor-driven fan

M

MixerConveyor belt heat exchanger

Shell-and-tube

Positive-displacementpump

Jacketed vessel


7.5.10 Functional diagram symbols

P I D K ∫ ddt P I

D

P I

P D

I

A T FCV f(x)

IFCV

t Σ f(x)

PID controllers PI controller D-PI controller PD-I controller

Manual adjust Manual transfer Control valveCharacterizedcontrol valve

Automaticfunction

Manualfunction

Control valvew/ positioner Indicator

Transmitter Time delay Summer Square root Characterizer

Analog (variable) signal Discrete (on/off) signal


7.5.11 Single-line electrical diagram symbols

Fuse(600 V or less)

Fuse(> 600 V)

Circuit breaker(600 V or less)

Circuit breaker(> 600 V)

Draw-outcircuit breaker

Draw-outcircuit breaker

(600 V or less) (> 600 V)

Disconnect Overloadheater

Lightningarrestor

Contactor Generator Motor

Transformer Transformer(alternate symbol)

Variabletransformer

Variabletransformer

(alternate symbol)

Rectifier Inverter

SCR

DC motor drive

VFD

AC motor drive


V

Voltmeter

A

Ammeter

W

Wattmeter

Hz

Frequency meter

var

VAR meter

cos θ

Phase meter

kWh

Kilowatt-hour meter

kvarh

KiloVAR-hour meter

Lamp

Currenttransformer

Potentialtransformer

Synchronizationmeter

(CT) (PT)


7.5.12 Fluid power diagram symbols

Hydraulic pump(fixed displacement)

Hydraulic pump(variable displacement)

Hydraulic motor(fixed displacement)

Hydraulic motor(variable displacement)

Air compressor(fixed displacement) (variable displacement) (fixed displacement) (variable displacement)

Air compressor Air motor Air motor

Cylinder, single-acting(ram) Cylinder, double-acting Cylinder, differential

Check valve

Accumulator

Variable restrictionFixed restriction,laminar flow laminar flow

Fixed restriction,inviscid flow

M

Electric motor Combustion engineFilter


Fluid heater Fluid cooler Open reservoir Closed reservoir

Various spool valve "box" symbols

Solenoidactuator

Pressureactuator

Leveractuator

Rolleractuator

Buttonactuator

Returnspring

Hand pump

Hydraulic line

Pneumatic line

Pressure relief(shunt regulator)

Pressure regulator(series)


7.6 Instrument identification tags

Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one makingreference to different instruments by lettered identifiers such as TT (Temperature Transmitter), PDT(Pressure Differential Transmitter), or FV (Flow Valve), without formally defining all the lettersused to identify instruments. Part of the ISA 5.1 standard does exactly this, which is what we willnow investigate.

Each instrument within an instrumented facility should have its own unique identifying tagconsisting of a series of letters describing that instrument’s function, as well as a number identifyingthe particular loop it belongs to. An optional numerical prefix typically designates the larger areaof the facility in which the loop resides, and an optional alphabetical suffix designates multipleinstances of instruments within one loop.

For example, if we were to see an instrument bearing the tag FC-135, we would know it was aflow controller (FC) for loop number 135. In a large manufacturing facility with multiple processing“unit” areas, a tag such as this might be preceded by another number designating the unit area.For example, our hypothetical flow controller might be labeled 12-FC-135 (flow controller for loop#135, located in unit 12). If this loop happened to contain multiple controllers, we would needto distinguish them from each other by the use of suffix letters appended to the loop number (e.g.12-FC-135A, 12-FC-135B, 12-FC-135C).

Each and every instrument within a particular loop is first defined by the variable that loop seeksto sense or control, regardless of the physical construction of the instrument itself. Our hypotheticalflow controller FC-135, for example, may be physically identical to the level controller in loop #72(LC-72), or to the temperature controller in loop #288 (TC-288). What makes FC-135 a flowcontroller is the fact that the transmitter sensing the main process variable measures flow. Likewise,the identifying tag for every other instrument within that loop3 must begin with the letter “F”as well. This includes the final control element as well: in a level control loop, the transmitter isidentified as an “LT” even if the actual sensing element works on pressure (because the variablethat the loop strives to sense or control is actually level, even if indirectly sensed by pressure), thecontroller is identified as an “LC”, and the control valve throttling fluid flow is identified as an“LV”: every instrument in that level-controlling loop serves to help control level, and so its primaryfunction is to be a “level” instrument.

3Exceptions do exist to this rule. For example, in a cascade or feedforward loop where multiple transmittersfeed into one or more controllers, each transmitter is identified by the type of process variable it senses, and eachcontroller’s identifying tag follows suit.

7.6. INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION TAGS 419

Valid letters recognized by the ISA for defining the primary process variable of an instrumentwithin a loop are shown in the following table. Please note that the use of a modifier defines aunique variable: for example, a “PT” is a transmitter measuring pressure at a single point in aprocess, whereas a “PDT” is a transmitter measuring a pressure difference between two points in aprocess. Likewise, a “TC” is a controller controlling temperature, whereas a “TKC” is a controllercontrolling the rate-of-change of temperature:

Letter Variable ModifierA Analytical (composition)B Burner or CombustionC User-definedD User-defined DifferentialE VoltageF Flow Ratio or FractionG User-definedH Hand (manual)I CurrentJ Power ScanK Time or Schedule Time rate-of-changeL LevelM User-defined MomentaryN User-definedO User-definedP Pressure or VacuumQ Quantity Time-Integral or TotalR RadiationS Speed or Frequency SafetyT TemperatureU Multi-functionV VibrationW Weight or ForceX Unclassified X-axisY Event, State, or Presence Y-axisZ Position or Dimension Z-axis

A “user-defined” letter represents a non-standard variable used multiple times in aninstrumentation system. For example, an engineer designing an instrument system for measuringand controlling the refractive index of a liquid might choose to use the letter “C” for this variable.Thus, a refractive-index transmitter would be designated “CT” and a control valve for the refractive-index loop would be designated “CV”. The meaning of a user-defined variable need only be definedin one location (e.g. in a legend for the diagram).

An “unclassified” letter represents one or more non-standard variables, each used only once (or avery limited number of times) in an instrumentation system. The meaning of an unclassified variableis best described immediately near the instrument’s symbol rather than in a legend.


Succeeding letters in an instrument tag describe the function that instrument performs relativeto the process variable. For example, a “PT” is an instrument transmitting a signal representingpressure, while a “PI” is an indicator for pressure and a “PC” is a controller for pressure. Manyinstruments have multiple functions designated by multiple letters, such as a TRC (TemperatureRecording Controller). In such cases, the first function letter represents the “passive” function(usually provided to a human operator) while the second letter represents the “active” (automated)control function.

Letter Passive function Active function ModifierA AlarmB User-defined User-defined User-definedC ControlE Element (sensing)G Glass or ViewportH HighI IndicateK Control stationL Light LowM Middle or IntermediateN User-defined User-defined User-definedO OrificeP Test pointR RecordS SwitchT TransmitU Multi-function Multi-function Multi-functionV Valve, Damper, LouverW WellX Unclassified Unclassified UnclassifiedY Relay, Compute, ConvertZ Driver, Actuator, or

unclassifiedfinal control element

A variety of other letter combinations are often used to identify details not standardized bythe ISA. For example, chemical analyzer instruments often have their sample tube connectionsrepresented by the letter combination “SC,” although this does not appear anywhere in the ISA 5.1standard.

7.6. INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION TAGS 421

Some examples of instrument tag letters are shown in the following list:

• AIT = Analytical Indicating Transmitter (e.g. an oxygen concentration analyzer with a built-in display of oxygen percentage)

• ESL = Voltage Switch, Low (e.g. a switch used to detect an under-voltage condition in anelectrical power system)

• FFI = Flow Ratio Indicator (e.g. a device indicating the ratio between air and fuel for a largeindustrial engine)

• FIC = Flow Indicating Controller (i.e. a controller designed to indicate flow to a humanoperator)

• HC = Hand Controller (i.e. a device allowing a human operator to set a control signal tosome desired level, usually to operate a valve or other final control element)

• JQR = Power Totalizing Recorder (e.g. a watt-hour recorder, tracking total energy used)

• LSHH = Level Switch, High-High (e.g. a level-sensing switch designed to detect a dangerouslyhigh liquid level and initiate an automatic shutdown in that event)

• LT = Level Transmitter (i.e. a device sensing liquid level and reporting that level in someanalog or digital form)

• PIT = Pressure Indicating Transmitter (e.g. a Rosemount model 3051 pressure transmitterwith a built-in display of measured pressure)

• PDT = Pressure Differential Transmitter (i.e. a pressure transmitter built and installed tosense the difference of pressure between two points in a fluid system)

• PV = Pressure Valve (i.e. a control valve installed in a loop where the process variable ispressure)

• TE = Temperature Element (i.e. a sensing element used to directly detect the temperature ofa process material; e.g. a thermocouple, thermistor, filled-bulb, bimetallic spring)

• TKAH = Temperature Rate-of-change Alarm, High (i.e. a device alarming when the rate oftemperature change exceeds a pre-set limit)

• TV = Temperature Valve (i.e. a control valve installed in a loop where the process variable istemperature)

• TY = Temperature Converter (e.g. an I/P transducer in a temperature loop)

• VSH = Vibration Switch, High (i.e. a switch used to detect a high level of vibration on apiece of machinery)

• ZXI, ZYI, and ZZI = Position Indicators for X, Y, and Z axes respectively (e.g. indicatorsshowing the three axis positions for a CNC machine tool)


References

ANSI/ISA-5.1-2009, Instrumentation Symbols and Identification, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2009.

“Commonly Used Electrical Symbols”, Eaton Electrical Inc., Eaton Corporation, Moon Township,PA, 2005.

Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society Standards, 5.1-1984 (R1992), InstrumentationSymbols and Identification, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1984.

Liptak, Bela G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis VolumeI, Fourth Edition, CRC Press, New York, NY, 2003.

Liptak, Bela G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Software and Digital Networks,Third Edition, CRC Press, New York, NY, 2002.

Appendix E

Contributors

This is an open-source book, which means everyone has a legal write to modify it to their liking. Asthe author, I freely accept input from readers that will make this book better. This appendix existsto give credit to those readers who have made substantial contributions to this book.

Sadly, this list does not show the names of every person who has helped me identify and correctminor typographical and grammatical errors. The list of names and errors would be quite substantial,I must admit. Those persons who are listed for their identification of typographical errors haveearned a place on the list through sheer volume of errors found. I am indebted to my students, andto readers around the world for their keen observation and careful reading of the text.

2683

2684 APPENDIX E. CONTRIBUTORS

E.1 Error corrections

Brown, Kevin (February 2011)

• Identified typographical error in the Control Valves chapter.

Esher, Cynthia A. (December 2009)

• Identified error of referring to “SAMA” diagrams. I changed these references to “functional”diagrams instead (Instrumentation Documents chapter).

Glundberg, Blake (February 2011, April 2011)

• Identified typographical errors (Control Valves chapter, Digital Data Acquisition and Networkschapter).

Mhyre, Phil (January 2012)

• Identified spelling error on the word “desiccant” (Discrete Control Elements chapter).

Sangani, Champa (September 2009) and Brainard, Ben (January 2012)

• Identified calculation error in milliamp-to-pH scaling problem (Analog ElectronicInstrumentation chapter).

Schultz, Steven (February 2011)

• Identified error in a pilot-loaded pressure regulator design depicted in the Control Valveschapter.

Thompson, Brice (June 2009)

• Identified errors in high/low select and high/low limit function illustrations (Basic ProcessControl Strategies chapter).

Tsiporenko, Michael (June 2009)

• Identified typographical error in the Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation chapter.

Villajulca, Jose Carlos (August 2011)

• Identified error in PID tuning response for a “generic” simulated process in the ProcessDynamics and PID Controller Tuning chapter.

E.2. NEW CONTENT 2685

E.2 New content

Dennis, Japheth (2011-2012 academic year)

• Suggested additional examples of PID controller responses to graph, to help illustrate theunique features of each action.

Goertz, Kevin (2006-2007 academic year)

• Took photographs of various flowmeters, control valves, and an insertion pH probe assembly.

Poelma, John (2010-2011 academic year)

• Took photographs of various pressure vessels, instruments, control valves, and other processhardware at NASA’s Stennis Space Center in Mississippi.

2686 APPENDIX E. CONTRIBUTORS

Appendix F

Creative Commons AttributionLicense

2687

2688 APPENDIX F. CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION LICENSE

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