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INGLÉS COMERCIAL II

GESTIÓN COMERCIAL Y MÁRKETING

Inglés comercial II

INDEX

1. Getting in touch

• Keep in touch..................................................................................................3 • First grade conditional....................................................................................7 • Make and Do .................................................................................................9 • Franchising...................................................................................................13 • Necessity of an advice..................................................................................14 • Offers, suggestions, invitations.....................................................................18

2. Going into the Stock Exchange • Uniform, constant, equable...........................................................................21 • Environment ethic ........................................................................................23 • World markets .............................................................................................26 • Business ethic..............................................................................................28 • Yard sales ...................................................................................................31 • Recycling.....................................................................................................33

3. Being impersonal • How things are made...................................................................................36 • The Agent (Passive) ...................................................................................38• Doing a market research ..........................................................................42• Alliances......................................................................................................43• Phrasal verbs...............................................................................................46

4. Writing in/ for business • Negotiations.................................................................................................51 • Information checkers .................................................................................54• How to sell a product ..................................................................................57 • Commercial letters......................................................................................60 • The language of complaints .......................................................................62• Letters of reply and adjustment .................................................................66

5. Going on holiday • Enquires and replies...................................................................................70 • Electronic correspondence.........................................................................72 • Banks and money.......................................................................................75 • How to place and order ..............................................................................78• Energy.........................................................................................................81 • Reports........................................................................................................84

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Inglés comercial II 1 Getting in touch

Keep in touch Two of the most popular web sites in the world are “Classmates” and “ Friends Reunited ” which offers the same service, they enable people to get back in touch with friends who went to the school with them. Today “ Classmates ”, which was founded by Michael Schutzler in 1995, has over 35 million members in the United States where it has grown rapidly. The site, which provides listing for most public and private schools, and universities, is visited by people worldwide. Users, who can register for free by providing their name, name of the school they attended, graduating years, and contact information, can view the names of who have also registered with “Classmates”. Only when a user wants to contact someone, they pay a subscription fee. Four years after, a husband and wife decided to start a similar service in Britain where they launched “Friends Reunited”. They ran the original operation from a spare room in their house. Today it is one of the best known and most popular sites in Britain whose 86 million registered members come from nine different countries. However, it has received some criticism and been accused of causing several divorces, as some users have used the site to say bad things about their ex-teachers, while others have made contact with teenage sweethearts and left their partners.

GRAMMAR POINT Look at these expressions from the text: … which offer the same service. … which was founded by Michael Schutzler in 1995. … which provides listing for most public and private schools and universities. … who went to the school with them. … who can register for free…. … Where it has grown rapidly. … Where they launched friends Reunited. … The names of whom have also registered with classmates.

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… Whose 8.6 million registered members come from nine different countries.

They are all relative clauses, short phrases beginning with words like “who”, “that”, “which”… (called relative pronouns) that define or describe people and things. They follow a noun (grammatically called antecedent) about which they add some sort of information. Relative clauses are often used in both spoken and written English. There is a tendency to use non-defining relative clauses mostly in written, rather than in spoken English. We use relative clauses to provide extra information. This information can either define something (defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added information (non-defining clause). There are two types of relative clauses:

• Defining relative clauses: we use them to identify exactly which person or thing we mean. The information provided in a defining relative clause is crucial in understanding the meaning of the sentence. They enable people to get back in touch with friends who went to the school with them. The purpose of a defining relative clause is to clearly define who or what we are talking about. Without this information, it would be difficult to know who or what is meant. We are not talking about any friends, but only about those whom we met at school and have not seen for years.

• Non- defining relative clauses: give extra information which is not necessary for the sentence to make sense. In writing, they go between commas. Users, who can register for free, can view the names of Classmate's members. Correct punctuation is essential in non-defining relative clauses.

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Relative pronouns in non-defining relative clauses

Person Object

S ubject w ho w hich

Object who, whom which

Possessive whose whose,of which

If the non-defining relative clause occurs in the middle of a sentence, a comma is put before the relative pronoun and at the end of the clause. If the non-defining relative clause occurs at the end of a sentence, a comma is put before the relative pronoun.

Relative clauses can be introduced by:

• A relative pronoun: who (whom), which, that, whose.

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Person Object

Subject who that which, that

Object Ø, that, who, whom Ø, which, that

Possessive whose whose, of which

Relative pronouns in defining relative clauses

Relative pronouns Which: refer to things. That: refers to things and people. It is more common, especially in speech. Who/Whom: refer to people. In formal speech and writing we can use “whom” instead of “who”, when “who” is not the subject but the object of a sentence, and after a preposition. However, this is becoming less common and in modern English speakers rarely use “whom” they prefer “who” with the preposition at the end of the phrase or “that”. They can view the names of whom have also registered. Whose: shows that something belongs to someone. It can be translated by: “cuyo/a, cuyos/as”. Friends Reunited whose 8.6 million people come from 9 different countries. Where: can be a relative pronoun when its antecedent is a noun indicating place: Britain where they launched a similar service… When: can also be a relative pronoun when its antecedent is a noun indicating time: The day when she came was the best in our lives.

• No relative pronoun, Ø. • Where, why and when instead of a relative pronoun.

When, where and why Where, referring to a place, why, referring to a reason, and when, referring to a time, can be used instead of a relative pronoun after a noun. In defining relative clauses why and when, unlike where can be omitted. When, where and why are not omitted in non-defining relative clauses. It is preferable to use that (not which ) after the following words: all, any (thing), every (thing), few, little, many, much, no (thing), none, some(thing), and after superlatives.

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When using the pronoun to refer to the object, that can be omitted. Leave out the relative pronoun Sometimes we can leave out the relative pronoun:

• In a defining relative clause that refers to the object. The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry (The doctor whom I spoke to …).

• After a superlative. That was the best film I've ever seen! (… the best film that I've ever seen). But we cannot leave out the pronoun:

• In a defining relative clause that refers to the subject. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.

• In non-defining relative clauses:

Cervantes, who died long ago, is still the best Spanish writer.

First grade conditional Read the text. It contains a description of a computer game. “A virus tries to destroy your computer. Luckily, your computer has an antivirus protection system. But can it stop the virus before it totally destroys the computer? Two players or teams can play the game. One team is the virus and the other team is the antivirus! Both need different coloured pens. If your team is the virus, then your objective is to destroy as much of the computer system as you can. If you team is the antivirus, your objective is to save as much of the computer system as possible. You take turns moving on the playing board. You can move only a shape at a time and always to shapes connected by a line. All shapes contain questions or answers to the questions. If you land on a shape with an answer, or if you land on a shape that has already been coloured, you have to wait for your next turn to move again. If you land on a shape with a question you must search the other shapes for the correct answer to

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the question. You have a maximum of 30 seconds to match the question and answer. If you correctly match the question and answer then you can colour both shapes with your colour and move to the answer shape. If you do not manage to match them correctly you will have to return to the shape you occupied previously. When all the shapes are coloured, the virus and antivirus teams should count how many shapes they matched right. The winner is the team that has the most coloured shapes: virus/antivirus”.

GRAMMAR POINT We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen.

IF condition result

Present Simple

will + base verb

When reading this text about a board game you can see many sentences with “if”, they are called conditionals. The “if…” clause is the condition and the other part of the sentence is the result. People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences, because there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence. The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen.


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When the verb of the condition is a Present Simple the verb of the result can be: • A present too. It expresses a general truth.

If your team is the virus your objective is to destroy the computer system. Sometimes it is called a zero conditional because it expresses more a cause/effect relation than a condition. We can also use “when” to introduce the sentence. Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will , for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV tonight. • A modal auxiliary, adds a sense of necessity, obligation, possibility… to the

result.

If you land on a coloured shape you have to wait. • A simple future (will). It describes events that will happen or are likely to

happen, a real possibility in the speaker's mind.

If you don't manage to match them correctly you will return to your previous place .

• An imperative, it tells you what to do.

If you are a virus, attack the computer system.

Make and Do Look at these advertisements: “For your convenience we've printed an information leaflet about our company telling you what we do, who we are and how we do it. Thank you for your support and for making us the U.K. 's most successful retailer. In order to maintain our number one position we need to know where we've gone wrong. Suggestions and comments can be made to the customer service. They will receive a reply. Please, let us know your opinion about us. We really care !” We made profits of more than 500.000 dollars and suppliers are keen to do business with us”.

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GRAMMAR POINT When dealing with the verbs “make” and “do”, problems may arise, because they are very similar in meaning and it is not always easy to know which one we should use. Make. It often has the meaning of “create” or “construct”, as in the example from the text: We made profits… or: We made a new design for the product. The company makes photographic equipment. Make is often used with nouns connected with talking and sounds; as we can see in these examples: Children make a lot of noise. I'd like to make a suggestion. You can write to our customer service to make a complaint.

Make can also be found in expressions related with travelling such as: Make a journey or make a visit.

However, there are many other expressions which do not follow these guidelines and it is best to learn them or use a dictionary if you are unsure.

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Expressions with Do and Make

Do Make

do good make an attempt

do harm make a bed (usually this means "tidy the bedclothes" but it could mean "manufacture the furniture")

do well make a change/changes

do badly make a complaint

do a favor make a decision

do business make a demand

make an effort

make an exception

make an excuse

make a loss

make love

make a mistake

make money

make a noise

make an offer

make peace

make a phone call

make a profit

make a suggestion

make war

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Here are some of them:

an appointment make sense

arrangements make certain

an attempt

a choice

money

progress

a start

Make

my/your-mind up

Do is often used when talking about an activity without mentioning exactly what it is, as in the sentences: What do you do? I do my homework everyday. Women do most of the housework in Western countries. He is doing a master in Business. Also it is used when we talk about a work or a task. And in the structure:

do + ing It was a pleasure doing business with you. Could you do some photocopying for me, please? Remember that we usually use make for products or goods that are manufactured. That's why you see labels like "Made in Hong Kong" or "Made in the USA " on products that you buy. As in the case of make, do is used in many other expressions without following these rules, as we can see in these examples:


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good

harm

my/your/his/her… best

someone a favour

Do

well

Franchising Today businesses are changing and one of the most outstanding features is the closing of traditional shops in favour of big chains that offer their products everywhere in outlets that look alike. That's what we call franchising. But there is more, it can be defined as a business system in which a company, the franchisor, sells an individual the right to operate a business using the franchisor's format. The franchisee has the right to take advantage of the franchisor's brand names, reputation and experience. As part of the agreement or contract, the franchisee pays an initial sum called franchise or front end fee, and it agrees to pay a management services fee, which is usually calculated as a percentage of the annual turnover. Some franchisors require their franchisees to pay and advertisement fee to contribute to the annual advertising and marketing costs but not all of them. Ben and Larry Ben and Larry is an American company, based in Vermont which makes natural ice-cream. It was founded in 19789 by Ben Hogen and Larry Greenfield. It distributes its products in all the states and has 100 independent franchise shops in U.S.A. and Canada. The franchisees buy a ten year license and they receive personnel training and a well-planned marketing campaign. Most of their franchisees are experienced operators whose stores are their primary source of income. As part of their publicity, shops have to participate in many local events and social campaigns such as: aiding homeless shelters, sponsoring cultural activities…. The franchisee has to put up the necessary capital to open the business and outlets. Quite a big investment if we remember that, decoration and personnel training had to fit all the franchisor's requirements and they are usually expensive. As a counterpart the franchisee receives an operations manual containing all the information required in order to manage the business.

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What are the advantages of this system? Why would it be necessary to pay in order to run your own business? What are the advantages for a big company? Well, if we take into account that cultures remain different although boundaries may have been removed, you'll have to understand local culture before setting your business up, which makes franchising to local businessmen the best way to expand for a foreign company. However, not everything is wonderful, there are some disadvantages, the franchisor, who owns the outlet and has to give a big sum of money to get started, may not be as successful as expected; nevertheless, he or she would still have to pay the franchisor what they have agreed upon. He will be tied up by a contract for a fixed time and the chances of cancelling the contract might be none.

Necessity of an advice When we want to express an obligation, or a necessity we use must or have to. Some people worry about the difference between them, which, in fact, is very small. Have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules). Have to is objective.

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There are a number of formulas used when giving advice in English.

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Formula + Verb Form

I don't think you should work so hard.

Use “I don't think you should” + the base form of the verb in a statement.

You ought to work less.

Use “You ought to” + the base form of the verb in a statement.

You ought not to work so hard.

Use “You ought not to” + the base form of the verb in a statement.

If I were you, If I were in your position, If I were in your shoes, I wouldn't work so hard.

Use “If I were” + “you”

“in your position”

“your shoes” + “I wouldn't”

“I would” + base form of the verb in a statement (A form of the conditional 2).

You had better work less.

Use “You had better” (you'd better) + the base form of the verb in a statement.

You shouldn't or You should work less.

Use “You should”“You shouldn't” + the base form of the verb in a statement.

Whatever you do, don't work so hard.

Use “Whatever you do” + the imperative.

Formulas used when giving advice

Have to: is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:

Subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to ) Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The strcture is:

Subject + must + main verb Like all auxiliary verbs, must can not be followed by to. In general, must express personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule or a law. But generally, we use have to for this. Look at these two sentences: We have to make a decision. I must ring home. I'm going to be late. With have to the necessity is external; therefore in sentence one, we understand that the decision has to be made because business needs so. On sentence number two is the speaker's decision, thus we can say that “must” is used when the necessity is internal. With future necessity we use will have to and must. Which are perfectly equivalent? Look at these two sentences: I'll have to attend the meeting next Monday. I must attend the meeting next Monday. There is no difference in meaning, so that using one or the other is only a question of style or just the speaker's preference. Where there is a big difference is in the negative form of both verbs:

• When we use mustn't we mean that something is not allowed. But, • When we use don't / doesn't have to we mean that something is not

necessary. Read this text to appreciate the difference:

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“When operating the computer you mustn't switch it off without saving your data, but you don't have to unplug the equipment, you only have to disconnect the system from your software program”.

• To express negative necessity we can also use can't which also means prohibition, as it is shown in the example: You can't open the shop tomorrow, It's a public holiday.

• Can, in the affirmative is also used to express possibility.

Read this text to check how these modal auxiliaries work together: “Miss. Robinson is a personnel manager at a big American company. She is also the mother of three young children. She is very happy with her job conditions because she has to work only four days a week. She can also bring her children to work because the company has childcare facilities. Obviously, she can't see them during the day because she is too busy. But she doesn't have to work at weekends and this makes family life much easier for her. She believes that she must do her job better than the men around her to be accepted as a woman in a man's world. Her advice to working women: you mustn't be too nice”.

• When we want to give advice we can also use should and ought to, look at these examples:

You should keep an account of all your expenses. You ought to retire if you don't feel well.

However, when used in the negative form, these two auxiliaries express some sort or criticism. You shouldn't have sold those shares, they are rising. You oughtn't to have cancelled that meeting; the customer is very upset for the delay. As you can see from the examples, the structure for criticism is:

Should (not) + have + Past Participle Ought (not) to + have + Past Participle

Sometimes they can express criticism in the affirmative:

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You ought to have applied earlier, now it's too late.

Offers, suggestions, invitations In business situations we need to be very careful when giving an opinion. If we sound too direct, we will be considered aggressive and bossy and no matter how good our idea might be, nobody will pay attention to us. Very few people are in a position where they can say openly what they want and make others do it, so learning to suggest and recommend politely is being a step ahead in business. There are a number of formulas used when making suggestions in English. Here are some of the most common.

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Formula + Verb Form

Why don't you / we go to a movie?

Use the base form of the verb in a question.

We / You could go to a movie. Use the base form of the verb in a statement.

Let's go to a movie. Use the base form of the verb with let's.

What about going to a movie? Use the -ing form of the verb in a question.

How about going to a movie? Use the -ing form of the verb in a question.

I suggest you / we go to a movie.

Use suggest + object + verb in the base form in a statement.

Formulas used when making suggestions

We can use should when we have a strong opinion about something or when we are recommending some sort of action. In the negative form we do not use shouldn't but I don't think we should. Which, is not as direct. Look at these examples: We should import goods from exotic Asian countries. I don't think we should sell our goods at very high prices. However if you want to make a less strong suggestion, you can use these expressions:

• Why don't… • How about + -ing verb • What about + -ing verb

Why don't we make an appointment with the bank manager? How about playing classical music in our stores? What about importing merchandise from China ? Other possible expressions are:

• We could / I suppose we could. • Have you thought about…? • Let's… • What do you think about…? • What I have in mind is…

When we offer to do something for someone, we can use shall I in this case, an answer from the other person is required. But if we do not require an answer, then we can use I will. Look these examples: My car doesn't work! I'll go and check it. Shall I go check it? In these cases we are waiting for the owner's permission.

• Would you like…? Is also a good way to offer help. Would you like me to open the window?

• Do you mind if I / we …? / would you mind…? With these sentences we are

asking permission for doing something for us or for another person. Although

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you may think that it is not necessary to ask, in some situations you'd be surprised.

Look at this text: “Last winter I was sitting on the bus, on my way home after a long day, although I was very tired, I'm an old fashioned, well-educated gentleman; so when I realized that a middle-aged lady was standing and had some difficulty to keep her balance, I told her: would you like to sit down madam? To my surprise she replied: “Do you think I am so old I can stand on my feet?” Now, when I offer my help I'm very careful and ask: Do you mind if I leave you my seat? Some people are very particular about accepting any help from strangers”. Offers, suggestions, invitations Giving Opinions I'm positive that... I (really) feel that... In my opinion... The way I see things... If you ask me,... I tend to think that... Asking for Opinions Are you positive that... Do you (really) think that... (Name of participant) can we get your input? How do you feel about...? Advising and Suggesting Let's... We should... Why don't you.... How / What about... I suggest / recommend that... Correcting Information Sorry, I think you misunderstood what I said. Sorry, that's not quite right. I'm afraid you don't understand what I'm saying. That's not quite what I had in mind. That's not what I meant.

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2 Going into the Stock Exchange

Uniform, constant, equable New companies are formed every day. One option to enlarge a small company is to ask for a loan to a bank. This often brings problems to the company's owner because he or she will have to pay an amount of money (the interest rate) monthly during a long period of time; if the business is not fully successful and the loan is not paid, the bank can seize the business in order to recover its loan. Small companies are usually owned by one or two people, or families, and getting the capital needed for expansion can be a real trouble. When you want to raise capital to start a business you should be prepared for some tough questions from your bank manager. Before agreeing a loan, a bank will want to see your financial commitment to the success of your business. Probably if you were in the bank manager's position you would act in the same way. Don't forget that money comes from small investors who shouldn't like to lose it. They would also want some kind of security like your car or house, or a person who would back you, in that way, if things went wrong you could find yourself, or someone you appreciate, out in the street. And if the business failed the bank would be the first of a big group of creditors to get its money back. Besides if you were declared bankrupt it would be difficult to secure any further loans, and you must bear in mind that once a bank has made a decision to get its money back, nothing is going to make them change their mind.

GRAMMAR POINT The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But we use the second conditional to talk about something which we think is unlikely to happen or to refer to an imaginary situation. We use the Past Simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use would + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen. We call second conditional to a sentence formed by two parts, one is a condition and the other is the result.

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Look at these examples from the text:

If the business failed, the bank would be the first of a big group of creditors to get its money back. If things went wrong you could find yourself… out in the street.

If you were in the bank manager's position you would act in the same way. Note that we use a Past Simple tense in the If clause and would + infinitive (without “to”) in the main clause in the first sentence, while we use could + base infinitive in second one. If clause pattern If clause / Past Simple Result clause. Modals add a sense of possibility; probability or advice to these sentences.

Would + base verb

Should Could verb

Might

+ base

Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working. In many occasions we can use a second conditional to appear more polite in making a request or asking a favour: I would prefer it if you finished your report today. Would you mind if I paid you next month? We would be very grateful if you could send us some information. When the verb “to be” is used in an If clause, we can use were instead of was, especially after “I” as in this example: If I weren't so tired, I would gladly help you. We often use the expression “If I were you….” for giving someone advice: If I were you I would pay the loan punctually. Although “If” is the most common conjunction used in these sentences, it is not the only one. We can also use: Whether: its meaning is the same that the meaning of “If”.

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Unless: it is more used in first conditional sentences. It has de idea of “If not” or “except”. Unless he had the money, he would have to sell his house. Note that the order of the two parts of a conditional sentence can be interchanged without affecting the general sense of the sentence; however the verbal tenses have to follow the pattern as explained.

Environment ethic In recent years, some consumers' associations and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and others, are trying to force industries to control the waste they generate in their production processes. Their final goal is to improve the quality of the atmosphere and the water and try to recover the ozone layer which has suffered an important damage due to the CFCs used in industry. Dangerous emissions to the air are now being controlled in most developed countries and governments are helping underdeveloped countries to grow industrially without using these components. Many companies and corporations started harassing these organizations and fought against them, violently sometimes, but nowadays, most people are aware of the danger that wild industrial behaviour represents for the survival of our planet. Scientists have joined the environmentalists in their demands, warning us about the global warming and its effects on the weather. At the beginning, all this sounded like science fiction, but even the most sceptics are now convinced of the truth that lies in these theories.

GRAMMAR POINT The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We use the Past Perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use would have + Past Participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now. Third conditional expresses a condition which can never occur because it refers to past or imaginary situations.

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With third conditions the speaker recognises that the consequence is impossible. It cannot be fulfilled as the condition never happened.

We usually use it when talking about hypothetical situations and their consequences. We can also use it to express regrets, wishes and missed opportunities. Third conditional used Read this text and notice how third conditionals are used: “One of the problems that sometimes companies have to deal with is how to handle negative publicity when things go wrong. For example if they had accidentally contaminated their own products during the manufacturing process, they would have to recall their products and make sure they were withdrawn from the shops. However, products can also be victims of product tampering where unknown people or members of the public damage them in some way and then, them make false claims or blackmail the brand or the store. A sad fact is that when such accusations are reported, they often provoke a copycat behaviour. Something of that sort happened to “Tylenol” in the 80s. Someone changed part of the contents of several boxes by poisonous pills. Many people who only suffered from a common head ache were very ill. If the pharmaceutical company hadn't retired the product from the shelves, some people would have died. In addition, if they hadn't paid an enormous amount of money to stop the tampering, it could have gone on forever. Some months after this episode took place, the police arrested a former worker who had been sacked. He told the media that nobody would have suffered if the company had not made him redundant; and would have readmitted him when he complained to them”. As you can see from the examples in the text: If the pharmaceutical company hadn't retired the product from the shelves some people would have died. If they hadn't paid an enormous amount of money… it could have gone on for ever. Nobody would have suffered if the company had not made him redundant and they would have readmitted him. The If clause is in Past Perfect, and the result or main clause, in Perfect Conditional: (would have + Past Participle).

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IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

Perfect Conditional

Would have + Past Participle

Should have + Past Participle

Could have + Past Participle

Past Perfect = Had + Past Participle

Might have + Past Participle In the second sentence we can see that the use of “could” instead of “would” adds the sentence the meaning of future possibility. Sometimes, we use should have, could have, and might have instead of would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won. Inverted constructions are widely used in formal written documents such as legal contracts, insurance, or agreements. Has the customer refused to accept the goods, we would have terminated the contract. In these constructions the conjunction is left out and the past of have “had” is placed in front of the subject as if it was a question. This use is very formal, and it does not appear in spoken language. Expressions that can introduce a conditional phrase Besides “If”, the following expressions can also introduce conditional phrases or clauses, although they are less frequent:

• Provided that / Providing that… • On condition that… • So long as…. • In case. • In the case of. • In the event that… • In the event of….

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Conditional resume

Probability Conditional Example Time

100% Zero conditional If you heat ice, it melts. any time

50% First conditional If it rains, I will stay at home. future

10% Second conditional If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.

future

0% Third conditional If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.

past

World markets Big companies may want to become even bigger by many different reasons; as they are owned, not by one single individual, but by many people, the best option to increase their capital is to offer shares of their businesses to new owners that will bring the required capital with them, and thus they will become a part of the company. These companies buy others to form a big organization which is subdivided into different firms and aim to different target markets. When they operate worldwide they are called multinationals. One of the most important parts of the world trade is the shares and stock market. The vocabulary used in this sector is very specific and needs to be learnt carefully in order to understand the economy pages of any newspaper. When a company needs to raise money in order to grow, it can choose to issue shares (parts of its capital) which can be bought by the general public. They are called equities or ordinary shares.

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NASDAQ 1943.57 10.60 0.55%

DJIA 9854.85 -32.08 0.32%

S&P 500 1099.49 -4.17 0.38%

NASDAQ-100 1464.19 11.93 0.82%

NASDAQ-100 PMI 1460.62 8.36 0.58%

NASDAQ-100 AHI 1457.24 4.98 0.34%

Russell 1000 588.43 -1.83 0.31%

Russell 2000 572.18 2.05 0.36 When you buy them, you become a shareholder and own a part of that company, you can then, make or lose money depending on the company's profits. If the company makes profits it pays a sum of money per share known as dividend to its shareholders. Companies can also borrow money from a bank or from the general public issuing bonds which are loans at a fixed interest to be paid each year. In addition to these shares, loans issued by the government to build roads, hospitals, etc., are called government stocks of gilt-edged securities. They are also traded in the Stock Exchange. Every day the press gives prices and other information about shares of the companies authorised to use the Stock Exchange. Some shares are grouped depending on the type of company to form an index: Dow Jones, Nikkei, Blue chip… which shows the average benefit or loss of these shares in the Market.

THE STOCK EXCHANGE Stockbrokers are the people who buy and sell these shares for the general public, and they charge their customers a commission. All developed countries have Stock Exchange Markets; the most famous are Wall Street, (at New York), London or Tokyo.

When describing the profits or losses of a company and its shares value, we must know some expressions: • When shares are gaining value we can say

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http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=DJIA

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=S%26P+500

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=NASDAQ-100

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=NASDAQ-100+PMI

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=NASDAQ-100+PMI

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=NASDAQ-100+AHI

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=NASDAQ-100+AHI

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=Russell+1000

http://www.nasdaq.com/?selected=Russell+2000

-Shares lifted to the top. -Shares climbed… -Shares gained… -Shares fared well rising a _____ per cent. -Shares went up by a…. -Shares boosted. -They had strong / high / heavy earnings. -They expand / shares are in expansion / they clock up fresh gains.

• When they are losing value we can say -Shares crashed. -Shares went down. -Shares plunged. -Shares deepened. -Shares devaluated. -They declined. -Shares are losing steam. -Shares clocked up lose.

When the market gains steadily, it is called Bull market when it loses it is called Bear market. As positive words we have: golden age, bright spot, and growth. As negative words we have: recession slump, dark age, rainy days. Some adjectives and adverbs are frequently used with these expressions, such as: dramatically, steeply, steady.

Business ethic One of the most important vindications of international organizations such as UNICEF or Save the Children is that children labour should be forbidden or at least restricted by laws which force big companies and local manufactures not to employ them. However, in poor countries, children's salaries are necessary for the families' survival, so governments have to rule the conditions of that labour force and protect them from abuses, assuring that they can combine school and work, paying them fair wages and providing them with healthy working environments. Nevertheless, today, most companies have understood that although the costs of a clean production process are high, they are investing more in research and waste

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disposal because the have found out that they can obtain a benefit from these efforts by letting their customers know what they are doing. Most of them have become environmentally aware and do not mind paying a little more for ecologic products or environmentally friendly materials. Marketing advisors have learned to make a profit of this money as they have included news and information about these contributions to the common welfare in their advertisements. At the same time, social issues have found their place in industry too. Big corporations are supporting social missions and they are helping the communities where they have their plants and buildings and dedicating a part of their benefits to sponsor cultural events.

GRAMMAR POINT When the speaker wants to express an opinion about an action that occurred in the past, saying that these were alternative courses of action available at that time but which were not adopted, he or she may use the structure:

Could have + Past Participle Look at these two examples: I could have done without the jeep. I could have cycled to work or used the tube. They mean that instead of cycling, a jeep was used to move through the city, but, there was a different option which was not taken at the moment.

This sentence shows an action: She came at 10 o'clock. It is a past event that cannot be changed but if we want to say that other alternatives were possible we can say: She could have come earlier. The structure:

Should have + Past Participle Can also be used, although if it has a slightly different meaning.

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• In the affirmative, it indicates that there was a better option, and what was done was not as good its alternative.

These items didn't sell well. They should have reduced their price sooner.

In the negative, it is used to show that, in the speaker's opinion a particular past action was a mistake or regrettable:

He shouldn't have taken so long to finish his report. The structure:

Might have + Participle Indicates a remote probability of a thing which has not happened, but it possible existed in the past. It disappeared because no appropriate action was taken at the time. He might have won the price. Company advertise Read this text about a company's alternatives; behave ethically or not. Note how these expressions are used: “Our company could have employed children as many others do, but we are very worried about the role of big companies in today's society. It is true that our benefits might have increased by doing so, but on the other hand negative publicity could have damaged our corporative image. Nevertheless we have noticed that in many underdeveloped countries, children's salaries are essential for their families' survival, so even though we don't recruit them for our factories, they continue to be exploited by other companies, most of them by local manufacturers, who are interested in offering low competitive prices to wholesalers and retailers. Now, we think that we should have employed children over thirteen, assuring them healthier labour conditions and fair salaries. Besides, we should have given them some sort of training, as we do with our technical staff in Europe. That policy might have been more realistic and successful”.

LANGUAGE FORMS In these sentences the main idea is that there was a discarded alternative.

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Our company could have employed children. Negative publicity could have damaged our corporative image. In these sentences the main idea is that the other option was better. We should have employed children over thirteen. We should have given them some sort of training. In the following sentence the main idea is that there was a probability of a different alternative. That policy might have been more realistic and successful.

In spoken language should / could can be contracted with the subject as 'd.

Yard sales

Developed countries are basing their economics in a non-stop production of all types of products. Companies need compulsive consumers who buy constantly and throw away old items convinced that they need to acquire the new ones because they are better or more necessary or healthier. Therefore, these citizens produce huge amounts of litter, things that can still be useful and would be appreciated by others, are destroyed; however, many other people are starting to find new ways of giving a second opportunity to these objects. One example of this new conscience is yard sales which have become extremely popular throughout the United States. Read this text about yard sales and look at the use of linking words. “Yard sales are to Americans what family gatherings are to Spaniards, a part of everyday life. As an American Saying goes “One man's trash is another man's treasure”. Even American children acquire a taste for these markets early on, putting old toys for sale in the front lawns. Now in its 16 th year, the World's Longest Yard Sale runs through four states. The buying and selling may take place in tents, yards, fields. Even at intersections. Anything can be put on sale and anyone can participate, adults as well as children. The cost of the various objects (furniture, clothing, food…) on display varies as much as do the objects themselves. The event has attracted as many as 400.000 people, despite August temperatures and limited publicity.

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So famous has the event become in the last years that the sale has been featured in popular magazines such as Newsweek and National newspapers, for example the Washington Post or The Enquirer. It merits a visit. For here, along the rural back roads of America's Deep South, the buyer need not beware as there are no just friendly faces and rich local colour, both difficult to find in a big city. Besides, the landscape is worth the trip”.

GRAMMAR POINT There are many different words and phrases used to organize ideas in speaking and writing. Notice that the position of these words vary, sometimes a word comes in the middle of a sentence to join two clauses. Other times it comes at the beginning and it is followed by a comma in writing or a pause in speech. • As much As / As many as: they link sentences comparing.

The cost varies as much as objects do themselves. The event has attracted as many as 400.000 people.

• And: it is used to join words or part of sentences. They are at the same level.

Anything can be put on sale and anyone can participate. • As: it links sentences meaning consequence or exemplification:

As an American saying goes. The buyer need not beware as there are no bad deals.

• Both: it is used to emphasize the fact that there are two things involved:

Both difficult to find in a big city. • Also / Too / As well as: they are used to describe two actions at the same

time, or to add actions of things. Adults as well as children. Also know as the Highway 127 Corridor Sale.

• For example / such as: they are use to give examples. “For example”, can

be placed at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence. However “Such as” cannot be used at the beginning of a sentence.

• Even: it is used to say that something is surprising, or to emphasize

comparative adjectives. Even American Children acquire an early taste for these markets early on.

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• Besides: it is used to show that we are adding a point or a comment to a sentence. It is usually placed at the beginning of a sentence, separated by commas.

Besides, the landscape is worth the trip.

Recycling

Unwanted objects can be garbage for an individual and a treasure for another. A different option to dispose of our home's waste is to recycle it. Maybe we do not know what to do but many people; including artists are using litter to create beautiful sculptures, or useful objects that can be given a new use. New businesses are appearing to satisfy these ecological customers. Read this text to find out more linking words at work. “Do you have a handful of unpaired socks that you don't know what to do with? Instead of throwing them to the trash you could learn what to do with them. First of all you could follow the idea of an Arizona recycling group which has developed out an innovative idea. In fact, to avoid creating more garbage this group started to connect people who were interested in getting rid of unwanted objects with others who would like to have them, all via e-mail. In this way, free cycling was born. It now boasts a network of more than 35.000 people actually. Finally, as its name implies all the items posted are fire, although these postings are moderated by volunteers either in local or national groups”.

GRAMMAR POINT When we connect ideas or paragraphs, we can follow a time pattern, or a sequence. Using linking words which establish a list of points using: • First of all / Secondly / thirdly… / Finally

Look at the example from the text: First of all you could learn what to do with them. Finally, as its name implies, all the items posted are free.

• In fact / actually. They are use to give more detail or surprising information:

“actually” is often misunderstood and translated for the Spanish word “actualmente”, when its meaning is closer to the word “really”.

In this example from the text, more information is given:

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In fact, to avoid creating more garbage, this group started to connect people who were interested in getting rid of unwanted objects, with others who would like to have them.

• In my view / Personally. These linking expressions are used in formal speech and writing to introduce our own ideas. Here it is an example from the text:

Personally, I think this idea deserves visiting its web.

• Instead (of). We use instead (of) to mean in the place of something else. At

the end of a sentence “instead” is used without the preposition “of”. Take this example:

Instead of throwing them to the trash you could learn what to do with them. Look at this other sentence: You could recycle them instead.

• Except / Except for. They mean: not including:

They recycle all types of objects, except batteries.

• Either, or. It is used to describe a choice or an alternative. In the example: These posting are moderated by volunteers either in local or national groups.

Either… or establishes the need of a choice.

Notice that the sequence “Or…or” is not possible in English. It is possible to begin a sentence with “or” only when we complete someone else's sentence. We could throw those shocks away I suppose…. … or we could recycle them.

Some time words such as since, yet and while can also be used as liking words, but in that case they have completely different meaning, with this use they are more common in writing: Since meaning as I couldn't swim, since I had a cold. Yet meaning although No one replied to my call, yet I know they were in. While meaning although

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The first two buses were full, while the next was completely empty. These linking words are the most common in English, but you could find some more which are not used very frequently in today's language.

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3 Being impersonal

How things are made When describing a process we often use the passive voice, because we do not want to focus in the subject but in the description of the events themselves. Read this text about the Hawthorne Experiments and pay attention to the verbs: “The Hawthorne experiments were conducted in the 1920s at Western Electric's Hawthorne works in Chicago. They were trying to demonstrate the effects of lightning conditions in production. More than 20.000 workers were involved in them. In the first experiment, lightening conditions in the factory were improved and it was found out that the output also improved. In the second experiment, the lightening conditions were made worse, unexpectedly output went up again. Finally, the lighting conditions in the factory were returned to normal, surprisingly, the worker's productivity improved again. What conclusion could be drawn from these experiments? Well, maybe productivity was related to the amount of light or maybe not. What they proved is that the output improved because of the attention that was being paid to the workers. They felt valuated simply because they were part of an experiment”. These experiments are a classic about behavioural psychology and are frequently mentioned in the world of commerce and marketing to focus on the importance of the individual. This is so not only in productive stages, but also in selling. Customers are different individuals and they want to be treated in a personal way, as if they were the only and most important clients of a business. It is important to know as much as possible about them. Different cultures need to have different approaches. For instance, British prefer durability and comfort in a product; Spanish prefer cheap fashionable objects than can be replaced every new season; Germans like quality and seriousness… etc. But, we can find that in many stores, all these nationalities are treated equally and this is a big mistake. Age and educational background are also important when approaching potential client and we must be aware that our explanations or apologies have to meet their expectations. We must use a clear and simple language if our customer is old or uneducated, but we must be exact and extensive when giving explanations to a well educated one.

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Some say that even sex affects the way people react to a problem. That is why sales people and sales representatives or agents have to be trained in dealing with demands and complaints according to people and their circumstances. A little bit of psychology always helps. The same happens when a client complains about something. Mediterranean people: Spanish, Italian, Greek, make a lot of noise, but they rarely place a demand or a written complaint. On the contrary, German and British consumers would expect an immediate replacement of the product and some sort of compensation for the trouble caused. Consumer associations are very strong in both countries and their citizens have been educated in asking for their rights.

GRAMMAR POINT Take a look at these sentences from the text: More than 20.000 workers were involved in them. Lighting conditions in the factory were improved. They were made worse. Lighting conditions were returned to normal. You can see that they are all passive. The verb is made passive by using be followed by a Past Participle. Be can be Present, Future etc… as any active verb. When we use the passive voice we change the focus, from the subject to the verbal object. Thus, we often put the attention on something that happens to someone, when we do not want to focus on the person who does the action. Therefore, the passive is often used to talk about systems and processes.

Only transitive verbs, that is, verbs with an object can be made passive. So, we use the passive: • To avoid mentioning the doer of an action because:

-It's unknown -It's not important -It's a group / an institution -It's an impersonal / official announcement -In process descriptions where we are not interested in the agent but in the

action. -In impersonal language such as formal written announcements or wherever

an impersonal tone is intended.

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The passive is used more in writing and formal speech. Passive in Spanish Notice that in Spanish the passive is less used than in English. This is due to the fact that Spanish has an impersonal structure with “se”, which is widely used instead of the passive voice when the subject is not important or when we want to focus on the result of the verb or on the process.

The Agent (Passive) In passive sentences the doer of the action (what in active sentences is the subject) is less important than the result of the action and its effect on the receiver. The doer of the action is introduced at the end of the sentence with “by”; grammatically, it is called “the agent”. It is not necessary to mention the agent. There are several reasons for this:

• When the agent is not known. My car was stolen last week.

If we knew who had stolen it we would have mentioned the name of the person, but we don't know.

• When the agent is obvious.

My house has been painted recently. It is not necessary to say “by the painters”. They are the people who usually paint houses, if it had been my eighty-year-old grandmother the person who did the painting we could have mentioned it.

• When the agent is unimportant.

A lot of English books are sold every year. Who sells the books? We don't care. If it was a well-known book shop, or a person or a publishing firm we would say it.

However, in many passive sentences the “by-phrase” is used to emphasize the doer, because it is a well-known person, an institution, or a means by which we have undergone a process. Look at these examples: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. This book has been published by the university.

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Our report was made by computer. The doer in the first sentence is a famous writer. In second sentence is an institution and in the last sentence it is a machine or a process. As you can see, the passive is widely used when an impersonal tone is intended. Look at this text which offers a clear explanation about how a computer works, and the different peripherals it has and what they are used for: “A computer is basically a typewriter with extra keys. Al the information can be shown on the monitor which is actually a television for your computer. The Central Processing Unit, or CPU for short, is the computer's brain and the hard disk is where all the information is stored. A printer can be used to out put paper copies of whatever you designed on the screen. But if you want to invert the process, put pages of text or pictures on a scanner and they will be transferred to your screen. A mouse is attached to the keyboard and it allows you to select items on the screen. Lately, modems have been developed to send data over telephone lines. You can be connected to the outside world and transfer your data to any computer no matter where. Loudspeakers are usually built inside the computer, but you can get external ones for a better quality of sound. Electronic data is often stored on floppy or compact discs. Which are introduced into the computer's CD-ROM drive so that your data can be read”. In these examples from the text: Your data can be read. A printer can be used. You can be connected to the outside world. You can see that a passive infinitive is made by using this structure:

Modal auxiliary + be + Past Participle The passive voice can also be used with continuous tenses, particularly Present and Past Continuous. It is made with:

A form of to be + being + Past Participle The computer is being repaired by a technician. Samples were being given out at promotional fairs. Verbs with two objects

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The passive voice exists in all tenses, in simple and continuous form and with modal verbs. Passive forms are rarely used with: Present Perfect Continuous, Future Perfect Continuous, and Past Perfect Continuous. Look at the table below and notice that all passive sentences contain different tenses of the verb to be+ Past Participle.

Passive sentences

Tense or modal Example in passive

Present Continuous My car is being repaired.

Present Simple Cocoa is grown in Ghana.

Past Simple The hospital was built in 1986.

Past Continuous I realised I was being followed.

Future Simple (will) The boxes will be delivered tomorrow.

Present Perfect My car has been stolen.

Past Perfect The house had been badly damaged.

Future Perfect She will have been told by five o'clock .

Modals She must be taken to hospital immediately.

Infinitive (after a verb) He waned to be introduce to the director.

Read this text and pay attention to some passive sentences which are very common in English, but absolutely impossible in Spanish. They are known as intermediate passives. “Be paid on time, or they will be made pay the price”. This has been the message from the government and the European Union since 1997 when a report on late payments in commercial transactions was published by the European Commission. Around 10.000 U.K. businesses fail each year due to late payment. The Late Payment Directive aims to encourage a culture were debts are paid within the agreed terms. The U.K. was one of the first countries to implement it and these has been a statutory right for small and medium enterprises, owed money by large firms or by the public sector. An interest on late payments can be claimed since November 1998.

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Amends to the legislation came into effect in 2002, and Firms owed money can now claim up to 100 pounds in debt recovery costs for each overdue bill. But the Better Payment Practice Group points out that rather than using the legislation as a last resort. It should be employed as a deterrent against late payment, as part of standard credit management techniques”. If you are interested in this subject you can go to: Payontime and learn now to protect your business from late payment. Look at these sentences: They will be made pay the price. Small enterprises owed money by large firms or by the public sector. Why do they seem “odd”? Well, the answer is that the direct object has not been made the subject of the passive sentence.

GRAMMAR POINT Some verbs can have two objects, for example we can “sell something to somebody”. The same happens with other verbs such as, “give”, “lend”, “offer, “promise”, “send”, “take”, “buy”, “sep”, “make”, “prepare” and “save”. In active sentences we can use these verbs in two ways: Peter gave Karen a present. Peter gave a present to Karen. In Spanish only the second sentence can be made passive, by taking the verbal object to the subject position, but in English, there is another possibility: we can take the indirect object and make it the subject of the passive sentence. So: Karen was given a present. As you can see from this example the direct object a present remains in the same position and has the same function that it had in the active sentence. The agent is often left out in this structure. This option is preferred in English, and it is difficult to understand for a Spanish speaker.

VERBS WITH A PARTICLE Although we have said that only transitive verbs with a direct object can be made passive, this use gives us some exceptions. Some intransitive verbs followed by a particle (usually a preposition) can also be made passive.

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Look at these examples and note that the particle remains in the passive sentences.

Active Passive

T

hey laughed at him H

e was laughed at

Someone has slept in this b

ed This bed has been slept in

Someone has paid for the dinner

The dinner has been paid for

Doing a market research When you have to do something, you may need a professional service or advice. It is not you who perform the action but another person who does something for you. That's a very particular case of a passive structure in English. We can use either have or get followed by a noun and a Past Participle. The verbs have and get can be used in any tense. Look at this text and find out some examples: “Companies or organizations which want to discover how the public perceive their products or services have some market research done. This research often takes the form of a survey. If you car doesn't work then you'll have it repaired by a good mechanic. Thus marketing researchers can give you the right point of view. For that reason, they design questions to investigate the attitudes of the public. People are asked to respond to a carefully formulated questionnaire. Researchers may get a complete random sample of people interviewed or may have people selected because they share important characteristics. For example, women accompanied by one or two small children or people over sixty-five who are representative of the segment of the market that has been targeted. The findings of this research will be then the object of a great deal of analysis and interpretation. There are several marketing research methods”.

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Look at these sentences:

• Companies…. Have some market research done. • If your car doesn't work, then you'll have it repaired by a good mechanic. • Researchers may get a complete random sample of people interviewed, or

may have people selected because… • Selected volunteers are given different objects and have samples of food or

drink examined, tested and compared. • The researcher has the discussion filmed secretly.

As you can see from the text this structure is often used in different tenses but in all the cases the meaning is similar: another one does something for you. In British English have is preferred while in American English get is the most.

Alliances Read this text about different corporate Alliances and acquisitions: As business and the world economy become increasingly more competitive companies have to strengthen their operations to remain profitable companies can go about this in a number of ways: they can set up a joint venture, this is when two or more companies agree to collaborate and jointly invest in a separate business or project. This type of deal allows the partners to combine their strengths in one specific area. In this type of union both companies remain separated.

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On the other hand, two companies, usually in the same field of industry come together to form one company. This is called a merger. Companies merge for many reasons, for example to increase market share and cut down costs in certain areas such as research, development and advertising. Finally, an acquisition or takeover is when one company accumulates enough of another company's shares to take over control and ownership. However, one of the most common problems when there is a re-organization is the staff. The new company usually intends to reduce or replace its employees. Sometimes, this process can be traumatic because many workers are made redundant and become unemployed. The oldest ones are often offered early retirements which could be accompanied by economic compensations. One of the biggest deal was carried off by Philiph Morris, a well known tobacco company based in the United States which bought the Swiss Chocolate and coffee group Jackobs Suchard, and recently a Spanish bank Santander run by the Botín family has started up negotiations with the Abbey Bank in Britain in order to buy it and thus be present in the British market. Younger staff can be kept but they should perform new tasks and sometimes, they should move to a different city or country, following the company's interests. In these cases, only colleagues' support can help the “old-newcomers” adapt to the new situation”.

GRAMMAR POINT If you look closely at the text you will find out that there are several verbs which go together with a particle. They are called phrasal verbs. They are normal verbs followed by one or two prepositions. Look at these examples from the text. • go about • set up • cut down • take over • carry off • start up When the preposition (or adverb) is added, the meaning of the original verb changes. Sometimes you can guess the meaning because there is still a relationship, but others there is a new meaning that is completely different.

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The examples you have seen have only one preposition but there are other verbs followed by two particles: To live up to (be as good as someone expects). The new campaign didn't live up to our expectations. Look forward to (think you will enjoy). I'm looking forward to going on holiday this year. We have already seen this verb before, because it is widely used in letters to close with a polite sentence. I'm looking forward to hearing from you… / to meeting you. Look out onto / over (have a view of) Our hotel room looks out onto the lake. Put up with (accept with out complaining) I can't put up with all this noise. There are some other verbs which may not use the final preposition, such as:

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Verbs which may not use the final preposition

Catch up (with) (reach someone by going faster).

You can rest now and catch up with us later. You are going to fast, I can't catch up.

Cut down on (reduce the amount of).

She has decided to cut down on heating this winter. You are eating too much, you should cut down.

Drop in on (visit for a short time).

Let's drop in on David while we are in town. The next time you come, please drop in.

Get along / on with (have a friendly relationship).

James doesn't get along with his partner. We work in the same office, but we don't get on.

Keep up with (move at the same speed).

You are going too fast! I can't keep up with you. I can't keep up, maths is too difficult.

Run out of (have no more of something).

My car has run out of petrol. There isn't any more wine, we've run out.

Phrasal verbs Many countries do not allow foreign companies to set in to operate within their territories because governments fear that these groups will call off their investments and get rid of their workers whenever they want. And get out of one country to start up again in a different one where the labour's costs are cheaper or the economic situation is more favourable. Without caring about the fact that they may cause that country's economy a great damage and without considering that they are letting down a lot of people who lose their jobs suddenly and sometimes unexpectedly.

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In recent days, we have had some examples of this behaviour with companies that have dismantled their plants to operate in a different place, although they were obtaining big benefits. Other companies, such as the Swedish “Boliden” accepted state subsidies to develop new plans and manufacturing strategies and after a few years, the company abandoned the country leaving behind a great environmental disaster which took a lot of money and effort to arrange. Underdeveloped countries have often been an easy prey for these groups which had abused from their natural resources without offering them appropriate compensations. That is the reason why countries like China prefer joint ventures to foreign companies and have legislated against multinationals to prevent them from benefiting from low labor costs and taxes without investing a part of their huge profits in research and development. Governments are now trying to be more careful with these big multinationals which are only interested in earning money quickly and do not hesitate in abandoning a project for a new and more productive one. As we have seen in the above mentioned example, a global economy can also bring important troubles, and sometimes, big companies seem to have more power than most governments, surely more money than some of them have.

GRAMMAR POINT There are phrasal verbs with two parts which are:

• Transitive and inseparable: these phrasal verbs take an object (so they are

transitive). The object must come after the preposition and not between the verb and the preposition. That's why they are called “inseparable”.

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Transitive and inseparable

Call for (come to your house and collect)

We'll call for you at about 8:00.

Call on (visit for a short time) I called on my old teacher, as I hadn't seen her for ages!

Deal with (take action or solve a problem)

Could you deal with this customer's problem, please?

Get at (try to say, suggest) Helen didn't understand what her boss was getting at.

Head for (go in the direction of) He escaped and headed for London.

Join in (take part, contribute to) Alan started singing happy birthday and everyone joined in.

See to (pay attention) The brakes need seeing to.

Stand for (tolerate) I won't stand for so much noise.

Take after (be similar in appearance or character)

Karen takes after her mother.

• Transitive and separable: they take an object (thus they are transitive) and this object can come after the preposition or between the verb and the preposition (so the verbs are “separable”).

In general, we can say that object phrases tend to be put after the preposition while pronouns (such as: you, it, him, her, us, them…) are put between the verb and the preposition.

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Transitive and separable

Bring up (look after a child until adult)

Tom's aunt brought him up after his parents died.

Call off (cancel)

The school called off the match because of the storm.

Clear up (make clean and tidy) Can you clear up the room before you leave it?

Cut off (be disconnected) My mother cut me off when I was talking to my friend.

Fill in (complete by writing) Fill in the blanks.

Give up (stop doing something) I gave up my hopes and expectations.

Knock out (make unconscious) Tyson knocked his opponent out in the first round.

Let down (disappoint, fail to keep a promise)

He said he would help me with the exam but he let me down.

Look up (find information in a reference book)

I looked this word up in an encyclopaedia.

Put off (post pone) The meeting was put off because John was ill.

Take up (start a hobby or an activity)

Sam has taken up mountain biking.

Try on (put on clothes to see if they are suitable).

I tried the coat on but it was too big.

Switch on / off (begin or stop operating electrical equipment) Switch the radio on.

• Intransitive with two parts: these phrasal verbs are not followed by and object.

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Intransitive with two parts

Break down (stop working)

My car broke down yesterday.

Drop out (stop before you finish)

I was typing a letter but I dropped out.

Get on (make progress) Nina is getting on well in her school.

Set off / out (to begin a journey)

I set off early to avoid the traffic.

Take off (when a plane leaves the ground)

Our plane took off at night.

Turn up (arrive, We invited many people to the show but only five turned up.

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4 Writing in/ for business

Negotiations One of the most important things when trying to reach an agreement or to settle a business is the way you negotiate the terms of it. Just think about your last deal. Are you satisfied with the way you handled it? Probably you could have done better if you have taken into account some useful hints. First of all, prepare the meeting. If you haven't had time to do it, cancel it otherwise you'll be probably wasting your time. Make sure you know the arrangements: place, time and set aside enough time for the meeting if you look bored or pressed the other person may think that your main interest is elsewhere. Good negotiations always have a clear set of objectives. You can't have everything you are asking for, so you need to know what you really want to achieve; list your main objectives and be ready for them. Prepare a strategy on how you want the meeting to go, but be ready to adapt or to respond to a new offer, flexibility is vital. Your secondary objectives can be put in a different list and you have to be ready to renounce to achieve them. Sometimes, when you are negotiating in a team you can play different roles or take a different approach. Your colleagues may have different fields of expertise, so let each one speak when the theme is about one of your weak points. You can make concessions, real or apparent if it helps you achieve your goals. Be polite and do not interrupt the other speaker, you should always avoid and atmosphere of conflict and saying constantly “NO”.

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NEGOTIATION TIPS

The ultimatum approach Presenting your counter-offer as the final offer isn't appropriate. Present your counter-offers and consider their offers without ultimatums. Decide on whether the offer on the table is acceptable, only after you have walked away and used some time to think. Negotiation is the art of exploring mutually beneficial possibilities, instead of issuing ultimatums.

Being negative Continually pointing out what is wrong with the offer on the table is not particularly pleasant for the other party. They are trying to find a solution, while you are constantly looking for what's wrong.

Talking too much Some would say that the "winner" of any negotiation is the one who talks less. Be succinct and reasonable in presenting your views, and listen carefully. Don't ramble on and don't repeat yourself.

Falling in love with one element of compensation Focusing exclusively on one component of the compensation could be a kiss of death, particularly if the employer is severely constrained on that dimension; for example, "Less than 1% equity in the company is unacceptable."

Being unreasonable "I can find anywhere at least $50.000 more than what you are offering." If that is the case, why are you negotiating? Time to go to where you can find that kind of money!

Your behaviour should be polite and respectful you won't gain anything by being rude and if you are talking to someone whose first language is not yours, don't take for granted that he or she is deaf or stupid. No matter how loud you speak if they don't understand English, but it may look as if you were aggressive because your body language or your shouts, trying to make yourself understood, may confuse the other person; you'd better employ an interpreter in those situations. You can ask and offer clarification and keep notes of the main points as the meeting progresses, even if there's a minute-taker or it's being recorded, therefore you will be able to make sure that all parties agree on what has been settled before you leave the meeting. Finally, follow up the meeting a few days later with a letter or a contract listing the terms on which you agreed. It is a good idea to prepare a meeting planner to remember all the important points.

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Meeting planner points Subject Date Time Preparation required (documents, charts, graphs…) People present Main objectives (minimum acceptable). Secondary objectives (here you can make concessions and make them believe that you are renouncing to an important thing). Follow up (prepare a schedule to confirm all the details: e-mails, contracts, faxes, etc.).

GRAMMAR POINT These are useful sentences to arrange a meeting: • What about next week / next month / next day? • Are you free on Monday…? • Could you make it the following Friday / week…? • Would Thursday be convenient / suitable for you? • Shall we meet on / next…? • Of course you can accept or refuse the suggestion but you must offer a

solution or an apology: • No, I'm sorry; I'm busy all day What about the following day? • I'm afraid I have a previous appointment. Let me check if I can change it. • That's not very convenient but I could do the Friday? Is that all right with

you? • Impossible, I'll be on a business trip. Can I call you tomorrow? I don't have

my diary with me now. Proposing areas of discussion: • I thought we ought to meet / speak about / take into account. • Maybe, we should consider… • I think should start with a review of… • I suggest that we look at the question of… • In my opinion, it should be useful to sort out the basic agenda now. • In my point of view we should establish / clarify the main objectives of… • I want to put this suggestion forward… Accepting points of view. When you agree on something you should look enthusiastic, so you have to give a special intonation to these sentences:

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• Yes, I see your point. • Good point! • Point taken! • Okay, I agree. • That's right. It's a good start. • I'd go along with that. • Yes, I agree with that. • Write it down and I'll sign it (American English). • You / We've got a deal! (American English). However, there are situations where you do not agree or you are totally opposed. Try to be polite when expressing reservation. These sentences may help you say no without using that word: • I'm afraid I really can't go along with that. • I'm not so sure. • I don't think I totally agree with you. • To be frank I'd prefer… (more commission, for example). • I propose we vote on it first (only vote when you are sure of winning the

voting, in the case that your business opponents are more numerous do not take vote on anything!).

• I'm sorry to disagree. • In fact, to be honest. I don't share you opinion / point. • I thought it was agreed that…. And that's not what we are having / speaking /

talking about now.

Information checkers When talking with people you often need to check what you have understood. There are two main reasons for this: Reason 1: the other person is not an English native speaker, so you want to make sure that what they are saying is really what they mean. Reason 2: you want to check that the agreements you have reached are truly accepted and recognized. We can do this using some useful sentences such as:

• Let me see if I got this right… • So, what you are saying is that… • Let me just go over this again… • Let me put / get this straight.

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• I didn't catch what you said, can you tell me if… • What you mean is… • Did you say that…? • That is…

But we can also use tag questions to check. What is a tag question? It is a short phrase at the end of a statement that turns it into a question. They are formed using auxiliaries (do, be, have or a modal). A positive statement has a negative tag and vice-versa. Some statements do not have auxiliaries, what do we do then? Look at this example: You speak German? The auxiliary verb for questions or negative sentences would be do as this statement is a Present Simple tense. Then, we use do and since the sentence is affirmative the tag has to be negative: You speak German, don't you? When we use a negative tag we expect the answer will be yes. On the other hand, if we use a positive tag we expect the answer will be no. You don't like flying, do you? Oh no, I hate it. You know the answer, don't you? Sure. It's… Here are some examples of tag questions showing different verb forms and a mixture of positive and negative tags.

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Another important fact about tag questions is intonation which can either rise or fall.

• If it rises, then is a real question. The speaker is not sure and needs information. The other person will continue speaking afterwards. You speak Japanese, don't you? Yes, I do. I learned while I was working in Tokyo for Toshiba.

• If the intonation falls, then it is just a question for confirmation. The first

speaker wants to check information and will continue speaking afterwards. A: You speak Japanese, don't you? B: Yes, that's right. I do. A: Good because we need an interpreter for a meeting we have with a Japanese businessman.

• Sometimes we use short questions to reply to what someone says; we do

this to show interest, surprise or uncertainty. The meaning is something close to: Really? Or, Is that true? The only difference is that these questions do not have a change in the auxiliary verb, which is there is no change of

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positive to negative and vice-versa. Although you will find many native speakers that do not follow this rule.

I've never eaten hamburgers. Haven't you? (It shows surprise). We're leaving tomorrow. Are we? (it means you are not sure).

Problematic sentences Some sentences are problematic. For example: The tag for “I am” is aren't. I'm a survivor, aren't I? The tag for an imperative is will or won't, even if the imperative is formed with have. Both negatives and positive are possible. Look at these examples:

• Have a seat, will you? • Have a seat, won't you? • Sit down, will you? • Sit down, won't you? • Be quiet, will you? • Be quiet, won't you?

How to sell a product Competition is a key word in the world of business. Our economy is based on consuming more than we really need, therefore selling techniques are essential to assure a product's success. Companies invest a lot of money in publicity and eventually, every cent spent in marketing will provide a huge benefit. If a business wants to survive they must know how to gain customer confidence, how to present its products and how to close a sale.

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First impressions count weather you agree on the fact that first impressions and appearance are important or on the contrary, you are one of those who thinks that good products do not need publicity, you will shop better if the sales person who is going to help you has a pleasant smile and a neat appearance. That's the reason why most companies want their sales staff to wear a distinctive type of clothing, (sometimes a uniform) and are good looking. The next stage is to identify the needs of a prospective client. This is done by asking questions although some clients do not have a clear idea of what they want, or they have an idea which is not really suitable for them. Effective sales staff will not only demonstrate good product knowledge but also what is more convenient for each type of consumer. They must be interested not only in selling, but also in advising. Other clients seem to know quite well what they want however, it would be a good idea to show them something else, maybe they are going to buy it too, or if not you can reinforce the sale by pointing out the comparative advantages of the first choice.

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The seller attitude The seller's job is to help people understand what their systems require in order to change. • Only a person working or living within a culture or system can understand it. (The seller can never truly understand the buyer's system because it is so complex and dynamic - if you are in any doubt about this think how long it takes to really get to know an organization when you start a new job...). • People only make a change when they're sure they can manage the resulting chaos. • A seller is uniquely positioned to help the buyer discover how to solve a problem within their system. • Only the buyer, never the seller, is able to work their way through the decision within the system. However, the seller can help the buyer do this because the seller has the macro view. • The buyer needs to recognise all the specifics of what a solution will entail within his or her unique environment. • By matching the buyer's unique buying criteria, the seller is a true advisor and can be easily differentiated from the competition. • The seller is uniquely positioned to be a brand ambassador for the supplier. Yet, the salesperson must make sure that clients do not feel pressurized into deciding on one thing they are not totally sure, because it is likely that the client will try to return what they bought under pressure, once they reconsider their purchase at home. A good sales technique does not stop with a successful sale. Interest and care must still be shown to ensure customers satisfaction. It has become a common practice to maintain some form of post-sales contact through the use of a welcome home card, both to install customer loyalty, and to encourage a high level of repeated business. Most companies offer discounts to their clients. They send them promotional brochures and invite them to try new products; give them free samples or company cards that accumulate points or credits which can be changed by gifts or vouchers to acquire more products. One of the most important things together with gaining market share is fidelising clients. They will continue buying the company's products. The skills of a successfully selling, requires human interest, dedication and hard work.

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Selling techniques Telephoning other than traditional shops A company’s worker calls prospective clients to explain the company’s services and offers and tries to get a contract on the phone. Mailing A company sends booklets and publicity which contains coupons or an order sheet where clients can place their orders. E-shopping Many traditional shops, hotels, car / house rentals, trips, etc. are now offered on the internet where you can buy any product giving the number of your credit card. They are working now on an electronic signature which can be used safely and recognised as your legal signature in contracts. Tele shopping Many products are offered on television daily, a telephone number usually appears on the screen, where you can telephone to order what you want. Catalogue selling You look at different products on a catalogue, the price is printed on the item and different sizes, colours, etc. can be consulted in the catalogue which often uses models or pictures to show the goods on display. Selling visits / Home selling A salesperson from a Company visits you at your own house and offers you the company’s products. This is a widely used technique for bookselling but not only books are sold this way, also electric appliances, cosmetics and other types of merchandise can be sold like that.

Commercial letters Commercial letters are one of the most important tasks when working in trade and marketing, because most relations developed between companies, or with customers and suppliers are in a written form. Although, today's technology allows other types of communication, faster than mail, at the end of a business agreement or transaction, there always should be some sort of written document. So letters are used to follow up agreements, to place orders, to complaint… leaving a trace of what we have agreed upon, as a signed document can be a valid legal proof in any disagreement whereas phone conversations or informal E-mails may not. That is why they have not disappeared from our working routines.

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LETTERS STRUCTURE Commercial letters have a fixed structure which is repeated whatever their purpose is this structure has not changed much. They all start with the sender's address. In correspondence is written on the top right-hand side of the page, although in the U.K. in contrast to the practice in some countries, it is not usual to write the sender's name before de sender's address. The date is written below the sender's address, sometimes separated from it by a space. In the case that there is a printed letterhead it is written on the right-hand side of the page.

The month in the date should not be written in figures as they can be confusing. For example, 11.1.93 means 11th of January 1993 in the U.K. but 1 st November 1993. Many firms leave out the abbreviation “th” after the date. Other firms transpose the date and the month, for instance October 24, instead of 24 October. These are just matters of preference. The receiver's address or “Inside” is written below the sender's address and on the opposite side of the page. When the surname of the person you are writing to is known, you should write it on the first line of the address, preceded by a courtesy title and either the person's initial or his/her first given name. For example: Mr. JE Smith, or Mr. John Smith.

Courtesy titles When you don't know the name of the person you are writing to, you may know or be able to assume their title or position in the company, in which case you can use it in the address (Sales manager….) you can also address it to a department or to the company itself. An alternative to including the recipient's name or position in the address is to use an attention line, for example “For the attention of the Production manager”. Courtesy titles used in address are “Mr.”, “Mrs.” (for a married women) “Miss” (for unmarried women), Ms. (is used for both, married or unmarried women). This is the best way to address a woman in a business letter, besides you may not be sure whether she is single or not. Salutations When we do not know the person we open the letter with: Dear Sir / Madam... Dear Sirs” is used to address a company in general.

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When we know the name of the person the salutation starts with Dear followed by a courtesy title and the person's surname, in salutations, initials or first names are not used. The body of the letter It is the reason for writing. You should note down everything you want to include in it before you start writing, and make sure that you haven't included any unnecessary information. Useful advices Below are some useful advices for commercial letters. Commercial correspondence offer has an old fashioned style, which sometimes could be difficult to understand. You have to find a balance between clarity, simplicity and courtesy which is not easy to achieve. • You should aim for a neutral language avoiding idioms and colloquial

language. • Organize your letter separating main ideas into different paragraphs and try

to be accurate. • Avoid mistakes (grammar, spelling and punctuation should be carefully

checked). • Logical sequencing is also important, don't go jumping from point 1 to 4 and

back to 3 or your reader will not follow you. Closing If you don't know the name of the person, close the letter with “Yours faithfully” but if the letter begins with a personal name, close it with “yours sincerely”. Americans tend to close even formal letters with “yours”, or ”Truly yours” which is unusual in the U.K. in commercial correspondence although it is very commonly used in a letter to a friend or an acquaintance, as the casual “Best wishes”. End up with your signature followed by your name and position in block letters.

The language of complaints In any type of work you will definitely need to deal with complaints. It is important to be able to tell how angry a person is when they complain, so that you can respond in an appropriate way but as a general rule, your language should be more than polite, otherwise you may lose a client. The language of complaints:

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Terms like: disgusted, amazed, enraged have no place in business. Do not be rude or personal. In most cases, correspondence between firms takes place between employees in various departments. Nothing is gained by being rude to the individual you are writing to, you may antagonize someone who has probably had nothing to do with the error and rather than getting the error corrected, they could become defensive and awkward to deal with. Leaders and managers are faced with complaints all the time. Here are some typical responses:

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Look at this complaint letter: “Dear Sirs, We refer to our order No. 327/5 for 80 purple silk shirts which were consigned by you last month and which we received last week. We very much regret to inform you that the quality of the above mentioned shirts is unacceptably low, specially in design and colour. They are, in fact, discoloured. The pattern is not what we expected when we saw your samples. Our customers will not buy these items at their actual price; we'll have to offer them a discount which will represent a severe loss on our prospective benefits. Since the shirts colour correspond neither to their description nor to the samples you sent us. We can't accept these goods at the price we agreed so if you want as to keep them we expect a substantial reduction of about 40%. Please let us know by return what you propose to do either replacement or price reduction. Yours faithfully, As you can see from the language it is a very formal complaint, also, the sender is very angry. The letter is clearly divided in several sections; each one is a different paragraph. Section 1: the client gives a reference number and explains what they ordered. Section 2: the client tells what the problem is. Adjectives such as “unacceptably low” and “discoloured”, give us a good idea of his irritation. Section 3: the client explains what type of consequences this problem is going to have for him. Section 4: the client offers a possible solution so they can come into terms. Section 5: the closing or goodbye sentence is, in this case, non existent. It repeats the offer stating clearly that if they do not accept it he will return the goods. The letter ends with a conventional expression. We can classify most letters under these main headings:

• Complaints about wrong goods sent. • Complaints about quantity, too many or not enough. • Complaints about the quality of the merchandise. They also may not be what

the buyer expected.

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• Complaints about bad or inadequate packing. • Complaints about delay. This may be covered by a penalty clause. • Complaints about damage.

Useful expressions

WORDS PHRASES

Cancel At once

Discount By return

Discrepancy In accordance with

Inferior In good condition

Investigate In good time

Parking list On board

Replacements On condition that

Unsaleable On schedule

Up to Standard With the exception of

A mistake Wear and tear

an error Bad workmanship

A fault To look into a matter

A delay To give an explanation

An inconveniente To put matters right

A deadline To cancel an order

A guarantee To apologize for the inconvenience

Look at these phrases to learn the most important expressions to explain to reason for complaining, classified depending or the type of problem. Wrong goods / quantity

• There are some items missing. • There has been some pilferage. • Some items had not been included. • Some items were sent later / in another shipping. • We ordered 25 items, only 20 arrived. • Unfortunately you sent us the wrong colour / size / number. • We regret to inform you that the goods you sent do not correspond to our

order.

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• We cannot accept the surplus cases you consigned. Damage / inadequate packing

• The padding did not protect the items. • Case / box number… Was damaged in the port / airport… • We regret very much to remind you that the insurance policy doesn't cover

you for negligent packing. • The merchandise seems to be in good order with the exception of… • Box number… contains the wrong type of… • We regret to inform you that a number of cases were damaged.

Quality

• We regret to inform you that the quality of the merchandise is unacceptable. • The quality and design are not up to our usual standard. • We cannot accept the goods because their quality is unacceptably low. • This merchandise is unsalable.

Shipping / delay

• The merchandise was / was not shipped on time but these items were not in the same shipping order.

• Light, small, expensive goods or precision instruments should be sent by air. • The ship / train / plane set off on schedule. • The ship / train / plane didn't set off on schedule. • It was delayed in transit by weather conditions. • It was delayed by reasons beyond our control.

Remember that complaints are not accusations, they are request to correct mistakes or faults and should be written remembering that the supplier will want to put things right. Present all the relevant information and make any suggestions that might help to put the matter right.

Letters of reply and adjustment When receiving a complaint you should always reply promptly, if you let time go, even if you are taking sometime to find where the problem or the mistake is, you client might believe that you are not ready to arrange the problem. It's necessary that replies start with some form of apology you should not dispute the complaint until you have the full facts. Explain if possible the reasons for the delay, damage or wrong consignment… In the case you think that the customer is

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wrong or the complaint unjustified it will be necessary to write a tactful letter explaining why you think so. Finally, you must write to the customer informing him that you are arranging replacements, price reductions or other remedies, and assure the customer that similar mistakes are an exception and will not happen in the future. Letter typology Enquiries Requesting information, catalogues, prices, estimates, dates, details, samples; suggesting if something is possible, methods of payment, asking for discount, delivery times. Replies and quotes Confirming help, selling products, referring to someone, suggesting, demonstrations, contacting local representatives; quotations, price list, discounts, alternatives to something, explaining payment, delivery times, product training programs, fixed and negotiable terms, estimates. Orders Placing orders, letter of acceptance, confirming conditions and terms, delivery times, packing, shipping, accepting or rejecting changes, delivery delays, refusing a delivery. Payment Invoices, pro-forms, statements of account, methods of payment (home and abroad), advice of payment and of non-payment, asking to defer payment, switching to installments, first and second request for payment, further reminders and final demands. Complaints Writing complaints, explaining problems, suggesting acceptable solutions, replies to complaints, explaining company’s situation, adjusting accounting errors. Credit & banks Forms of credit, credit requirement, asking for credit, accepting/refusing credit, taking up references, guarantors, credit rating, bank facilities, opening/closing accounts, negotiating interest on deposit accounts, requesting cheque books, credit cards, overdrafts, standing orders, loans, mortgages. Look at this letter and focus on some of the expressions used to apologize for bad service.

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“Dear Mr. Jenkins I am very sorry to hear that you had problems with our delivery (ref. DO. 35). We have sent a replacement order to you by courier. It should be with you by tomorrow morning. The same courier will take away the damaged boxes. We know it is not excuse but our regular packer was on holiday last month. Please accept our apologies that our service was below our usual standards. I personally, will take care that this won't happen again. Sincerely yours. Henry Clark Shipping Manager”. Note that the first sentence in the letter from the example expresses regret I'm very sorry to hear that… Other sentences expressing regret could be:

• Please, accept our sincere regrets at any inconvenience caused to you. • I regret this inconvenience has caused you… • I'm very sorry; I will sort it out immediately. • Please accept our / my apologies. • I sincerely apologize for… • My sincere apologies. • I was very sorry to hear about the problems you have experienced.

Taking some action or offering compensation:

• We are arranging to send replacements. • We will offer you a discount. • We will replace the damage goods at our cost.

Reassuring sentences:

• We will ensure that similar mistakes do not occur again. • We will do everything we can to ensure that goods are:

-Dispatched on time in the future. -Up to our quality standards. -Packed correctly. -Delivered in the best possible conditions.

If you know why the mistake was made you can point it out. If your relations with your client have run smoothly so far, there is no reason to think that he or she will not understand your problem.

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Here you have some possible explanations:

• We are moving to a new site. • We assume that our forwarding agent made a mistake. • Our production plant suffered a power breakdown. • We have just got through a strike. • Our manager was off duty and the new person in charge was not yet

acquaintance with the job.

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5 Going on holiday

Enquires and replies Letters of enquiry are maybe the most common type of letters. They are used to ask or “enquire” about offers, jobs, products, services, etc…. they share some characteristics with the rest of the commercial letters. Enquiries should be polite, clear, short and specific. You should say exactly what you want to know (e.g. prices or terms of payment) or what you want to get (for example: brochures). They are intended to give a quick idea of what the writer wants, therefore, they must be:

• Efficient and clear-headed. This can be achieved by stating your enquiry. -Briefly. -With a clear wording. -No unnecessary phrases. -Using accurate reference numbers, dates and specifications.

Simplicity and brevity help the matter as much as the recipient, and will probably mean an earlier reply. On the contrary, a confused, over-long and unclear letter may be left waiting until someone explains its meaning, and this may mean delay. It often asks for a brochure, a catalogue or a price list. Sometimes, it is useful to give some details of your business and also where and how you heard about the company, the product, the service or the job.

• Always address your letter “Dear Sirs” as you do not know anybody yet, so in this way, you are writing to the company.

• Start with an introduce of you or your company.

-We are … (description of your company). -We saw … (where you saw or heard about the other company).

• These letters express interest, with sentences such as: -We are interested in… -We wish to install / enquire / receive…

• They include formal request like:

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-Please send us a catalogue and your latest price list. -Will you please send us a catalogue and your latest price list? -We should be obliged if you could send us…. -I'd be grateful if you could send me… -I would appreciate a catalogue…

One of the most important characteristics is that these types of letters always enclose a polite closing sentence asking for the receiver's reply: I am / we are looking forward to hearing from you. Thank you for your attention / time.

REPLIES They usually open with a “thank you” sentence and inform the sender if they are or not, able to offer the service with sentences such as: • Thank you for your enquiry of June 5th …. In which you asked/demanded… • I/we would like to thank you for your enquiry and I am/ we are pleased to tell

you that we would be able to send / you inform you/ supply you… • We were pleased to hear from your interest. • Thank you for your letter. They may enclose documents, price lists, catalogues,… etc. Let your customer know with a reference to it in your letter: • We enclose a catalogue. • Our price list is enclosed. Before you finish the reply thank the customer for writing to you, especially, if you have not done so in the beginning. You can do it at the end and encourage further enquiries. Here you have some examples: • Once again, we would like to thank you for writing to us and would welcome

any further points you would like us to answer. • Please write to us again if you have any questions, or call us at this

telephone number/e-mail address. • We hope to hear from you again, soon, and can assure you that we would be

glad to assist you in any way we can.

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INGLÉS COMERCIAL II GOING ON HOLIDAY©

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Electronic correspondence New technologies have relegated the old Postal Service to the consideration of an ancient relic. This is so true that in the United States, where the word for post is mail. It is commonly called snail. Today, most communications are electronic.

FAXES Faxes are documents, or machines. They allow us to send a duplicate, of messages, designs, or photographs which are fed into it. These machines are connected to the telephone. Its advantages include instant reception of documents and documentary evidence of what has been transferred. A document can be relayed from once source to hundreds of other receivers, for example, if the head office of a chain store wants to circulate a memo or a report to its branches. Faxes can be formal or informal. But as they leave a physical trace their style is similar to ordinary business letters, although they can be more casual when they are inner communications or with colleagues.

ELECTRONIC MAIL It is a means of sending and receiving messages internally, nationally or internationally through a server. Subscribers need a terminal, a telephone line and a modem, which is a device for converting signals to text, so that messages appear on the receiver's computer screen. E-mail users also have access to a mailbox, which they can call from anywhere in the world a retrieve messages. They receive a mailbox number and a password for confidentiality. They can also be printed out and kept for reference or filing. It has a relatively low cost. E-mails' language tends to be less formal. It often uses abbreviations and spelling is not accurate because the writer is not worried about style but about effectiveness and speed. E-mail addresses are very common and they use a specific language. Look at this example: A. What's your email address? B. It's b p at b m es dot co dot UK; that can be translated as follows: [email protected] . A. Can you give me yours? I don't think I have it.

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B. It's tony undercore, flowers, at lower case, English hometown, all one word, dot com; which looks as follows: [email protected]. A. Can you give me your e-mail address too please? B. It's English 2 dot com. Forward slash business, hyphen s t lower case. English2.com/business-st

Computers have become so popular that a complete new language has developed around them.

Examples of e-mails Here you have some examples of e-mails: Hi Joe Thanks for the message I'm sorry to hear that You can't make it Friday What about next Monday morning? Let me know if that suits you and I'll arrange everything. Could you also find out if Mary is coming too? Regards Ruth Hi Jean Just a quick message. I'm planning to send you the report as an attachment on Wednesday next week, as there are some details I need to check. If I don't hear from you I'll take it that it's O.K. Best wishes Lorna Betty Thanks for sending me the details By the way, I'll be out of the office until next month (I'm going on holiday at last), but I'll be checking my e-mails. If you need to get me on my mobile, my number is …. See you soon Pete

These sentences are everyday instructions, but for a person, who is a computer illiterate, can be as a riddle: • Click on the orange / blue …. Icon. • Right/Double click on the hyperlink. • Press the arrow key. • Hold on the “Alt” key. • Pull down the “tools” Menu. • Minimise / maximise the document.

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• Don't forget to back up your work. • Don't forget to make a security copy. • Keep the information in the hard disk. • Don't press delete or you will lose everything • I can't find it. Where is it?

-It's in the top left hand corner on the screen. -It's just above the “Edit” button. -It's should be under “Tools”. -It's at the bottom of the screen. -It's right in the middle of the screen.

Abbreviations VIP: Very Important Person JIT: Just In TimeIOU: I Owe you IT: Information Technology HQ: HeadQuarters DTP: DeskTop Publishing K: 1.000 USP: Unique Selling Point or Proposition bn: billion P&L: Profit and Loss AGM: Annual General Meeting AOB: Any Other Business asap: as soon as possible CEO: Chief Executive Officer MD: Managing Director CV: Curriculum Vitae EU: European Union GDP: Gross Domestic Product O&M: Organization and Method OMP: Other People's Money PC: Personal Computer PR: Public relations PLC: Public Limited Company R&D: Research and Development VAT: Value Added Tax These are expressions referring to common problems on computer:

• What's the problem? • We've got problems with network. • Our server is down at the moment and my computer screen keeps freezing. I

can't get into the system. • Don't worry. Send me a message to let me know when everything is back to

normal. • My computer has crashed. It's a disaster!

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• I think I might have a slight problem. • When I try to open an attachment I keep getting an error message. • What version of the software are you using? • It's quite out of date. • You need to load a later vision. • I'll send the attachment in a different format.

Banks and money In ancient times, traders and merchants had to carry gold coins or valuable merchandise in order to buy or interchange products, this could be very dangerous because they could be easily robbed or have their ships attacked by pirates or corsairs. When banks appeared, merchants could keep their money safe in their vaults and let the banks pay their debts through their branches in another city or country, therefore, the first banking documents and money orders were exchanged by bank's agents. One of the most common money orders which it is still widely used nowadays is the cheque. Types of bank account There are two main types of bank account in the U.K. current accounts and deposit accounts. A current account allows you to use a cheque book, but your money doesn't earn interest. There are bank charges for current accounts, but if your bank remains in credit you don't pay any charges at all. This is not so in every country. Most banks out of the U.K. charge their customers for automatic payment. In our country, you only must keep a certain amount in credit in your current account to avoid charges. This amount may change from time to time, according to the bank's policy. The other type of account is a deposit account which earns interest, but it doesn't allow you to use a cheque book. The rate of interest fluctuates (in one year, it dropped from 11% to less than 3%). You can withdraw money from a deposit account by giving notice to a bank. Sometimes your money will be ready in a few days, other times you will need about a week to have it ready. A current account, also called a cheque account is a convenient and safe method of handling money. Your salary can go straight to it, and today more and more people are paid by direct credit instead of in cash. You also know where your money goes and where it comes from, because you get a regular statement from your bank showing debit and credit entries or payments or receipts respectively and the balance of your account.

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In very simple terms, we can say that a cheque is an order signed by a customer, addressed to his or her bank, to pay the amount indicated to the person or company named.

The amount of money is written twice, one with numbers and again in words, to avoid the temptation of adding one or more numbers to the expressed figure. Each Cheque has a variety of numbers printed on it:

• The cheque's serial number enables computers to record and print the details on a customer's statement.

• The code number of a branch and bank where your account is kept. It enables computers to sort it quickly and ensure that it is forwarded to the correct bank and branch.

• The customer's account number which enables computers to sort the cheque to the right account.

TRAVELLERS CHEQUES. A new type of cheque has appeared in the last quarter of the twentieth century: Travellers cheques. They are the most common method of carrying money internationally. They offer the advantages of safety and convenience. Traveller’s cheques advantages and disadvantages Advantages

• It’s safe money. If you lose it or it’s stolen it’s replaced quickly, usually the same day if it’s American Express.

• When the exchange rate is good, vendors like getting them because they can hold onto them to get an even better exchange rate.

• If the dollar is rising quickly, sometimes the merchants will give you a better deal if you pay with travellers’ checks.

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• You budget your money, this is what you have to spend and it has to last the entire trip.

• At the end of your trip any leftover travellers’ checks can be deposited back into your bank account.

• Although I know you’ll avoid exchanging money at hotels it is comforting to know that you can exchange your travellers’ checks for cash at your hotel.

Disadvantages

• Keep track of the traveller’s checks you’ve spent. In the event they are stolen you will get a quicker response if you can tell them which numbers you’ve used.

• Sometimes if the dollar is doing really badly in a given country you may find it difficult to exchange them at a bank and wind up at an American Express office or a money exchange office, both of which offer an exchange rate worse than banks.

They are safe because of the two signatures needed to cash them. When you buy them, you sign in the top left hand corner, where it says “signature”. When you change them for cash in another country you sign again in the presence of the cashier where it says “counter signature”. You also fill the date of the encashment. The cashier must inspect the travellers' cheque to see if both signatures correspond, and compare them with a signature in an identification document.

There's another reason why they are safe, you can get a refund from your bank if you lose them or you are robbed. They are acceptable not only in banks but also in many restaurants, hotels and shops. If credit cards enable you to get money from any bank anywhere. Why use travellers' cheques then? Well, in some underdeveloped countries it is not easy to find automatic bank tellers or shops which accept credit cards; however there are banks in every medium-sized city wherever to go, so, they are still a good option to carry money safely. Another good option if you need to pay a debt abroad or send some money to a relative who is out of the country is buying and international money order. When the bank has completed the forms required, the bank official will hand it to you and you could then post it yourself whoever you wish to.

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How to place and order Imagine that you have a small business; you will probably need many different things from suppliers and companies. After receiving their catalogues and sometimes, their agents, you decide that you are interested in selling a range of their products. How do you get them delivered to your shop? First of all you need to place an order. They are usually written on a company's official order form. If you don't have one because you are dealing with that company for the first time, you can telephone, or e-mail them asking for one. Order forms have a date and a reference number that should be quoted in any correspondence which refers to the order. Even if you are in such good terms with a supplier that you can order on the telephone, it must be confirmed in writing, and should always be accompanied by a compliment ship or a covering letter which allows you the opportunity to make any necessary points and confirm the terms that have been agreed. Orders should be polite, clear, short and specific. They should refer clearly to the goods being ordered and the reason for the order. Structure. When you write a letter order you should:

• Start (Introduce yourself / thank for the quotation). State clearly what you need.

• Main part (State clearly what you need). Give the details your business partner needs to know: Description of goods (= names, code numbers, catalogue numbers). Quantities. Prices. Terms of delivery. Terms of payment.

• End Use a standard close.

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ORDERS TYPES Pilot order / trial order: this is a test order which can lead to a bigger order later. It is a type of initial order. First order / initial order: this is the first business deal between two companies. Firm order: this is a definite order. The buyer will definitely purchase the goods. Bulk order: this is when the customer orders a larger quantity. Repeat order: this is when the buyer makes another order for the same goods. Standing order: this is when the buyer orders a fixed quantity at fixed intervals (for example, 50 cases on the first day of each month). You can also have a standing order at a bank. This is when the bank pays a fixed amount of money to the same person or organisation at fixed intervals. Useful advice Many people believe you should never give your VISA, MasterCard or American Express number over the Internet. Other people feel that it is okay to give your credit card number over the Internet. Use e-mail to send your order but do not include you credit card number. Within 24 hours some company's representative will call you to verify your order and obtain the necessary credit card information. This allows you to submit your order quickly and insures that your credit card number and information is not misused in any way. Here you have two short texts the first one acknowledges and order and the second one is an advice of dispatch. • Thank you for your order Nº_________, which we received today. We are

now dealing with it and you may expect delivery within the next two weeks. • We are pleased to advise you that the items you ordered (Nº______) were

put on flight IB 707 leaving Bonn 11:00, 9 August arriving Liverpool 13:00. Please find enclosed air waybill (Nº________) and copies of invoice.

Sometimes orders are written on special forms - not as letters! Many companies use pre-printed forms because the headings make it difficult to forget important information.

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Acknowledging orders As soon as an order is received by a supplier, it should be acknowledged with a short letter. When the supplier has made up the order and arranged delivery, the customer is informed on this in and advices that can be made in a special form or by a short letter too. Letters which acknowledge orders are a type of reply. They should be polite, clear, short and specific and refer clearly to the order which has been received. When you write a letter acknowledging an order, you should:

• Start / Main part Thank Explain what you have received (= order). Say when delivery can be expected. (All three things may be done in one sentence). (You can just start with the main part). Thank you for your order of … (date) for … (articles). The goods have been despatched to you today. We can confirm that the goods will be sent to you by … (means of transport) on … (date).

• End

Polite close. We hope that you find these goods satisfactory and we look forward to doing business with you again soon.

STRUCTURE AND SENTENCES USED WHEN WRITTEN A COVER LETTER Opening (explain there is an order accompanying the letter). • Please fin enclosed our order Nº.______ for ______. • The enclosed order (Nº._______) is for 40 items of _________. • Thank you for your reply of 14th May regarding the (items name) we wrote to

you about. Enclosed you will find our official order…. • Your letter of (date) convinced me to place at last a trial order for the

material you spoke about. Therefore, please, find enclosed… Payment (confirm the terms of payment)

• As agreed, you will draw on us at 30 days, documents against acceptance, with the documents being sent to our bank.

• We would like to confirm that payment is to be made by…. • Once we have received your advice, we will send a banker’s draft to….

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• We agreed that payments would be made against quarterly statements Discounts (confirm the agreed discounts)

• We would like to thank you for the trade discount and quantity discount… • We would like to say that the 25% trade discount is quite satisfactory. • …And we sill certainly take advantage of the cash discounts you offered

for prompt settlement. • Although the trade discount disappointed us we will place an order and

hope that this allowance can be reviewed at some time in the near future. Delivery (confirm dates and methods)

• It is essential that the goods are delivered before the beginning of…. • Delivery before…. Is a firm condition on this order and we reserve the right

to refuse goods delivered after that time. • Please, confirm that you can complete the work before the end of (month),

as the opening of our (shop) is planned for (date) • Please, send the goods by… express as we need them urgently. • We advise delivery by road to avoid constant handling of fragile

merchandise. Closing

• We hope that this will be the first of many orders we will be placing with you.

• We will submit further orders if this one is completed to our satisfaction. • If the goods sale as we hope, we will send further orders in the near future. • I look forward to receiving your

advice/shipment/confirmation/acknowledgement.

Energy Since the oil crisis in 1973, prices of oil have been increasing steadily where the countries which produce oil have been reaching agreements that have enabled to maintain the prices. These periods have been followed by others where political instability, commercial and physical wars have made production decrease and prices peak. Europe will probably be consuming 50 million b/d in 2006 and countries which are starting to develop a modern industry and private consumption, as it is the case of China, will be doubling this quantity within 5 years.

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But not only has gone up the demand for oil, the need for paper and paper products has been rising during the past fifteen years, and there is now a world shortage of paper. There has been no great change in the natural and traditional sources of supply. The shortage has been caused by the elevated consumption of paper by firms, organizations, educational institutions and individuals. Populations have been growing all over the world, and more people are literate. There is consequently, a greater demand for books, newspapers and magazines. In Western Europe, for example, the population has increased only by 20% but the demand for paper eased by educational institutions has tripled. Newspapers use five times more paper that they did 20 years ago and various governments and E.U. institutions need eight times as much paper as they did 20 years ago. If we consider that the number of cars in countries like the U.S.A. will be reaching record numbers next year you will understand that it seems that there is no stop. However, environmentalists have been warning us about this over exploitation of natural resources. They say that if we continue at this speed in 50 years the surface of the Earth will not be able to regenerate and we will probably be looking for a new planet to live on.

GRAMMAR POINT In this text we can see various examples of continuous tenses like the Present Perfect Continuous which is formed with the auxiliary verb.

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Have / has + been + main verb in the –ing form

It is used to relate the past to the present like the Present Perfect Simple. But the continuous form stresses the continuing nature of the activity or its duration. The Present Perfect Continuous can be used for repeated actions, especially if the speaker thinks the actions could continue. With verbs that imply duration in their meaning like “live”, “work” or “study” the use of Present Perfect Continuous suggests that the action is only temporary, not a permanent or long term-state. It is also used to say or ask how someone has occupied their recent time. These are examples from the text: • Prices of oil have been increasing steadily. • Countries which produce oil have been reaching agreements. • The need for paper and paper products has been rising during the past

fifteen years. • Environmentalists have been warning us about this over exploitation.

The Future Continuous is formed with the structure.

Will + be+ -ing form of main verb Like the Future Simple with will, the Future Continuous is used to predict a future event. The continuous form suggests that the action will be in progress at the future time mentioned or that the action will continue for a long time. It can also be used to talk about already fixed events. To predict what you think someone else may be doing at present, which suggests you know quite a lot about the situation. Another use is to ask for information politely, usually in order to continue with a request, although sometimes the request is implied but not said. Will you be needing the car tomorrow? (or can I borrow it). Look at the examples from the text. They are predictions:

• Countries in Europe will be reaching record numbers. • We will probably be looking for a new planet to live on. • Europe will probably be consuming 50 million b/d in 2006.

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Reports When we want to state facts or give information about want we have done or are about to do, we write a report. As reports are usually published or handed out to an important number of people, they need to be well written and structured. Many companies publish annual reports to let their shareholders know their results and future expectations, they often include figures and graphs to help readers visualise the main points. Short reports usually contain an introduction that describes their purpose and structure, then the body and finally some recommendations and conclusions. However, longer reports may have other sections such as a summary table of contents, appendices with extra, non-essential information. Many in-company reports have a standard format and so the writer does not have to worry about the structure. They are often about complex issues; therefore the writer has to organize the material very clearly into logical sections and sub-sections with appropriate headings. Deciding how to do this is probably the most important step, but don't think the frame that you designed cannot be changed. Within each section the material is divided into paragraphs, thus write them short because they will help the reader to see the structure of the argument and understand the information. A simple rule is a topic sentence, (that is one main idea), one paragraph. Here are some simple hints to help you.

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If we focus on the language, it is clear that we are going to need some linking words such as: First, secondly, after that, them, finally = Sequence. In general, typically = Talking generally. However, on the contrary, nevertheless, but = Contrast. In addition, besides = Adding another point. For example, like, such as = Giving examples. In fact, as a matter of fact, actually = Surprising / New information. Clearly, obviously, of course = Something obvious. In other words, that is to say = Rephrasing. For this reason, therefore, as a result = Consequence. Specially, in particular, above all = The most important fact / example. When you choose a specific linking word and not other, it shows your personal attitude. If you begin a sentence with “clearly” what comes next is obvious for you. But, if you choose “apparently” you are indicating that you are uncertain about the facts. Reports use formal language, neutral and direct. The passive is often used and expressions. Such as:

• It is recommended…. • It should be emphasized…

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• It was suggested / agreed… Compound nouns are also useful:

• A planning meeting… • Insurance conference…

Contractions and informal language should not appear in this type of documents.

Don't write personal appreciations such as “I think it's fantastic / OK / nice …

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