indochina 1954-
TRANSCRIPT
INDOCHINA 1954-1979
notes
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INDOCHINA,1954-1979
SYLLABUS Key features;
Nature and role of nationalism Nature and role of communism Nature and consequences of US involvement Strategies and tactics Impact of war on civilians Reasons for communist victories
Survey Decolonisation in Indochina, including;
o Conflict in Vietnam 1946-1954 o The nature of Vietnamese victory against the French in 1954 o Significance of the Geneva Conference for Indochina in 1954
Focus of study Conflict in Vietnam, 1954-1964
o Political, social, economic, and military developments within North and South Vietnam
o The nature and development of US policy towards Indochina to 1964
The second Indochina War, including: o US foreign policy towards Vietnam from 1964 o The nature and effectiveness of the strategy and tactics employed
by the North Vietnamese Army, the National Liberation Front, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and the USA.
o Impact of the 1968 Tet Offensive o Impact of the war on civilians in Vietnam o The nature and significance of anti-war movements in the USA and
Australia o The reasons for and the nature of the US withdrawal o The reasons for the Communist victory in Vietnam.
The spread of the conflict to Cambodia and Laos, including: o Impact of conflict on civilians in Cambodia and Laos o The reasons for the Communist victories in Cambodia and Laos o Democratic Kampuchea under Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge: aims
and impact of the regime, foreign policy
Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos
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Background information
Key Vietnamese personalities; Ho Chi Minh; Communist and nationalist activist, founded ICP (Indochina
Communist Party) and Viet Minh, established Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV, North Vietnam) in 1945, fought the French in the 1st Indochina War and then the Americans in the 2nd Indochina war. Died in 1969 and did not see Vietnamese Victory.
Vo Nguyen Giap; A communist, Viet Minh general and military strategist who used guerrilla tactics successfully against Japanese during WWII, then orchestrated defeat of French forces at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. A military general whose work in the Vietnam war earned him continued praise, died in 2013 aged 102.
Bao Dai; Last Vietnamese emperor; took power in 1926, effectively as a French puppet who continued as a figurehead until the 1950’s. He wasn’t very popular in Vietnam.
Ngo Dinh Diem; Nationalist and anti-Communist, authoritarian rule of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, South Vietnam), he was supported by the Americans.
Key Cambodian Personalities; Prince Norodom Sihanouk Lon Nol
Pol Pot
Key Laotian Groups Royalists Pathet LaoVietnam is a long narrow country, with the South China sea to the east and Laos and Cambodia to the west. Vietnam was made up of three main provinces; Tonkin (north), Annam (centre), and Cochin China (south). to the north of Vietnam its main neighbour is China. China became a Communist Country in 1949.
Vietnam was and continues to be influenced by 1. China; Determination to cope with China, either/both Chinese occupation
and influence 2. Desire for independence: determination to achieve and maintain
independence. It has a long tradition of warfare against foreign invaders – a legacy of 1000 years of Chinese rule from 111 BC to 938 AD. The resistance warriors (both men and women) and the concept of protracted (extended/ long) warfare to defeat a very powerful enemy became the heroic model in Vietnamese culture.
3. 3 streams of loyalty: Nation/Village/Family Producing a close nit/ strong sense of community as they were mostly farmers; help in times of struggle
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They had a large peasant class which made up more than 90% of the population along with aristocracy, and an elite bureaucratic class of officials. There was a constant threat of famine for the peasants. Meaning that they often worked communally on privately owned land. Their main religion was Buddhism but ancestor worship was common. (look up to their ancestors and their accomplishments.
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Elements of Vietnamese culture that reflects Chinese influence; a) Language – around 50-70% of Vietnamese vocabulary originates from
mandarin. b) Writing – most writing was developed from Chinese script. c) Government: 3 provinces (Tonkin, Annam Cochin China), then districts,
then villages. Mandarin were the highly educated officials who carried out government administration. Tribute (money or gifts) was always payed to a person on a higher level. Each village was responsible for its own affairs with a village leader.
d) Confucianism → originated from a Chinese philosopher – the mandarins’ study this.
The emperor had a “mandate from heaven” (similar to divine
right of kings) and was therefore very difficult to challenge.
Established a strictly organised society with obligations and duties ( e.g. filial piety- children obey the father, eldest son is 2nd in command, every action is for the honour and respect of the family
e) Wet rice farming (complex irrigation systems and co-operative labour)
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The French in Indochina
French interests Trade, further imperial power, compete with Britain in Hong Kong, demand for resources, raw materials, cheap labour exploitation and profit
How did they gain control
Through sending missionaries in 1615, trade relations, then 14 squadrons
What it was like under French rule
Harsh, many were exploited and the French tried to eliminate nationalism, forbidding the use of the name Vietnam.
Economic exploitation
LAND Powerful landowners emerged under colonial rule, creating a class divide this was strictly avoided during the period of independence, with the method of regular land reforms. The workers on the plantations were known as ‘coolies’. Their working conditions;
- 15-hour days without breaks or food or fresh water, all for insufficient wages
- Some were payed in rice rather than money - Officials would regularly use corporal punishment despite
it being outlawed. - Diseases such as malnutrition, dysentery, and malaria
were common - Not uncommon to have several workers die on site per
day. - One plantation reported 17,000 deaths over 20 years
during the time between the world wars. – Michelin tyres. Peasants were subject to 30 days of unpaid forced labour→ institutionalised exploitation TAXES Peasant income was minimal after moneylenders and landlords had taken their share, as well as the indirect and direct taxes reduced this minimal income
Social issues Low literacy - >15% received any form of schooling - 80% of the population was illiterate - Only one university for the whole of Vietnam with >700
students - Only a small number of Vietnamese were admitted to the
French secondary schools. - In 1939 there were only 2 physicians for every 100,000
Vietnamese, where as it was well organised for the French.
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Political issues No form of civil liberties for the Vietnamese
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Vietnam under the Japanese “the Japanese are a hundred times crueller than the French. Even a worm or cricket could not live under their brutal violence.”
How they took control
With the Nazi takeover of France, the French formally ceded control of Indochina to Japan in 1940. Indochina became part of Japans Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
What was Vietnam to Japan
Source of natural resources that are lacking in Japan; - Rubber - Coal - Rice
Worst policy under Japan
The imposition of quotas, the compulsory sale of rice to the state, regardless of how much was produced, sold at extremely low prices. In 1943, the quotas reached ¾ of the peasants produce, forcing peasants to buy rice on the black market to resell to the Japanese. While government procurement prices was minimal, the black-market prices boomed. Meaning that peasants could make more money on the black market than they would selling it to the government.
Peasants under Japanese occupation
The peasants suffered. The Japanese neglected the dams and irrigation canals, which lead to food shortages in 1943 & 1944 and the threats of famine. In the northern province of Tonkin where food was production was normally low, they had to supply 130,305 tonnes of rice to the Japanese in 1943 and 186,130 tonnes in 1944. In Tonkin families had to starve in order to provide the japs and French with rice. They relied on Cochin China.
During Japanese occupation the Viet Minh;
- Established mountain camps and safe havens - Developed a shadow government - Attacked rich landlords and moneylenders - Collected tax (goods and labour) - Collected intelligence on Japanese troop movements - Provide services to the peasants
o Like education (contained substantial propaganda) - Formed and trained local militias
They collected intelligence from their sympathisers - Senior civil servants
Especially from a prosperous region on the Mekong River Delta in the south.
Provided counter intelligence on French and Japanese plans
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- Soldiers
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Tension between the north and the south started early 17th century (pre-French rule) and antagonised by a war between the ruling family in Hanoi (north) and the ruling family in Hue (pronounced w-ay) in the 17th and 18th centuries .
North South
Less freedoms Good infrastructure More populace Payed increased taxes to subdue southerners
Greater freedoms Bad infrastructure Seen as disloyal, worthless by the north People supposedly moved there to avoid work and the payment of taxes to the royal court.
Nationalist sentiment Referred to as ‘doc lap’ – spirit of Vietnamese independence. Ho Chi Minh was a nationalist communist-
- At the Versailles conference in 1919 He headed the representation for Vietnam and was along with other Asian countries championing for further rights, and representation on the global platform as well as self-determination. All was denied
- In 1919 he went to the Versailles peace conference and tried to argue for the independence of Vietnam by presenting the French with demands
The demands included; 1. Representation in the French parliament 2. Freedom of speech 3. Release of political prisoners
Important cities in Vietnam; 1. Hue
o Imperial capital o Large French base
2. Da Nang o Held the US’s first military base in 1965 (it was huge)
3. Da Lat o Hot houses
Greenhouses o Heavily bombed by the US (carpet bombing) o Agent orange was used
added effect of being a poisonous herbicide Destroyed soil and ground water Caused major birth deformities for generations
4. Ho Chi Minh city (Saigon)
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Viet Minh
Predecessor; Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang (VNQDD) [Vietnamese nationalist party]
Main goal Overthrow French rule Comprised of - Students
- Low ranking government employees - Soldiers
o The VNQDD focused on the recruitment of Vietnamese soldiers. - Few landlords - Rich peasants
Loosely based on
Chinese nationalist party
French response
Secret police closely monitored party activity because they posed a political threat
Assassination of a French official
In Feb 1929, a VNQDD assassin murdered a French official in charge of coolie recruitment. Led to a revolt instigated by the VNQDD of a Vietnamese garrison of the French army. Simultaneous attacks on other key targets were unsuccessful because of poor preparation and bad communication. French response
- Arrest and imprison VNQDD leaders, including most of the central committee.
- Most were then executed - Villages that had given refuge to members were shelled and bombed by
the French. Evaluation of VNQDD
- Movement of urban intellectuals that failed to involve the masses - Favoured reckless exploits over careful planning
Creation of the Indochina Communist party Ho founded the party in 1930 as the Vietnamese Communist Party but the Soviets later that year decided that the party should represent all of the 3 Indochina countries so it was renamed the Indochina Communist Party The parties 10 points;
1. Overthrow French imperialism and Vietnamese feudalism and reactionary bourgeoisie.
2. Make Indochina completely independent 3. Establish a worker-peasant-soldier government 4. Confiscate the banks and other enterprises
belonging to imperialists and put them under the control of the worker-peasant-soldier governments
Communist
Nationalise land and organisations and distribute to workers-peasants-soldiers
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5. Confiscate all the plantations and property belonging to the imperialists and the Vietnamese reactionary bourgeoisie and distribute them to the peasants
6. Implement the 8-hour working day 7. Abolish the forced buying of government bonds, the poll-tax and all
unjust taxes hitting the poor 8. Bring democratic freedoms to the masses 9. Dispense education to all the people 10. Realise equality between man and women
The formation of the Indochina Communist Party came at a time of general unrest
- The great depression 1929 - Collapse of VNQDD with the failed uprising of 1929 - Unemployment of 33% → similar to Germany pre-Hitler - Collapse of international rice prices, felt most strongly by the peasants
who were forced to see at least twice the rice to pay the same taxes - Collapse of rubber prices
Formation of the Viet Minh, 1941 - Ho realised that a broad grouping of nationalist organisations would be the
best way to gain Vietnamese sovereignty against the Japanese. - The Indochina Communist Party formed the Viet Minh in 1941. All
Vietnamese political groups were welcomed to join the Viet Minh, provided they support the ICP- led action against the Japanese and French colonists.
- Viet Minh united urban nationalist groups with peasant communist rebels, creating a single anti-colonial independence movement.
- Americans supported the Viet Minh - Americans gained intelligence from the Viet Minh about the whereabouts of
the Japanese in WWII o The japs would shoot down American planes and members of the Viet
Minh would rescue and provide aid to the pilots and return them to US, In return the US would provide funds.
Coolies worked 15-hour days
Increase the >15%
Links to page 5
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VLADIMIR LENIN HO
CHI MINH
= communism
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Taking control of the government
Declaration of independence
The Viet Minh declared the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), in September 1945, it was then recognised by the fellow Communist governments of China and the USSR. Ho tried to appeal to the USA to get them to recognise the DRV but the USA was ‘too caught up in the cold war and its hatred for communism’.
The declaration was emotional for the Vietnamese as it appealed to their sense of nationalism and their strong wish for independence and self-determination.
The French ignored Ho’s declaration and instead demanded that it be able to resume control of its former colony, in order to help their own post war recovery. (bâtards égoïstes). The USA as well as the British decided to help them. the French landed along with British forces in Saigon on September 12 1945.
Ho’s statement on 2nd Dec 1945
“All men are created equal. The creator has given us certain inalienable rights; the right to Life, the right to be Free, and the right to achieve Happiness…” “It also states Men are born, must be free, and have equal rights. These are undeniable truths.”
Basically Ho based it on the American declaration of independence “we
hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal.” He wanted to give a nod to the Americans who aided them during WWII (that turned bad quickly).
Exit of the Japanese
The Japanese stepped aside after their defeat in WWII. Which allowed the Viet Minh to seize government buildings on the 19th of August in 1945.
Emperor Bao Dai
The Viet Minh worked cooperatively with the emperor Bao Dai’s government
until his abdication on the 25th of August 1945 (he believed a unified Vietnam was the only way to guarantee the non-return of the French.) He handed over his imperial power to the Viet Minh.
Chinese attempt to ‘help’ eradicate the Japanese and French.
Ho is reported to have said, “the last time the Chinese came, they stayed a
thousand years. The French are foreigners. They are weak. Colonialism is dying. The white man is finished in Asia. But if the Chinese stay now, they will never go. As for me, I prefer to sniff French shit for five years that to eat Chinese shit for the rest of my life.”
Exit of the Chinese
The Chinese and the French made a deal that the French would get north Vietnam if the Chinese obtained French concessions in Shanghai. With the Chinese gone the French quickly re-established their control, challenging the Viet Minh. The French General, Jacques Leclerc referred the Vietnamese communists as ‘fleas on a dog’.
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With the exit of the Chinese, fighting between the Viet Minh and the French recommenced.
Deal between the North and the French
March 1946 the Franco-Viet Minh accords; - France stationed 250,000 troops in the north (only until 1951) - Vietnam recognised as independent part of French Indochina - Promised election would be held in the ‘near future’ - December 3 1946, Ho declared war on the French marking the start of the
1st Indochina war. 1946-1954
Survey
● Decolonisation in Indochina, including:
o Conflict in Vietnam 1946–1954
First Indochina war 1946- july 1954 - From 1946-1950 it was essentially stalemated
o French had an overwhelming superiority in weapons o However they had to send troops all the way from France.
- French civilians were unhappy with the Indochina war as they called it the ‘dirty war’ because they were doing it for the wrong reasons and they recognised that it was an imperialist power imposing their will on other countries. They also used recruits from other colonies (Northern Africa- Algeria, Morocco & even colonist supporters from Vietnam)
- The Viet Minh were better able to recruit soldiers and had a considerable edge in manpower
o Those that supported the Viet Minh - Peasants - Landlords - USA - China
- USSR - Nationalists - Students
- Viet Minh used Guerrilla tactics and hid, sometimes in the jungle, but mostly in villages as many peasants gave refuge to the soldiers.
- For the French, they found it hard to distinguish a guerrilla from an ordinary peasant.
- The peasants would provide intelligence to the Viet Minh about the activities of the French.
o Meaning that the Viet Minh could stage surprise attacks and ambushes - Almost all Vietnamese, even those who opposed the Viet Minh, hated
French rule (strong sense of Vietnamese nationalism “doc lap”
Impact of China 1949 onwards (post-communist victory in China) - Early 1950 they started to supply the Viet Minh with significant quantities of
weapons
…
China was their northern neighbour= no stopping influx of supplies
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- Ho was inspired by the Communist victory in China
- In response, the US began aiding the French
o At the end of the war the French still estimated that they had about 5:1 ratio of artillery
o In 1950 they had a 16:1, however their weapon superiority was no match for the sheer size of manpower at the Viet Minh’s disposal.
+ the soviets - Soviet war materials as well as Chinese
instructors made a significant positive impact on the Vietnamese war effort. - The French army in Vietnam was poorly organised and lacked moral
because the majority did not believe in the cause, (see, dirty war) AS SOON AS THE CHINESE STEPPED IN TO HELP, PROVIDING WEAPONS AND
TRAINING, THE FRENCH WERE DOOMED
o the nature of Vietnamese victory against the French in 1954
Dien Bien Phu, 1954; the critical battle https://www.emaze.com/@ALRFWFLW
French military strategy
Maintaining fortresses called ‘hedgehogs’ in DRV. They occupied Dien Bien Phu in the mountains of northern Vietnam, near the border with Laos in late 1953. They had thousands of men stationed there, as it was where they could receive supplies and support.→ there was a large central base with three surrounding artillery bases (named after the generals lovers) They underestimated the Viet Minh believing them incapable of moving enough men, supplies, and artillery to Dien Bien Phu due to the small population. But they expected an attack nonetheless
The Viet Minh attack
General Giap of the Viet Minh mobilised tens of thousands of civilians to carve roads on which they could ride their bicycles which carried hundreds of lbs of dismantled artillery. Their artillery and anti-aircraft guns made it impossible for the French to land planes, forcing the French to resort to parachuting supplies down. The parachutes meant that either side could obtain those supplies as they cannot be guaranteed to land in a given position. The Viet Minh used trench movement and encirclement to cut off any French supplies and also remain in defensive positions. Giap launched an offensive with 40,000 troops and Dien Bien Phu fell to the Viet Minh on May 7, 1954
Reasons for victory
1. Use of civilian help 2. French underestimation 3. Use of mountains (defensive and good field of vision) 4. Destruction of French airfield → parachuted supplies stolen by Viet Minh
How success was achieved
a) Cut off French supplies via aircraft → o parachutes= unreliable recipients=weaken French
b) Under Chinese advisement o Direct attacks (full frontal) = not traditionally a Vietnamese tactic
c) Trench movement o Encirclement and gradual tightening= strong defensive position
International revolution- ideology China set a precedent of communism in Asia
Communist support= international revolution Stalin died in 1954
Reduced funding due to unpopularity
End of battle
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Casualties of the 1st Indochina War
Viet Minh - 175,000 killed - 300,000 wounded - 10 Vietnamese death for every French soldier
death The Vietnamese were determined to win no matter the cost, this can be attributed to their strong sense of nationalism ‘doc lap’. Fiercely determined for independence.
France - 1,500 dead - 3,500 wounded - 10,000 POW’s (3,900 returned
alive)
Other interested countries
With the loss of the French, other leading countries felt threatened by the Viet Minh as they were an emerging communist country who had proven their strength in defeating a world power.
Nationalism vs communism
To the Viet Minh, communism was less important than their sense of nationalism and anti-colonialism; - Retaining the financial support from the landlords (that supported nationalism) was
crucial in the Viet Minh success, thus they put their ideals aside in order to achieve independence from the French.
- The Viet Minh decided that their priority was to achieve independence, then they could move on to implementing communism.
- However they also were improving the situation for peasants, as the maximum rent able to be charged to peasants was decreased in 1953, and in some cases, rent was completely abolished. Some debts peasants owed landlords were cancelled.
o the significance of the Geneva Conference for Indochina in 1954
Geneva conference and the Geneva accords Context The Korean war 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953
- USSR + China supporting the North = Communists - USA + Britain + United Nations supporting the South = Capitalists - Ended it eternal stalemate and demilitarised zone along the 38th parallel - Strengthening the fear USA felt towards Communism - Solidified the theory of the domino effect of Communism and the international
revolution.
Participating countries
Communist - North Vietnam (DRV) - USSR - China
Imperialist - Britain - USA - France
Indochina - Cambodia - Laos - State of Vietnam (south, RVN)
When was the Geneva conference
The conference started on April 26th 1954 and ended on July 20th 1954 marking the end of the 1st Indochina war.
China’s role in 1st Indochina war
China helped the Viet Minh but at massive human cost. As they were a newly declared communist country, helping their southern neighbour, the Vietnamese, had the added effect of expanding their sphere of influence.
Split of Vietnam
The country was split at the 17th parallel, which was made a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and was to be reunited in 2 years with an election.
Main outcomes for Vietnam
1. Vietnam was split into North (democratic republic of Vietnam {DRV}) and South (state of Vietnam → republic of Vietnam {RVN}) at the 17th parallel
2. 300 day period of free movement between the North and South
World powers
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3. Election to be held in 1956 (two years after the war) to reunify the north and south into a united Vietnam.
During the split
During the two years before the planned reuniting of Vietnam, no foreign troops were to enter Vietnam.
DRV reaction Ho reluctantly signed the accords after being pressured by the USSR and China, he believed; - It cheated him out of taking control of Vietnam after he rightfully won the war against
the French.
Countries that didn’t sign
South Vietnam (puppet anti-communist government established by the French) - The refusal was based on their strong
belief that Ho Chi Minh would win the election due to his victory against the French, his strongly nationalist policies, and the land reforms made under his government.
- they recognised that if Ho were to win, Vietnam would become communist, something they wished to avoid.
USA - They didn’t want to sign the accords due
to the clause about the foreign troops not being allowed entrance to Vietnam
- Ulterior motives being the wish to take control of Vietnam (seen with Vietnam war)
- They also feared communism and believed that the election would result in Ho’s victory and the
For the rest of Indochina
Cambodia and Laos were both declared independent Prince Sihanouk’s government remained sole ruler of Cambodia
Outcomes for the rest of Indochina
To stop the spread of Communism the USA intervened in South Vietnam and supported Diem Diem’s increase in power meant that the 1956 election was not held and the RVN and DRV remained split until after the end of the 2nd Indochina war (Vietnam war, 1955-1975) Diem did not approve of the accords.
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Conflict in Vietnam, 1954–1964, including: o political, social, economic and military developments within North and South
Vietnam
North Vietnam
Essay structure 1. NV=
DRV 2. SV=
RVN
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State of the economy
Between the fighting in WWII and the 1st Indochina war, the economy was suffering, due to the financial cost of war as well as the destruction of vast agricultural lands
Agriculture The agricultural infrastructure (roads, canals, bridges, and fields) had been destroyed by the bombings of the French in the 1st Indochina war. During the 300 day movement period as dictated by the Geneva accords, North Vietnam lost almost all skilled technicians as they migrated south to avoid Communism, with their departure they also stripped factories and shops of all useable equipment (they could keep it in the south while in the north it would be nationalised) e.g. they took the metal strips off workbenches.
Period of starvation 1954-56
The north was less prosperous in terms of agriculture and only produced an average of 2 crops/year whereas the south had up to 5/year. With the Geneva accords cutting off trade between the north and south, the north had to rely on Chinese rice donations. The damaged infrastructure did not help the situation, leading to a period of starvation.
Ho’s main goal for DRV
Industrialisation - To ensure industrialisation occurred DRV received foreign
aid from Warsaw pact (Communist eastern Europe- behind the iron curtain {removal of civil liberties})
o Mainly from USSR
Obtain food - China helped NV with
food aid and technical support
Land reforms
How: Liquidation of landlords through denunciations, then distributing the land to the poor peasants.
Why: The rice produced in south Vietnam namely the Mekong Delta, was no longer available to the north due to the split.
Attempt to improve agriculture 1955-1957
Agricultural tribunals were held to redistribute land. These descended into denunciations and false accusations, with a neighbour against neighbour situation. These tribunals had quota’s of landlords to find and kill and their
‘justice’ was swift and merciless. Those that weren’t killed were
sent to labour camps (like Urals Siberian method- USSR). The land owned by these landlords was then confiscated and distributed among the poor peasants. The landlords during the 1st Indochina war were Viet Minh supporters, the Viet Minh was executing their supporters. Between 10,000 and 15,000 supposedly anti-Communist/pro-French individuals and landlords were humiliated, abused, and murdered in an arbitrary manner in this period. The horrifying outcome of the agricultural tribunals sponsored by the Viet Minh made it appear possible that the Communist’s might lose government. Concerned about economic disruption Ho stopped the tribunals in August 1956. Ho took full responsibility and apologised for errors about radical land reform. He said, Too many farmers had been incorrectly classified as “landlords” and executed or imprisoned and too many mistakes
had been made redistributing land.
By 1960 By 1960, North Vietnam had changed from a state of famine and poverty to having the fastest growing economy in South-East Asia. Massive economic and industrial programs achieved growth in transport, coal production and electricity.
What it meant for DRV
Self sufficiency, greater independent→ persue unity and independence, use other countries resources to build upon them to develop self sufficiency.
Cult of Ho Ho was modelled as “Uncle Ho” a kindly and austere leader (in direct contrast to the south’s
Diem) who inspired the Vietnamese to persist with their desire for unification with the South.
Ho & Mao
Landlord, being accused arbitrarily
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Why was Ho important
Long term leaders provide stability. Ho was humble, and not a dictator, who keeps traditional Vietnamese values such as a strong sense of nationalism, he provided a symbol for Vietnamese values.
Po
liti
cal;
- After the French loss at Dien Bien Phu the North became a single party state and Ho was their leader. - The destruction of infrastructure by the French was restored by economic aid from the Warsaw Pact-
mainly from the USSR, with the destruction of the infrastructure, it worsened the state of starvation from ’54-’56, meaning that they had to rely on Chinese food Aid
- The agricultural tribunals descended into false accusations and pit people against each other. Because many people were wrongfully executed, this weakened the Communist control in the North. An estimated 50,000 landlords killed.
- Ho Chi Minh ended the tribunals in August 56. In 1957, Ho took full responsibility and apologised for errors about radical land reform. “too many farmers had been incorrectly classified as landlords.
- There was a divide in the party between the radical left (Ho + and the secretary Chinh) and the moderate left (Giap).
Soci
al
- Cultural groups, journalists and authors were strictly monitored by the party. - A Youth organisation was created along with a Peasant association. - During the 300 day free movement period, +140,000 south Vietnamese came to the worth. While
around -1,000,000 moved south (majority were catholic, as well as technicians and professionals, which weakened the economy).
- Tribunals turned into a hunt for landlords/wealthy farmers + pro-French + people who weren’t happy
with the new regime (labelled ‘feudalists’. False accusations and denunciations led to the wrongful deaths of many people.
- Production declined, increasing starvation, leading to uprisings in June 1956. In November ’56 over
6000 people were killed or deported. - After Ho’s apology, more moderate methods were put in place such as cooperative farms where
villagers shared labour and responsibilities. Violence and purging ceased= food production and living standards improved.
Eco
no
mic
- All resources were nationalised by the state; human, material, and natural. Instating fixed prices. - Land taken from landlords through the agricultural tribunals and redistributed to the peasants. - By 1957 the DRV had achieved self-sufficiency. By 1960 they were the fastest growing economy
in South East Asia - In 1958 cooperativisation was introduced and by 1960 80% of all DRV were living under this policy
Mil
itar
y
To effectively oppose Diem NV did 2 things 1. Invaded Laos in July 1959 building a network through Laos and then
Cambodia, the Ho Chi Minh trail ( Map on page 2) o They couldn’t go directly south at the 17th parallel because of the
DMZ, ∴ they went around it 2. December 1960 they created the NLF (National Liberation Front) to
encourage the participation of non-Communist's in South Vietnam to overthrow Diem. o The NLF was run by the North but based in the South o Made up of those that migrated north during the 300 days o It was a collection of groups with nationalistic aims who opposed the US and Diem o It served as the Norths shadow party in the South, they were helping the peasants in place of
Diem. (This was the same method used by Ho with the Viet Minh in the 1st Indochina war.) - Communist cadres from the NLF went to villages, performing political plays that appealed to
traditional Vietnamese values (non literary traditions) - Cadres promoted the tale of the tiger and the elephant, borrowing the analogy from Ho’s Viet Minh
fighters, “It is the fight between tiger and elephant. If the tiger stands his ground, the elephant will
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crush him with its mass. But if he conserves his mobility, he will finally vanquish the elephant, who bleeds from a multitude of cuts.” → this made sense to illiterate villagers.
main points - Achieve unification of
Vietname - Abolish dictatoral powers
of Diem - Freedoms; assembly,
speech, religion, and press - Amnesty for political
prisoners and political parties
- Equality for ethnic groups + gender
- Foreign policy of peace
Activities - Terrorism against
Diem govt. targetting
Café’s – bombed in Saigon
Teachers Tax collectors Bureaucrats Police chiefs
NLF was proclaimed by Ho on 20.12.1960 By 1965 300 districts and 900 villages under their control. Propeganda - Nationalism - Overthrow diem - Farce of Geneva accords - Role of US as invaders
(foreigners)
Characterised by - No uniforms - No official head
quarters - No regular meeting
spots These made them hard to identify and arrest in the South. People joined the NLF because Its broad ideology Provided emotional and actual support.
NLF cadre
s
Viet Cong= military arm of
NLF Were SV peasants
NV had the fasted growing
economy of SEA in 1960
DRV funding
Ho Chi Minh trail
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South Vietnam Diem From a noble Catholic Vietnamese family. By age 28 he was a governor. Later a minister under
the French but came to resent French control and resigned. In 1945 the North recognised Diems qualities and proposed he joined them. Diem declined and instead went to the US to become a Catholic priest. Diem was appointed premier of South Vietnam 2 weeks after the Geneva accords were finalised.
Regime based on
Repression Authoritarian Bribery Corruption Nepotism Self-centred Bias to Catholics
American’s foreign policy
- 1947 Truman Doctrine: US protector of smaller ‘endangered’ countries against
monolithic Communism ‘containment’
- 1949- ‘loss’ of China - 1954 Eisenhower introduced the Domino
theory in reference to communism international revolution
America & Diem
America sent support in the form of advisors, politicians, CIA agents and military supervisors (not troops). President Eisenhower described Diem as “the miracle man of Asia” and the VP Johnson claimed he was “the Winston Churchill of South East Asia. In 1955 the US gave RVN $322 million dollars intended to help the peasantry as well as the 1 million refugees from the north. In actual fact this went to Diems supporters in order to maintain his control.
Colonel Lansdale
US Colonel, counselled Diem to use brute force and bribery if necessary, to remove Communist's from RVN. Violent Influential Anti-democratic Anti-communist Against US morals
ARVN Diem started a denunciation campaign in 1955 against Communist sympathisers, still in the South.
Corrupt election
In Oct ’55 there was a referendum on whether the south should be a monarchy or a republic, there
were only 5.3 million on the electoral rolls yet up to 5.7 million votes were counted (corruption). 98.2% of the people in the south reportedly voted for a republic, with 100% in Saigon, Diem proclaimed the Republic of Viet Nam with himself as its president. He also appointed his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu as the Minister of the Interior, in charge of dealing with political opponents and internal security.
Accord’s election
Diem refused to hold the election which was mean to reunite the North and South as he feared a Communist victory. The US supported this decision with the future president JFK declaring in 1956, “Neither the US
nor South Vietnam is ever going to agree to an election obviously stacked and subverted (undermined) in advance.” Even though the US technically had no say in the matter.
The constitution
In Oct ’56 Diem created a constitution to uphold the appearance of democracy in order to receive continued American support. Their economy was still struggling
Economy Total reliance on American aid by late 1950’s = vulnerable to
economic collapse
High levels of corruption= mismanagement of American $322 Million
Very little aid was provided to country areas where it was most needed.
5. Agrovilles (’59-‘61): fortified villages to keep out Communist's. Had immense Problems: Forced removal of families from
their ancestral home - graves/ temples = loss of culture + resent.
Difficult to identify Communist's vs peasants.
New land was poor for farming. Poor crops= low production
Compared to the NV, SV was in a terrible state, making Communism a better option
4. Overturned land reforms, = loss peasant support. Give land to loyal catholic supporters around Saigon.
3. Torture, imprisonment and death of political opponents often by the secret police (Can Lao) lead by Diems brother Nhu. All opponents were classified ‘Communist’s’ making it an umbrella term. The campaign created a strong resistance in the Mekong Delta. By
2. The organised crime gang Binh Xuyen which controlled the national police was dismantled in April ’55 in a 2 day battle in the streets of Saigon, showcasing the power of the new regime.
1. Religious sects such as Hoa Hao and Cao Dai were eliminated
6. Regime marked by nepotism, many of his family were corrupt, particularly
7. Discrimination against Buddhists, he closed monasteries. Bias towards Catholics in the public service, military promotions, allocations of land, business favours and tax concessions . 8. Introduced and enforced press censorship. 9. Laws; Ordinance 47 (’56); to associate with or be a Communist was a capital offence, between ’55 – ’57 there were 12,000 killed and by ’58 there were 40,000 imprisoned. Protection of morality (May ’58); outlawing, gambling, contraception, divorce, prostitution, fortune telling, dancing and musical cafes. These went underground
Diems actions
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Po
liti
cal
- Diem removed political opponents using Communist as an umbrella term, through the denunciation campaign led by his brother Nhu.
- Removal of religious opposition by armed engagement (Buddhist protests) - Elimination of 90% of Communist 3 ppl cells by 1961 - By 1961 there were 150,000 political prisoners - Rigged referendum in Oct 1955 to make the south a republic, 5.3 million electoral roles, and 5.7
million votes counted. 100% republic in Saigon with 98.2% all of South Vietnam. - US backing of Diems decision to not hold the ’56 elections because Ho was likely to win. - NEPOTISM- appoint his family to high political positions, brother the Catholic bishop of Hue.
His brother Nhu, appointed minister of interior, in charge of political threats, and the denunciation campaign
- the ‘Can Lao’ served as the secret police in charge of denunciations and political threats - Ordinance 47, law 10/59 and protection of morality
Soci
al
80,000 south Vietnamese migrated north during the 300 day free movement period. Agrovilles in 59 were fortified villages meant to keep out Communist's, families were often
forcibly removed from their ancestral land onto the Agrovilles where the farming land was poor which meant that there was low production. The Communist's were hard to distinguish from a peasant thus meaning that the Communism spread easily among the Agrovilles as the resentment for Diem grew.
There were around 1 million refugees (a lot of them were Catholic) from the north that had to be housed, fed, employed, clothed, and cared for, the cost was meant to be from the American aid package.
In 1963 the Buddhists were persecuted and there was mass protests and demonstrations where many Buddhists monks and followers self-immolated, (sacrificial suicide in a form of protest) much of this was publicised on a global scale. The event was called the ‘Buddhist crisis’.
Eco
no
mic
- Diem used the American Aid package of $322 million to pay his supporters rather than help the peasants and refugees that the package was meant for. He used the money to provide land for his catholic supporters on the outskirts of Saigon, where corruption was rife (100% voted republic🤥).
- By the late 50’s RVN was reliant on American aid in order for their economy to survive. - Rural areas were in poverty because the American economic aid was centred in the cities
Mil
itar
y
The ARVN (Army of the Republic of Viet Nam) was the military of the South. - In a bid to stop the spread of Communism Diem instated the Strategic
Hamlet Program, which was meant to 1. Protect hamlets from Viet Cong infiltration 2. Provide guns and ammunition to peasants to actively resist the Viet
Cong 3. Make Hamlets secure to extend Diems support by using barbed wire,
booby traps etc. The program failed because;
1. The peasants resisted forced relocation (same with the Agrovilles) 2. Secure Hamlets were ignored by the Viet Cong 3. More peasants came to identify with the Viet Cong and its goals of
patriotic nationalism.
- Diem started referring to Communist insurgents as ‘Viet Cong’
- By 1964, there were approximately 100,000 Viet Cong in the RVN despite Diems attempts to remove opposition.
Diems death 2 Nov- Military coup by the generals of the
ARVN= assassination of Diem and replaced with General Minh in Nov ’63
three weeks later Death of JFK - ARVN avoided palace → promised safe
passage but were killed in an armoured personnel carrier, shot + killed
- People celebrated in the streets - Reasons for Diem Assassinations
Increasingly dictatorial rule and brutal repression in Diems RVN
Officials/ generals of ARVN didn’t agree
with Diem
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American head of CIA (Lansdale) privately met with the generals and gave them the go ahead to kill Diem
VP Johnson believed upon visiting RVN that the people were in need for leadership
Things wrong with Diem = Hamlet Program, Battle of Ap Bae, Buddhist protests
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o the nature and development of US policy towards Indochina to 1964
Sink or swim with Ngo Dinh Diem= long list of expenditures Theories between
Containment American anti-Communist policy aimed
at preventing the spread of Communism to non-Communist countries, preventing Communist revolution and Soviet aggression.
o Truman (hard line against Communism- start of cold war
Domino theory Assumed that once one country fell to
Communism adjacent countries were at risk of also falling to Communism/ infiltration/ invasion/ copying neighbours
o Eisenhower (military general in WWII + supreme commander of NATO)
= Marshall plan → money to countries that weren’t Communist in order to support them against the spread of Communism. Countries that benefitted included; Britain, France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, west Germany, Norway, Italy, Switzerland. Countries received aid according to their economic situation.
Treaties against Communism
ANZUS [Australia, New Zealand, & US] treaty (1951)
SEATO [South East Asia Treaty Organisation] treaty (1954)
Non-Communist states ensuring collective security and an alliance against Communist states during the Cold War.
US provided advisors
They provided advisors from the 1950’s as well as financial support (Marshall plan). By 1960 there were 327 advisors but with the growth of the Viet Cong and the Communist insurgents, the number of advisors jumped to 16,000 by 1963. The advisors were against the Geneva accords this was an unspoken broken rule.
Year 1961 JFK
1962 JFK
1963 JFK
1964 LBJ
1965 LBJ
Advisor numbers
900 3,200 16,000 23,000 Troops arrive. 3,500 to Da Nang in March and by December 184,000
US view - Kennedy saw South Vietnam as strategically important (a buffer zone between South East Asia and Communist China. He believed that the RVN was a cornerstone of democracy.
- He believed that if South Vietnam was to fall, that American prestige would be at stake. - Using Cold War rhetoric believed, ‘the red tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam’
arguing that ‘Vietnam represents a proving ground of democracy in Asia. Vietnam represents
the alternative to Communist dictatorship’ (good old normal dictatorship) - In May ’61 then Vice President Johnson travelled to the RVN to discuss the possibility of
supplying troops as well as advisors. This is because the American’s were worried about the
nature of the guerrilla warfare being used by the Viet Cong. During this visit he decided to send along General Maxwell Taylor to report on the situation in SV
Active participation
- In December of 1961 JFK authorised helicopters and crew to take an active role against the Communist insurgency.
- Early in 1962 the American’s formally set up a Military Command Assistance group in Vietnam (MACV).
- ANZUS treaty members started participating in 1962, Australia sent 30 jungle warfare advisors to help South Vietnam cope with guerrilla warfare of the Viet Cong.
Protest developments
- In a traditional yearly Buddhist ceremony in May 1963, celebrating Buddha’s birthday, the
Buddhist flags were flown higher than the national flag. o This caused a dispute between the most senior monk, Tri Quang and the Hue province
chief. [Diem appointed + likely catholic] - The national assembly law (law 10/59) was applied to Hue celebrations. Weapons used by
police included grenades and tear gas. Resulting in 9 dead and 14 wounded. [HUGE OVERREACTION]
- Tri Quang (monk) accused Diem of Murder o Diems response was to accuse the Buddhists of having Communist sympathies and a
direct link to Ho. All opponents = Communist's = umbrella term
- In June 1963 Saigon there was a demonstration where 5000 Buddhists marched towards Diems palace to demand religious equality in gov employment. Leaders were arrested and others had to seek safety in the US embassy.
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- Following morning a monk self-immolated (ritual suicide of protest) which was broadcasted on a global scale.
- There were constant demonstrations for the next three months seeking an independent Buddhist state in SV.
- Buddhist temples were sandbagged and surrounded by barbed wire in an effort to protect them, as well as avoid arbitrary arrest by the police/pseudo government officials. Further protest suicides occurred.
President Response
Truman (45-53) Backed US forces against the French.
Eisenhower (53-61)
Determined to stand against Communists – reds under the beds.
JFK (61-63) The war tested American determination in Asia.
o The Second Indochina War, including:
o US foreign policy towards Vietnam from 1964
PRIOR= - Cold war concerns about the spread of monolithic Communism → containment “Truman
doctrine” 1947-. The “loss” of China - Development of the domino theory, popularised by president Eisenhower at the time of
Dien Bien Phu. “The possible consequences of the loss {of Indochina} are just incalculable to the free world.
- US support for French/US policy at Geneva/ support for Diem/ VC and NV = puppets from the USSR.
- Idealism- from Wilson at Versailles to Kennedy in 56 as democratic VP nomination and as president in 1960- Peace Corps ensuring peace and civil rights “a world of law and free
choice, banishing the world of war and coercion.” - Economic self interest - National prestige- Pentagon Papers suggested that in 1964 national prestige and self
interest was the key driving force of American foreign policy - Political survival of LBJ
Factors that motivated LBJ
- US determination to stop Communism. March 1965 M.A.C.V. (Military Assistance Command Vietnam) said that the Communist's would soon control all of Vietnam
- Instability of SV government - Desire to prove himself as a good president - VC was able to plant bombs on streets of
Saigon without detection by July 64
- Belief that his ‘Great Society’ would start as
soon as the Vietnam war ended with the suppression of Communism
- Wish to avoid a US defeat - Avoid Communist/Chinese gains is South
East Asia - He was a Hawk not a dove= for war
March 1964 McNamara paid a visit and recommended more aid. Special forces raids on North Vietnam, coastal spy towers, preparation of Operation Rolling Thunder.
August ‘64 Gulf of Tonkin= ‘attacks’ on USS Maddox and Turner Joy, which were American ships
situation outside Haiphong for the purpose of gathering intel. - Two NV patrol boats fired on the Maddox missing by 200m on 2nd August - Turner Joy & Maddox were fired upon by more patrol boats 4th August. - Some US officials believe the second happened by inexperienced patrol operatives
incorrectly interpreting radar signals Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave LBJ the ability to ‘use all necessary measures’ in order to
defeat the Communist threat in Vietnam. Also that international peace and security of South East Asia was vital to American interests of world peace.
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Criticisms: allowed the president to send troops to battle if they deemed it necessary without having to pass the action through congress. And allowed action to be taken without a formal declaration of war. No declaration was made in V, L or C. Effects: 1) USSR & China less likely to oppose US action if it was unofficial. 2) Support for Johnson increased in the USA, without the people having to support a formal
war. LBJ Re-election: he portrayed himself in the 64 election as the pacifist candidate for the Democratic
Party (despite being a Hawk). He wished to take action without risking American lives. Effect of Vietnam on LBJ presidency: while LBJ passed legislation on civil rights, tax reduction, an anti-poverty programme and conservation, his actions in Vietnam prevented him from going so far to implement his ‘great society’. However he was determined not to lose to a ‘raggedy-ass little fourth-rate country’. HAWKS= advocates for the escalation of war and continued war effort by the US
DOVES= advocates for peace and the anti-war movement, wanted the withdrawal of US troops and the end of US aid - McNamara
- LBJ - Nixon - General Westmoreland
NIXON “peace with honour” this was the Nixon Doctrine, and the slogan for his campaign. Nixon did continue the withdrawal of troops however he truly escalated the war, by extending into Laos and Cambodia. WANTED VIETNAMISATION
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o the nature and effectiveness of the strategy and tactics employed by the North
Vietnamese Army, the National Liberation Front, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam
and the USA
North Vietnamese Army
Stra
tegy
Re-
un
ific
atio
n o
f V
ietn
am
Supporting NLF
NV created the NLF in December 1960 with the main goal being the overthrowing of the corrupt President Diem. It included, nationalists, Communists, peasants. The NLF served as the Norths shadow party in the South.
Aid from USSR + China
The NVA was receiving support from the Soviets in the form of tanks. The NLF, NVA were both supplied with, light and heavy arms, mortars, and heavy rockets from the USSR and China. Some ARVN and US troops preferred to fight with captures AK-47 automatic rifles rather than their own M16’s. China also sent troops to help with the Ho Chi Minh trail and to
support the VC. Conventional warfare
Mostly exclusively on the ground in SV. Fighting in the streets. Conventional warfare can be seen in the Tet offensive. Using heavy artillery in isolated positions, making it hard for US/ARVN troops to locate and attack strong holds, whether by ground or by air strikes.
Ho Chi Minh trail
The complex nature of the trail allowed for it to be constantly in use while it was being repaired from the damage of operation rolling thunder and operation ranch hand. As when one branch was damaged, another branch was used.
Attrition Lengthy war= change public opinion.
Bloody war = US worried about human cost.
Expensive war = inability to sustain war effort + LBJ “Great Society”.
Time and time again the NVA proved that they were willing to fight to the last man, this can be seen by Tet as it may have been a complete military loss based on casualties, they categorised it as a psychological win because they achieved one of their three aims.
Tet Against the advise of General Giap, the Communi
Strategy
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
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National Liberation front (NLF)/Viet Cong Strategy Attrition = last
man standing Win by → o Lengthy war=
change public opinion.
o Bloody war = US worried about human cost.
o Expensive war = inability to sustain war effort + LBJ “Great
Society”. Who did the VC rely on
They relied heavily on support from the villagers. President of China Mao Zedong told the fighters he sent to help “because guerrilla warfare basically derives from the masses and is supported by them it can neither
exist nor flourish it is separated from their sympathies and co-operation’. The Communist's saw themselves as fish swimming in a sea of peasants, for whom they relied on for food shelter and intelligence.
Phases of warfare
1. because NV had the fasted growing economy in South East Asia in 1960 they funded and launched the NLF in Dec 60→ guerrilla warfare doing main fighting
2. Assassinations of SV officials during Tet offensive (teachers, bureaucrats, Catholics)
3. from 68 after Tet the NVA took over fighting ∴ conventional battles.
Tactics Punji sticks Concealed underground bamboo spikes or nails to trap victims foot, piercing boots & leg. →impaled = meat grinder
Mines Concealed around obstacles across paths with trip wires. Grenades With pin extracted, concealed in cans, and linked to trip wire. No uniforms Element of surprise Flexibility Snipers Booby
traps Shoot and run
Ambush Tunnel complexes →Cu chi tunnels near Saigon, y2fgoj2w7bt51.jpg (4477×1081) (redd.it)
unconventional Night operations, no overt bases, relied on villagers for intel. Cell bases and supplies
The basic NLF/VC cell is about 3 – 12 people. The cells had the responsibility of fighting, propaganda, and village security. NLF had bases in Laos, and Cambodia which had elaborate tunnel systems to provide shelter and protection for the US air warfare.
Differences between NLF and USA
US: - Located main bases on coast to allow supply and
evacuation. - Inland positions we held by specialist troops. - Aircraft = tactical support for ground forces and strategic
raids against the North. (Air war was most successful of US tactics)
NLF: - Held HUGE areas of territory in the
South a lot since WWII. - Most fighting took place where the NLF
chose areas where they knew the terrain and their opponents found it difficult to remain mobile.
Outside aid They had aid from NVA, who were in turn aided by the USSR & China.
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Army of the republic of Vietnam (ARVN)
Strategy
Ant
i-re
unif
icat
ion
+ e
lim
inat
e C
omm
unis
ts
in S
V Strategic
Hamlets - Did not work as peasants were reticent to leave their ancestral lands, and the goal
of eliminating the Communist threat did not happen because the NLF looked like ordinary peasants, making it easier for them to blend in within the village and spread their propaganda and recruit peasants to their cause by educating them.
Tet offensive Fought bravely and managed to take back the cities
Opinions on the army
Gen depicted as poor soldiers, quick to avoid battle, open to corruption, quick to desert Crucial supplies of medicine, petrol, food often diverted and sold ‘Ghost soldiers’ – enable senior commanders to claim these soldiers’ pay which would be
diverted into their own bank accounts Many ARVN recruits forced into service/were volunteers from the urban poor. Training was limited ARVN fought bravely in Tet Offensive & NVA’s Easter Offensive of 1972 Most of the reporting came from US perspective – public perception grew that Sth wasn’t
fighting in battles they should have been in View of ARVN is unfair – Neil Davis opposes this typical view
o War meant a great deal to ARVN, had to fight it on their own terms, lacked sophisticated weaponry of Americans
o Could recall only 3 weeks in 3yrs where US casualties exceeded those of ARVN o Never saw them once run away o “The South Vietnamese would often move quietly into an area and take the
Vietcong unawares” (Neil Davis, 1987)
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USA Official landing of troops
The first American troops landed at Da Nang in March 1965, there was only 3,200 US troops, by December 65 there were 183,000. The height of the troop numbers was early 1968 at 536,000. Amercians relied heavily on helicopters to support ground troops, and attacks on Communist forces. This is why the Vietnam war is known as the ‘helicopter war’.
Strategy Americanisation; Bring Vietnam up to American standards. American supreme control of the war, i.e. American's leading the war effort.
Strategic Hamlets 62-63
US recommended tactic, basically an upgraded version of the agrovilles, this time the added bonus of arming villagers. Dumb move as many were VC in hiding. Under the programme, 6,800 villages were resettled.
Operation Phoenix 65-72
Designed and coordinated by the CIA Colonel Lansdale. Destroy the VC by infiltration, torture, capture, counter-terrorism, interrogation, and assassination. Throughout the program, a total 81,740 people were ‘neutralised’ and 26,369 were killed, the rest were surrendered/captured. The operation used torture, coercive methods. The program was also ued for personal politics, (innocent until proven guilty?). When the operation went public, it led to public critisism and after congressional hearings, it was pressured to be shut down.
Operation Rolling Thunder 65-68
Operation rolling thunder was meant to last a total of 8 weeks, instead it went on for three years. The target was the Ho Chi Minh trail. This was because throughout the war the trail had been bombed to no success because of the intricate system of the trails, with multiple routes within the overall ‘trail’ when one route
was destroyed another route was used during repairs. During attacks, around 500 American bomber jets were lost.
Search and destroy 64-66
Helicopter aided troop movement to find VC within strategic hamlets. What it really was; the American’s storming into villages, killing residents, burning their houses (with which they kept food) and leaving orphans. In ’66 American troops destroyed more than 20,000 acres of food crops in suspected VC villages. This admission generated harsh criticism from the academic community and incensed the anti-war movement.
Winning hearts and minds (WHAM) 65-71
Because of the suspected 60% of VC run villages by 1966, the American's instigated WHAM which included $850 million in American food, medical supplies, machinery, and numerous other household items, were distributed among villages to gain their loyalty. (This did not work as many of the villagers were suspicious of the American soldiers, as well as many were steadfast in their loyalty to the VC due to Vietnamese Nationalism, which provided an instinctive distrust of American aid.)
Operation Ranch Hand 62-71
Primarily involved the use of herbicides and defoliants in the rural areas of South Vietnam in an attempt to deprive the VC of vegetation cover. Areas over Cambodia and Laos were also sprayed. The Ranch Handers motto was ‘Only you can prevent a forest”. During the ten years of spraying 20,000 km2 of forest and 2,000 km2 of crops were destroyed. Especially Da Lat which is affected to this day. The operation used agent orange, napalm, and various other defoliants. The effects of napalm is still affecting birth conditions three generations later. The rate of birth deformities skyrocketed due to the operation
Operation menu March ‘69 - May ’70
Secret aerial bombing campaign targeting Communist bases in Cambodia. 500 flights per day. Designed to stop the NVA flow of supplies and troops to the South via the Ho Chi Minh trail→ drove the Vietnamese further west into Cambodia. The ‘madman theory’ was Nixon’s thinking that by expanding the war into Cambodia and Laos, that the North would be forced to negotiate peace on the grounds that they didn’t have enough men to front the effort. The operation had the effect of inflaming the anti-war movement as the home front saw it as a world superpower imposing their will on smaller third world countries. The Kent state protests where 6 students were killed during a protest, of which two were just going to class. In response to the outrage, congress passed an amendment that banned ground troops from entering Cambodia or Laos.
AMERICANISATION
Ranch
Hand
Phoenix
Search &
Destro
WHAM
Rolling
Thund ROLLING THUNDER SEARCH AND DESTROY
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Operation Line-Backer-
Dec ‘72
Operation line backer was a US offensive on Haiphong and Hanoi, in the north in which more bombs were dropped than in the period of the previous three years. An effect of line-backer was an increase in the loss of US planes and pilots, over 100 POW’s were taken from the operation. Over 3000 bombing flights were made over the densely populated areas. In total there were 3,723 civilian casualties as a result of the bombing.
US response to Communist build up in Indochina
- 16,700 military advisors by end 63 - Air support (helicopters) - Late 62 communications and recon
equipment manned by US troops
o Naval support (Maddox & Turner Joy)
o Logistical support o Covert assassination of
opponents by “Operation
Phoenix”
o Counter insurgency in Laos to control Communist's from 60 despite a 62 major powers agreement to respect Laotian independence.
Stra
tegy
Am
eric
anis
atio
n
Operation Phoenix
Total of 81,740 VC/Communist's were ‘neutralised’ with 26,369 killed.
Operation Rolling Thunder
Carpet bombing over the Ho Chi Minh trail, including areas in Laos and Cambodia. Essentially to stop the Communist's from being able to use the trail, (this was not achieved due to the intricate system. Meant to last 8 weeks= 3 years
Operation Search and Destroy
Entering suspected VC villages and destroying houses, 20,000 acres of crops, killing suspects and leaving orphans. A US army major is quoted as saying “it became necessary to destroy the town to save it.”
Bombing Ben Tre regardless of civilian casualties. Operation Ranch Hand
The Ranch Handers motto was ‘Only you can prevent a forest”. During the ten years of spraying 20,000
km2 of forest and 2,000 km2 of crops were destroyed. WHAM $850,000 in aid, to go to things like household items, machinery, medical aid, and food. Failed due to
strong Vietnamese nationalism. Troops Troops= Start March ‘65= 3,000→ Dec ’65=150,000→ early ’68= 538,000
Vie
tnam
isat
ion
Operation Menu
Secret aerial bombing campaign= 500 sorties per day. Was in Laos and Cambodia. Based on Nixon’s
‘madman theory’. Enflamed the anti-war movement on the home-front. Operation Line-backer
More bombs dropped on Haiphong and Hanoi than had been dropped in the last 3 years of the war. 3.723 civilian casualties. Over 3000 sorties were flown over densely populated areas. Had long lasting effects on Vietnamese people, because of the use of Napalm and Agent Orange. Enflamed the anti-war movement.
Tactics Enclave (March-June 65) Da Nang
Establish bases and go out from bases to protect bases security.
A portion of territory surrounded by a larger territory whose inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct. "they gave troops a week to leave the coastal enclave" A place or group that is different in character from those surrounding it.
Conventional warfare
Air power o Air bases e.g. Danang o Huey helicopters (for transport, to bring both soldiers and citizens in and out of
SV) o Bombers (B52- Operation Rolling Thunder) o Defoliants/ herbicides e.g. Agent Orange (Operation Ranch Hand)
Political objectives distorted military objectives.
Naval power
Water war- coast lines + fire thrower→ Gulf of Tonkin + Mekong Delta
Infantry power
Troops= Start March ‘65= 3,000→ Dec ’65=150,000→ early ’68= 538,000
Montagnard’s→ anti Communist's in the mountains along the border near the Ho Chi Minh trail Training ARVN troops
Tunnel rats → would go into the Cuchi tunnels (majority wouldn’t come out)
The US relied on; Technology
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- Tanks / armoured vehicles - Armed units- mortars, grenades, rocket
launchers, M!^ auto rifle (even though many preferred the Soviet AK47’s)
- Science – weapons that could detect the enemy in the foliage
- Weapons to destroy jungles (ranch hand – ‘Only you can prevent a forest’
e.g. Agent Orange) - Bombs and threat of nuclear weapons - Helicopter transportation - Air power + artillery
Weaponry and logistical support - Helicopters- efficient movement into isolated areas, quick evacuation but were noisy and
VC hid large punji sticks in favourite landing spots - Scale of the US air power was immense (B52 bombers) – 27 tons of bombs in a single
mission, and they flew too high for people on the ground to hear them, and today craters are still visible from the damage.
- Cluster bombs – shattered and hurled hundreds of metal blades/steel balls randomly - ‘puff the magic dragon’ which were converted DC 3 which dropped flares - Napalm – canisters forces open on hitting ground and Napalm ignited. Quickly
incinerating all in field. - Herbicides and defoliants- Operation Ranch Hand e.g. Agent Orange- get rid of VC’s
advantage of jungle cover during ‘search and destroy’ missions. 75 million litres of defoliants dropped on Indochina, ultimately self-defeating- Nixon ended defoliation in 1969
- ‘People sniffers’, picking up smell of urine but not distinguishing animal and human.
o Impact of the 1968 Tet offensive
Wh
en
w
as
it
January 1968 during the Lunar calendar New Year celebrations (biggest celebration in Vietnam)
Aim
s o
f D
MV
1. Inflict damage on ARVN and US forces
2. Spark a general uprising against the SV government
3. Undermine popular support for war in the US (damage home-front opinion)
Nat
ure
of
off
ensi
ve
The attack began on the 30th of January 1968;
- Major SV cities and towns were attacked= a total of 36.
- Fighting was particularly fierce in Saigon and Hue.
- The VC/NLF reached the US embassy in Saigon and held it for several hours.
- Hue was captured for several weeks by the VC/NLF
- 100,000 civilians were made homeless by the destruction
Not everything went well for the NLF;
- A total of 38,000 of their guerrillas were killed.
- 7,000 soldiers were captured.
- Atrocities were committed by both sides, with mass graves being found in Hue. 3,000→5,700
- No uprising took place due to the offensive.
- ARVN withstood the attack and aided the American's to recapture the cities.
NVA was increasingly involved in the offensive, due to them replacing the lost VC troops, loosing
10,000 troops in the offensive themselves. With the total destruction of the VC, NVA was the main
Communist military force for the rest of the Vietnam war.
In an attempt to pull the focus away to Tet, the NVA engaged US troops at the US base at Khe
Sanh. 20,000 NVA troops attacked the base held by only 5,000 US troops for 77 days. It appeared as
though General Giap was hoping to recreate the battle at Dien Bien Phu. The NVA was defeated by
the US’s superior firepower.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
35
The Tet offensive succeeded in damaging the US home front support for the war, and because of
this, the number of anti-war protests increased, and incidents such as the Kent State university
killings occurred where students who were both protesting and not protesting were shot and killed
by police during the mass panic created. Incidents such as these increased the anti-war sentiment in
America.
Sum
mar
y
o Both sides endured losses and both sides claimed victory (psychological for NV, military for US).
o The Us and ARVN response almost completely destroyed VC/NLF forces in SV, and regained all
territory lost during the battle.
o Popular support for LBJ went from 40%-26% as a result of the media reporting that a victory in
Vietnam was not as imminent as his administration claimed.
o Public discussions arose about the possibility of US withdrawal and de-escalation.
o Johnson announced on March 31st the end to the bombing of North Vietnam above the 17th
parallel and placed a limit on troop numbers in South Vietnam
o Johnson tried to set parameters for peace talks
o Protest movement grew
o Johnson announced that he would not seek a second term as president and pulled out of the
election campaign.
TE
T 1
96
8
NV
- NV concerned about attrition and whether or not this method is worth continuing for the
sake of winning.
- Choose offensive and hope for revolution in south to force peace negotiations
- Wanted to inspire a large coordinated uprising in the south
- Damage US morale
- Psychological win with the increase of the anti-war movement in the US
US
succ
ess
US use their firepower to great effect= severely damage NLF numbers
Hue mass graves found that were made by the NVA after the US retook the city after 3 weeks
of fighting
No revolutionary large coordinated uprising in the south
ARVN reduced the presence of NLF in the countryside
They retake Hue and Saigon and reclaim their embassy
Civ
ilia
ns
7,721 civilians killed including 2,800 ‘anti-Communist's civilians in Hue
18,516 civilians wounded
75,000 homes were damaged or destroyed (only 7,000 of the 17,000 homes in Hue were left
standing.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
36
Eff
ects
of
Tet
Famous photo of execution; →
Man with gun is General Loan
of RVN the other is NLF man in
death squad, captured standing
over a mass grave with family
members of SV officials
Military request for more troops
- LBJ approval rating 40%→26%
leading him to drop out of re-
election race
Clifford’s [secretary of defence] (LBJ
administration) review of the war
effort and success rate
Exposed failure of US strategy to
stop infiltration from the North
- Peace negotiations ‘start’
- Leads to presidential candidates openly discussing the American withdrawal from Vietnam
- Increased peace protests
- Led to the beginning of Vietnamisation
- Split in the Democratic party between the Hawks and the Doves
Ariane Mckenna 2021
37
o Impact of the war on civilians in Vietnam
Gen
eral
- The human and economic costs of the Vietnam war were devastating. The struggle for Vietnam
was one of the 20th centuries great human tragedies. Estimates of the number of people killed in
Indochina range from 2.5 million to more than 4 million people. An even greater number were
maimed, disfigured, orphaned, displaced, or forced to flee as refugees.
- American planes dropped 7 million tonnes of ordnance [artillery] – three times the amount they
dropped in WW2 – as well as Napalm and Chemical defoliants like Agent Orange.
- This not only claimed lives but devastated cities, buildings, infrastructure, farmland, and
vegetation.
- Neighbouring countries Laos and Cambodia both suffered enormous human loss and material
devastation, as well as the rise of terroristic and genocidal regimes.
Th
e ag
rovi
lle
pro
gram
an
d s
trat
egic
h
amle
ts
- Due to growing instability and VC insurgency in rural areas, president Ngo Dihn Diem launched
the agroville program in 1959. Its chief purpose was to protect Vietnamese peasants from VC
infiltration by relocating them to secure areas controlled by ARVN.
- The government had built schools, hospitals, electricity to encourage peasants to move in. they
were also provided with weapons and training.
- “Diem’s insistence that the peasants build the agrovilles themselves… and without compensation
— did nothing to improve his reputation in South Vietnam… The peasants grouped into agrovilles
had to abandon their ancestral lands. In a culture like Vietnam’s, where people were deeply
attached to home and village, such uprooting was traumatic, and many South Vietnamese
resented it.” — Seth Jacobs
- The program was a failure, alienating rural Vietnamese and also contributed to the growth of the
VC as the agrovilles were easy to infiltrate as ARVN couldn’t distinguish peasant from VC. It was
abandoned in 1961.
- In 1963, the agroville program was implemented again under the name ‘Strategic hamlets’ this
worked about as well as agrovilles
Use
an
d e
ffec
t o
f d
efo
lian
ts
- An estimated 18 million gallons of defoliant, bearing codenames ‘Agent Blue’ and ‘Agent Orange’
were distributed by American Sorties.
- Its purpose was to remove jungle foliage and vegetation cover used by the VC and destroy their
crops and supply routes.
- Defoliation had an enormous impact on the landscape and food production. the effects destroyed
crops and forests consequently causing food shortages and forced people to migrate, in the long
term, whole areas were rendered impossible to cultivate and generations later, Vietnamese people
still suffer ailments such as cancer, birth defects, and deformities.
- It stripped large areas of Vietnam, leaving farmland barren and untouchable for decades.
Defoliants also had an insidious impact on both Vietnamese civilians, US soldiers and allies
including chemical burns, cancers, birth defects, and deformities.
- Agent Orange was found to contain carcinogenic dioxins. Exposure to Agent Orange has been
subsequently linked to many types of cancers and birth defects.
Car
pet
b
om
bin
g an
d N
apal
m
- Caused extensive damage to towns, cities, and harbours in the North like Haiphong.
- A widespread destruction of homes, hospitals, and infrastructure throughout the country.
- Constant disruption and complete destruction of civilian life
Ariane Mckenna 2021
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Sear
ch a
nd
des
tro
y m
issi
on
s - US soldiers would pull everyone out of the villages in search of VC soldiers, they would then kill
suspected VC, burn, and destroy their villages and leave orphanded children
- The My Lai Massacre was the mass murder of unarmed SV civilians by US troops in Son Tinh district,
SV, on March 16th, 1968. Between 347 and 504 unarmed people were killed by US soldiers. Victims
included men, women, children, and infants. Some of the women were gang-raped and their bodies
mutilated as were children as young as 12. Some of the soldiers were charged with criminal offences,
but only Lieutenant William Calley Jr, a platoon leader in C company was convicted. Found guilty of
killing 22 villagers, he was originally given a life sentence byt served only 3 and a half years under
house arrest.
Th
e b
oat
peo
ple
/
con
vo
y o
f te
ars
- The conflict led to one of the biggest humanitarian crisis and refugee problems in history.
- 2-3 million people are believed to have fled Indochina in the during and after the war. They fled
in overcrowded boats, poorly maintained and united to the open ocean without specific
destinations.
- 1975-1980’s world press was filled with horror stories about refugees. Thousands of refugees
drowned, starved, or were murdered by pirates.
- 750,000 are believed to have perished at sea.
- Humanitarian camps were set up in Hong Kong, Thailand, Malaysia and other Asian countries.
- Internally displaced people reach 1.5 million
Th
e af
term
ath
- Physical devastation and socialist policies imposed by new regimes caused years of famine and
suffering in South East Asia.
- Vietnam’s infrastructure was left in ruins. Roads, railways, bridges, building, ports, and power stations
were all left devastated.
- Agricultural land was poisoned with defoliants or drenched with Napalm or Diesel and set on fire.
- Landmines and unexploded aerial bombs were left by departing forces, scattered around Vietnam
even today.
Soci
al
- Arrival of US→ westernised the country
o Western media, commercial values gained supremacy, as the inflation of the Vietnamese
currency rose, the American dollar was preferred by almost all businesses, there were two
different prices, Vietnamese Dong and American dollar.
o Western goods; cars, investments, music, fashion etc
- Breakdown of traditional values= prostitution and drug trade
- Western wealth led to corruption
- Urbanisation based on lifestyle and monetary motivations
- Loss of infrastrucure
Cu
ltu
ral - Americanisation of Vietnam cities and breakdown of traditional village structures (helpful neighbour,
strong sense of community)
- Threatened survival of culture
- Pervasiveness of US presence
En
vir
on
me
nta
l
- Jungle regions demolished by bombing and defoliants
- Irrigation/dyke systems destroyed
- B52 bombers left craters in earth which made the land impossible to cultivate
- Herbicides and defoliants led to the devastation of the land.
- Legacy of unexploded ordinance remains a problem
Eco
no
mic
- Need to dedicate expenses to war prevented expenditure on projects
- 1970’s the south faced inflation and black markets
- Post-war economy was ruined
- US ban on trade worsened the situation
- Bombing reduced food output (land unable to be cultivated
Ariane Mckenna 2021
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o the nature and significance of anti-war movements in the USA and Australia
USA
Gen
eral
As early as March 1965 students and teachers at Michigan State University protested against the war.
This was an extension of the civil rights campaign that had been growing across the United States and
the ‘make love not war’ hippy mantra of the 1960’s. While not yet mainstream the protests were loud
and demanded attention. A crowd of 40,000 people later picketed the white house, burning their draft
cards. One man burned himself alive.
At this point in time only a tiny minority of politicians in the senate and house of representatives had
voiced their protest about the war. Some academics criticised it and the President’s press secretary
damaged LBJ’s position by revealing the disillusionment of some of the military serving in Vietnam.
Reporters on the ground in Vietnam could report on the situation directly, showing the brutal nature
of war and the falsehood of some military propaganda. Television graphically illustrated conditions in
Vietnam;
o Television brought the brutality of the war into the comfort of the living room. Vietnam was lost in
the living rooms of America- not the battlefields of Vietnam. [source; Marshal McLuhan, Canadian
communications scholar, Montreal Gazette, 16 May 1975]
Gro
win
g co
nce
rns
o By 1966 George Kennan, the architect of the ‘containment’ policy of the cold war, questioned the cost
of the Vietnam war, which was being fought for little apparent benefit. American prestige was suffering
because of the ‘continued pursuit of this unjust war’. At a senate inquiry, General Taylor insisted that
the war was vital and that the USA must show that Communist ‘wars of national liberation’ were
‘doomed to failure’.
o As troop numbers increased, conscription was introduced. This led to an increase in resentment of the
war among the young. University students were exempt from serving and campuses became the site of
ongoing protests, including sit-ins, peace marches, demonstrations, acts of civil disobedience and the
burning of flags and effigies of politicians. In October 1967 a crowd of 35,000 people protested at the
pentagon. In one demonstration at Kent State University in Ohio on 9 may 1970 National Guard troops
fired upon the protestors, killing six students, two of whom weren’t protesting.
o As US casualties mounted in Vietnam people began to question why American lives were being risked
in what could be seen as internal conflict on the other side of the world. The financial burden that the
war placed on the US taxpayer (about $20 billion per year in 1970) was also resented. It became harder
for the supporters of the war to justify US involvement
Vie
tna
m
Vet
era
ns
agai
nst
th
e w
ar
In April 1971 a group of Vietnam war veterans parodied the US drive into Cambodia through
an ‘incursion’ into the district of Columbia – a piece of ‘guerrilla’ peace theatre. Later many
testified against the war to the senate Foreign Relations Committee.
Mar
ch
for
pea
ce
Simultaneous mass protests in Washington and San Francisco, known collectively as the ‘March for
Peace’ , were organised by the National Peace Action Coalition and the Peoples Coalition for Peace
and Justice. 500,000 people turned out for the in March 1971. These organisations also petitioned
Congress for legislation to help war veterans
May
day
T
rib
e
In May 1971 the ‘Mayday Tribe’ vowed to launch a paramilitary operation to disrupt government
business in Washington. By 5 May, 12,000 people had been arrested. These events in the northern
spring of 1971 marked the highpoint of the anti-war effort. There was even an attempt to prevent the
aircraft carrier, the USS Constellation from returning to Vietnam.
Imp
act
of
the
war
Since it was easier for the wealthy to go to university, a class divide developed: the poor resented
being sent off to fight while the rich stayed at home. Poor whites and blacks formed the bulk of the
conscripts, unable to cite reasons of education to avoid the draft or use connections to get themselves
posted to safe domestic duties.
Serving politicians and civil servants who opposed the war quietly resigned their positions.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
40
Pen
tago
n p
aper
s - The pentagon papers were secret government documents covering the decisions about early US
involvement in Vietnam. Their publication in the New York Times in June 1971 caused national uproar.
The papers showed that the US administration had consistently underestimated the strength and
resourcefulness of the Vietnamese. They revealed that some government advisors had realised the
problems of the conflict but were consistently ignored. The government was also shown to have
knowingly deceived the American people.
- Daniel Ellsberg, a former Marine officer then working for the pentagon, leaked the papers. He was
prosecuted for theft of government property but the charges were later dropped. This was one of a
series of leaks published by leading US newspapers despite attempts by the government to ban such
publications.
Sig
nif
ica
nce
of
the
war
- Protests grew to such as level as to affect policy. General Westmoreland was refused the troops he
requested to counter the Tet offensive because this would mean widening the draft. Johnson’s
presidency was ruined by the war. Outside the Democratic National Convention 1968, protestors
fought street battles with police.
Pro
-war
m
ove
men
ts - Support for the war was widespread despite the highly publicised anti-war movements. For example, in
May 1971 Reverend Carl McIntyre, a right-wing fundamentalist clergyman, led a march of 20,000
people on his third annual ‘Victory March’.
Wh
y d
id p
eop
le
pro
test
1. Draft system, defied democratic freedom.
2. Sense of betrayal felt by people who believed the
government did not represent the wishes of the people.
3. Question whether the government was being truthful
about the war.
4. People felt the war violated the constitution as it was
not a formally declared war (Gulf of Tonkin Resolution)
5. Increasing numbers of casualties.
6. Concern morally over tactics, such as
Napalm, Massacres of innocents such as
My Lai, as well as the use of defoliants.
7. Cost of war $2 billion a month spent on
the war.
8. Increased corruption within SV.
Au
stra
lia
Gen
eral
The rising number of troops in Vietnam led to the introduction of conscription in Australia. This divided
the country. An anti-conscription ‘Moratorium Movement’ started which aimed to limit Australian
involvement. At its peak in 1970 200,000 people joined nationwide demonstrations.
- At first the attitude towards the war was that of ‘the government knows best’
- The PM Robert Menzies justified the war saying that ‘war was a direct threat to Australians’ based off
the domino theory and also due to the ANZUS treaty and the SEATO agreement ( as Australia was
geographically close to the countries.)
Tra
de
Un
ion
s
- The first anti-war moves were made by teachers and lecturers, later joined by the Australian Council of
Trade Unions, who brought the movement into the workplace, organised strikes and protested the visit
of LBJ in 1966.
- Despite strong support for the anti-war movement, polls at the time showed that not everybody
disagreed with the government. In fact there was huge support for the Australian presence in Vietnam,
particularly among rural Australians.
- Withdrawal from Vietnam became a part of the Labor campaign in the 1972 election, which they won.
Tre
atm
ent
of
Nat
ion
al
serv
icem
en
- Given the derogatory name of ‘Nasho’s’
- The men would often be beaten up just because they fought in the war, it did not matter if they
were conscripted or not, many servicemen tried to hide that they fought.
- Many men came back with PTSD.
Gro
up
s - SOS [save our sons] mothers who were against conscription for the war. (linked to the church.)
- Youth Campaign Against Conscription (YCAC) = students
- Vietnam Action Committee (VAC) = general people
- Universities, in particular Monash University, led by Albert Langer
Ariane Mckenna 2021
41
o the reasons for and the nature of the US withdrawal
Ele
ctio
n o
f N
ixo
n
Johnson recognised that his handling of Vietnam made him unelectable in the 1968 presidential contest.
Republican Richard Nixon won a huge majority helped by;
o A campaign based on a quick withdrawal from Vietnam, yet promising to win, ‘peace with honour’
for the US
o A promise to increase ‘law and order’ at home, a reaction against the anti-war protests.
o The murder of democratic frontrunner, Robert Kennedy in June.
o White opposition to the civil rights measures of the 1960’s
o The third-party candidacy of Alabama Governor George Wallace, which split the vote
o Electoral dirty tricks, ‘tricky dicky’.
Nixon began withdrawing troops but he also ordered some pf the most intense bombing of the war, a
reversal of Johnsons policy in his last few months in office. Nixon also extended US involvement to
Cambodia, ordering an invasion to cut off the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This reversal of his promises to reduce the
war effort increased the number of anti-war protests and demonstrations
Th
e p
oli
cy o
f V
ietn
amis
atio
n’
After the Tet offensive the intensity of the fighting died down, due in part to the heavy losses sustained by
the VC. Rather than resume hostilities as before they changed their strategy. Communist leaders were now
wary of US firepower. They also knew that US troops would eventually withdraw from the South, a belief
buoyed by the public determination of newly elected Nixon to remove US troops.
Most large VC and NVA regular units took refuge in Cambodia and Laos, waiting for another opportunity to
engage with ARVN. The units remaining in the SV broke down into platoons and squads of 20-30 men and
lay low in remote jungle bases.
There were a number of reasons for the US policy change, including;
o Domestic pressure forcing the president to keep US casualties to ‘an absolute minimum’ to dampen
anti-war feeling.
o The refusal by the US administration to grant Westmoreland more troops, causing him to put more
demands on ARVN.
o The renewed possibility of peace negotiations between the USA and NV to allow honourable US
withdrawal. This called for the US administration to avoid confrontation.
Th
e w
ith
dra
wal
of
US
tro
op
s
Under the policy of Vietnamisation the SV were to gradually assume all military responsibilities for their
defence while continuing to be supplied with US arms, equipment, air support, and economic aid. Secretary
of State Henry Kissinger orchestrated the policy, requiring the timeline of actions as follows;
o 8th June 1969- conference on midway Island between Nixon and Thieu agreeing to an initial
withdrawal of 25,000 troops
o 16 September 1969- another 35,000 troops to go
o 15 December 1969- another 50,000 troops to leave
It was clear that the US was determined to get out of Vietnam
In 1970 a US forward plan, called the Consolidated Improvement and Modernisation Program, began to
organise ARVN after all US units had departed. Essentially this meant supplying the South with weapons
and military hardware, while at the same time withdrawing the vast majority of US personnel. However,
despite maintaining a ‘residual support force’ of US service people, it was no guarantee that ARVN would be
able to carry on the fight effectively.
Year ARVN Regional and Popular Forces Police
1965 250,000 264,000 N/A
1968 427,000 393,000 N/A
1972 N/A 550,000 116,000
Ariane Mckenna 2021
42
Re-
esca
lati
on
In the spring of 1970 US and ARVN forces attacked NV sanctuaries in Cambodia. These actions were seen as
making a mockery of Nixon’s promises to reduce US involvement and Caused widespread protests in the
US.
In fact by March 1972 most US troops had left Vietnam. The forces of the North saw their opportunity. They
launched a major offensive with Soviet tanks, crossing the 17th parallel (de-militarised zone [DMZ]) and
advancing on Saigon. They hoped to defeat ARVN, disrupt Vietnamisation and take over the government of
SV.
Furious at this attack while peace negotiations were taking place publicly and privately, Nixon ordered an
escalation of US air attacks against NV. He had previously extended bombing targets to include NV supply
centres and staging areas in Laos and Cambodia. Although bombing Laos and Cambodia was illegal it had
long been called for by US military who were frustrated by their inability to prevent NV infiltration and
resupply of the South. In his book about his time fighting in the Vietnam war, US Air Force general Curtis
LeMay said;
o My solution to the problem would be to tell [the North Vietnamese Communist's] frankly that
they’ve got to draw in their horns and stop their aggression or were going to bomb them into the
Stone Age. And we would shove them back into the Stone Age with Air power or Naval power- not
with ground forces. [LeMay, C, Mission with LeMay: My Story, 1965, p. 565]
In an interview two years after the publication of his book LeMay tried to backpedal, saying ‘I never said we
should bomb them back into the Stone Age. I said we had the capability to do it. I want to save lives on both
sides.’ This was reported in the Washington Post on October 4th, 1968. Years later he claimed this was the
case of ‘overwriting’ by his ghost writer.
Nixon had failed to extricate the US from Vietnam in the four years of his presidency. With an election
coming up in November 1972 he decided he would not allow himself to appear to be losing to Hanoi. In
response to the North Vietnamese attack he promised that ’The bastards have never been bombed like
they’re going to be bombed this time.’
For once US bombing did affect the North’s ability to wage war, since they were now engaged in a large-
scale assault that required huge amounts of easily targeted fuel, ammunition, and logistical support. On the
ground ARVN managed to repulse the invasion that threatened to engulf the South.
Nixon was returned as president for a second term in November. With the North continuing to reject his
peace proposals Nixon embarked on another increase in aggression. Operation Line-Backer in December
1972 was a series of coordinated attacks on Hanoi and Haiphong. In 12 days more bombs were dropped
than in the preceding three years.
The US plan was to weaken the North long enough to allow the viability of a state in the South without US
military aid, thus demonstrating the success of opposing Communism in Vietnam by supporting the South.
One effect of the Christmas Bombing was an increase in the loss of US planes and pilots- 100 POW’s were
taken during Operation Line-Backer.
Bombing statistics
- In eight years and two months a total of 124,532 bombing sorties were made.
- 2.67 million tonnes of conventional ordinance were dropped.
- Laos became the most heavily bombed place on Earth.
- 27 January 1973 marked the end of all bombing operations in Vietnam.
- 15 August saw the end of bombing in Cambodia. By this time congress had cut off funding for the air war.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
43
Vie
tnam
an
d t
he
fall
of
Nix
on
Nixon resigned in disgrace in 1975 over the Watergate scandal. Washington Post reporters Woodward and
Bernstein uncovered evidence (later linked to Nixon) of an illegal break-in by Republicans at the opposition
Democratic Party headquarters, trying to gain an advantage in the Presidential election.
Later it was revealed that Nixon had used the machinery of State to further his own position: bugging
potential enemies; manipulating the electoral system; and having the FBI and CIA spy on potential
‘subversives’, many of whom were protestors against the war who were critical of his Vietnam strategy.
By ordering illegal bombings and ground operations in Cambodia and Laos, Nixon contributed to his image
as a politician who would stop at nothing to further his own aims.
Attempts to make peace
3 May ‘68 The North offered to hold peace talks in return for the suspension of US bombing.
13 May ‘68 US and North Vietnamese delegates met in Paris.
31 October ‘68 Johnson announced the end of the bombing of the North. Nixon was elected in
November and promised to withdraw troops.
25 January ‘69 Formal truce negotiations began in Paris.
29 June ‘70 US ground troops withdraw from Cambodia.
21 December ‘70 Thailand announces plans to withdraw its 120,000 troops.
31 December ‘70 Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
18 August ‘71 Australia and New Zealand declared they would withdraw their troops from South
Vietnam.
9 September ‘71 South Korea promised to withdraw its 48,000 troops.
18 December ‘72 Paris Peace talks were suspended until January 1973 as a result of Communist advances.
30 December ‘72 The North agreed to negotiate a truce. The US agreed to a halt to the bombing.
15 January ‘73 The US administration suspended all military operations against North Vietnam.
27 January ‘73 The signing of the Paris Peace Accord officially ended the Vietnam War.
29 June ‘73 Congress banned further aerial bombing of Cambodia.
LB
J an
d p
eace
tal
ks
At several stages during LBJ’s presidency the US government made offers to the NV government. NV had
long insisted that it would only agree to a withdrawal of US forces followed by moves to reunite the country
with elections, as suggested in the Geneva Accords. The US government would not accept this; the main
reason given was not because this would allow Communist control of the country but because it would be
an admission of defeat by the US. Pride kept them in the war. Furthermore;
o We are in a dilemma… If we go for compromise we have the strength only for defeat- this because a
revealed lowering of sights from victory to compromise… will give the DRV the ‘smell of blood’.
[source: Gleb, LH, and Betts, RK, The Irony of Vietnam: the System Worked, the Brookings Institute,
2016]
The negotiations wee a charade on both sides because the US had no intention of admitting defeat, the
North would not concede because they were in a position of strength and the North also assumed that
domestic pressures would force the US administration to pull out eventually.
Later the US made behind-the-scenes offers to halt bombing of the North in return for reductions in
hostilities. Hanoi asked for the US government to make the first move but when the bombing did not stop
they rejected the offer. They were mistaken in refusing a public offer made by Johnson in September 1967
since domestic pressure could have held him to this offer.
Pre
ssu
re o
n
Han
oi
Peace talks had been conducted in Paris since 19678 with little progress being made and little will to make
concessions by either side. Secret attempts had also been made by Kissinger to achieve a withdrawal for the
US. In 1972 the situation had changed and the North was itself forced to the negotiating table due to
o Losses inflicted during the Tet offensive.
o The US bombing campaign.
o The US naval blockade.
o Stalemate on the battlefield.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
44
Ter
ms
of
the
Par
is P
eace
Tre
aty
When the negotiations began in earnest on 30 December 1972 a treaty was soon reached. Signed on 15
January 1973 the essential terms of the peace treaty were;
o Immediate ceasefire
o The withdrawal of all US forces
o The dismantlement of US bases
o The release of all POW’s
o The instalment of an international peacekeeping force
o The provision for the South Vietnamese to have the right to determine their own future
o The allowance of NVA troops to remain in the south but not be reinforced
o Maintaining the 17th parallel as the dividing line until the country could be reunited by ‘peaceful
means’
In 1973 Kissinger and the North Vietnamese negotiator, Le Duc Tho, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
although Le Duc Tho refused the honour. However the US bombing of Cambodia continued until august
and the country would not be reunited peacefully.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
45
o the reasons for the Communist victory in Vietnam
Nixon resigned on 8 August 1974 in the wake of the Watergate Scandal. In October
Congress made deep cuts in US military aid to the south. The ability of ARVN to resist
the North was badly affected- 11 out of 66 SV air-force squadrons were disbanded.
Without fear of US intervention the North Vietnamese advanced on the South.
[South Vietnamese refugees walk across a US
Navy vessel; Operation Frequent Wind, the
final operation in Saigon, began on 29 April
1975. During a nearly constant barrage of
explosions, the marines loaded American and
Vietnamese civilians, who feared for their lives,
onto helicopters that brought them to waiting
aircraft carriers. The Navy vessels brought
them to the Philippines and eventually to
Camop Pendleton, California.]
FALL OF SAIGON - By January 1975 the North Vietnamese were within 100km of Saigon. In March they
began a large-scale offensive, rolling back the ARVN. The South Vietnamese who had
collaborated with the US- the military, intelligence, and civil servants- wanted to leave
but were prevented from doing so by the government because they feared a general
panic.
Main reasons for the fall of Saigon
Commitment Communist forces were prepared to fight for as long as it took to reunify Vietnam. On
the other hand the US government was not prepared to pay the human and financial
cost, especially for a war the American people never fully understood.
Political mistakes by the US leadership
The US government regarded Ho Chi Minh as a puppet of Moscow rather than a
nationalist leader who had fought the French and the Japanese to a standstill. This was a
grave miscalculation.
Chinese and Soviet Aid
The North received material support from China and the Soviet Union.
Political leaders in SV were corrupt
Politicians in the South thwarted the nationalist and political aspirations of the people,
although many people in the South did not want to live under Communism.
US ground troops US forces effectively ‘invaded’ Vietnam which was a propaganda weapon used by the
North to its advantage.
Tactical mistakes US commanders fought a war of attrition in SV but no matter how many VC were killed
or northern towns bombed, it was never enough. It only increased the flow of volunteers
to the VC. More and more US troops did not result in an increased chance of victory.
The combined Communist forces took Saigon with surprising speed. By the end of April,
the war was over.
A united opposition The US military and ARVN were fighting the NVA as well as the VC, who lived in the
south but also infiltrated the south from the north, Laos, and Cambodia Via the Ho Chi
Minh Trail.
ARVN ARVN was never a fully effective fighting force (poorly trained and badly led) against the
formidable VC guerrilla fighters.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
46
Tet offensive The 1968 Tet Offensive was the single most important decision the VC and the NVA
made during the war. While it was a huge military defeat, it was also a propaganda
triumph because it breached the US Embassy in Saigon. This finally turned US public
opinion.
The US government was in a weak bargaining position
US peace talks under Nixon were from a weaker bargaining position. The Communist's
knew they just had to be patient. When a peace accord was signed it effectively divided
SV in two, the NLF set up their own government (the PRG) and kept their military forces
in place. North Vietnam was allowed to maintain its 150,000 soldiers inside SV. Under
such arrangements the North could resume hostilities anytime it liked once the
American soldiers had returned home.
US aid dried up The Souths position worsened in the second half of 1973 when oil prices rose
dramatically dur to the Yom Kippur between Israel and the Arab nations. Without
American aid to rely on, SV could not pay its bills. Hence many of its planes and vehicles
could not be used.
Corruption The government of SV was unpopular mainly because the regime was corrupt.
Watergate Scandal The US Watergate scandal crippled Washington. Congress called a halt to all bombing
operations in Indochina, eliminating the one means America still had to support its ally
in SV.
Collapse of ARVN The Communist's attacked SV in March 1975. President Thieu did not believe the ARVN
could defend the entire country so he ordered it to abandon the northern provinces and
regroup further south. As the ARVN forces retreated the NVA cut them off, quickly
moving south.
- On April 21 president Thieu resigned and flew to Taiwan. On April 30 what remained of
the SV government surrendered unconditionally. NVA tanks took Saigon without a
struggle. The US embassy was hastily evacuated by helicopter with many SV left to their
fate at the hand of the conquerors from the North.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
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The spread of the conflict to Cambodia and Laos, including:
impact of conflict on civilians in Cambodia and Laos
CAMBODIA
Gen
eral
Cambodia also won independence from France in 1953, prior to the Geneva Accords. Over the next few
years the government of prince Norodom Sihanouk strove to maintain neutrality, refusing to join the
SEATO alliance in 1956.
By the late 1950’s Communist fighters, supplied by NV, were waging a guerrilla war against the
Cambodian government. Initially Sihanouk enjoyed widespread popularity (due to the Cambodian value of
Deference to authority), among the peasants, 90% of whom owned their land. In these circumstances the
Communist's made little headway in winning over the peasants to their revolutionary cause.
In 1958, Sihanouk survived an assassination attempt. Elected head of state in 1960 he tried to balance the
countries neutrality by accepting aid from China, France, and the Soviet Union.
The murder of diem in 1963 gave rise to fears of direct US involvement in Cambodia’s affairs. At the same
time Sihanouk’s army leader, General Lon Nol, tried to supress Communist groups in the countryside.
Many innocent peasants were caught up in the fighting, breeding discontent and support for the
Communist movement.
Th
e K
hm
er R
ou
ge The Khmer Rouge (French for ‘red Khmer’) was a radical Communist movement that ruled Cambodia from
1975-1979. It was led by an obsessive and secretive elite of individuals who had taken power through a
guerrilla war. The movement originated in the revolutionary Cambodian People’s Party formed in 1951
under the auspices of the Viet Minh.
In 1962 the Party’s French-educated Marxist leaders (Pol Pot, Khieu Sampan, Heng Samrin) renamed it the
Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). They had acquired their ideas from French Communist's in the ‘50’s
and ‘60’s. Incidentally, from 5 January 1976 Cambodia was officially renamed the Democratic Kampuchea,
by the Khmer Rouge.
Po
l Po
t: f
rom
C
amb
od
ia t
o t
he
Sorb
on
ne
Par
is
Saloth Sar, also known as ‘Pol Pot’, was born on 19 May 1928 into a wealthy country family in Prek
Sbauv, in the Kampuchean province of Kompong Thom.
Pol Pot’s life changed in 1949 when the Kampuchean government sent him to Paris to continue his
studies in radio electricity in Sorbonne, still the most prestigious university in France today. Soon after
his arrival he became a committed Marxist under the influence of French Communist's while neglecting
his studies to an extent he failed his exams and never received a qualification. It was at the Sarbonne
that pol Pot met the likes of Yeng Sary and Khieu Sampan, the future Khmer Rouge leaders and chief
architects of one of the most violent and cruel regimes in human history.
Cre
atio
n o
f th
e K
hm
er
Ro
uge
Pol Pot left France in 1953 and returned to Kampuchea where he found work as a French language teacher
in two private establishments in Phnom Penh. The departure of the French following their defeat at the
hands of Ho Chi Minh’s forces in 1954 opened the way for him to join the Revolutionary Party of
Kampuchea- the Khmer Rouge. with the active support of the Chinese government he was elected
secretary of the Central Committee of the party in 1962. It was from this that he became known as Pol pot
(some say this derives from Politique Potentielle, the French equivalent of a name coined for him by the
Chinese leadership.)
Wanted by the authorities for his Communist activities Pol Pot fled Phnom Penh in 1963 for the jungles in
the north of the country where he joined with the other Khmer Rouge followers who had recently
instigated a revolt against an unpopular tax on rice.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
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Cam
bo
dia
an
d V
ietn
am
con
flic
t
The position of Cambodia was precarious. From the early 1960’s the US military had been conducting
covert operations in Cambodia in an attempt to disrupt the passage of supplies and troop reinforcements
along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. During most of the Vietnam war NV used the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk trails
throughout Cambodia, setting up large depots near the border with SV. It did nothing to help the Khmer
Rouge.
In 1966 Sihanouk agreed to permit the continued flow of arms through Cambodia to the VC on the
condition that NV did not support Pol Pot's CPK. Sihanouk was a clever politician who used his extensive
overseas contacts to great advantage. On the one hand he condemned US intervention in the Vietnam
conflict while on the other he courted senior figures in the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. The
incursions by Vietnamese Communist's increasingly destabilised the country.
Nix
on
an
d t
he
Bo
mb
ing
cam
pai
gn
s
Sihanouk gave informal approval of the US government to permit bombing of VC sanctuaries along the
border. It appears that the US Congress probably never sanctioned these raids. The true records of the
missions were burned and false records inserted into the Pentagon’s computers. The bombing was illegal
but Sihanouk did not protest.
The air strikes by B52’s caused massive damage and were far in excess of what Sihanouk had anticipated.
The bombing alienated right-wing members of his government and dispersed Vietnamese Communist's
further into Cambodia in their attempt to hide out in safe ground. It also devastated the land and enabled
the Communist Khmer Rouge to extend its control and influence into the countryside.
In March 1970 on an overseas visit, a military coup led by General Lon Nol deposed Sihanouk and
replaced him as Prime Minister. For the time being Sihanouk remained in exile in China. This opened the
way for US aid to assist the Pro-US Lon Nol’s regime.
US
and
AR
VN
in
terv
enti
on
Meanwhile US and ARVN troops had been entering Cambodia illegally to destroy NV sanctuaries and
staging areas. From 29 April to 30 June 1970 they launched ground attacks inside Cambodia in which
15,000 US and 5,000 ARVN troops tried to weed out members of the VC who had taken sanctuary.
In April 1970 40,000 ARVN troops had penetrated deep into Cambodia in pursuit of VC. In January 1971
Operation Lam Son took place in which 17,000 ARVN, supported by 10,000 US air and artillery, tried to
cut the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and delay the NVA’s offensive.
Nat
ion
al
Un
ited
F
ron
t (N
UF
)
Only when Lon Nol took over and turned on the NV did the latter help their fellow Communist's,
the CPK. Lon Nol’s attacks on Sihanouk’s left-wing supporters prompted the Khmer Rouge to
enter into a political alliance, known as the NUF. The alliance was a grave mistake on Sihanouk’s
part because it gave the Khmer Rouge opportunity to eliminate his supporters.
Civ
il w
ar
The fighting between Lon Nol’s forces and the NUF plunged Cambodia into a civil war.
o Cambodia’s traditionally peasant society was destroyed. Many people were won over by Communist
propaganda.
o A mixture of Khmer Rouge propaganda and fighting ability enabled them to gain control over more and
more of the Cambodian countryside.
o Casualties in the civil war, which lasted from 1970-1075 were immense.
o Hundreds of thousands of internal refugees fled to the capital city of Phnom Penh. The cities population
went from 600,000 to over 2 million.
o Lon Nol’s regime was corrupt with his army propped up by US arms and supplies.
o Hanoi and China built up the Khmer’s with arms and supplies which in time became a formidable army.
o As the war progressed the areas under Khmer control were subjected to horrible savagery according to
reports of refugees.
o Relations between Khmer leadership and Hanoi deteriorated with suspicions Hanoi was trying to create a
wider Indochina federation.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
49
So
cial
Farms→ cities → Khmer Rouge evacuation of cities
Loss of culture
o Targeting of Buddhist monks, nuns
o Ap Sara dancers
o Loss of family structure
o Death toll= starvation
o Increased hatred towards Vietnam
o Disease ran rife because western medicine was banned, meaning only medicine available was
herbal
o Killing fields/ S21 all over Cambodia
o Targeting of Cham Muslims (descendants of Cham empire)
Eco
no
mic
Loss of farmlands from operation menu = decreased rice production.
Nationalisation of banks
War took over spending
Black market
Low rice production because machinery was banned= more manual labour
Aim for agrarian revolution
End of private property /enterprise
End of currency
Po
liti
cal Sihanouk → Lon Nol → Pol Pot → Vietnamese control
Khmer Rouge denunciations ’77-79
Khmer rouge murder of royal family
Khmer Rouge nepotism
VC set up camps in Cambodia and HCM Trail went through Cam
War brought to Cam through 4yrs of heaving US bombing + US invasion
US intervention brought about Lon Nol regime -> war against Vietnamese -> conflict +
growth of KR brought added misery
Biggest impact – chance for KR to come to power -> horrific
Ultimately brought on the Viet invasion of 1978
‘Boat People’
Life following 1975 was bleak
Executions, thousands of people were sent to ‘re-education’ camps
Vietnam remained desperately poor, partly due to effects of the War
US economic sanctions also played a large role
o US refused to establish relations with Vietnam for two decades
o Trading with the Enemy Act forbade US trade and investment with Vietnam
o US utilised position in UN to ensure Vietnam received no World Bank loans
Tens of thousands of Vietnamese and Cambodians tried to escape their countries
o Some reached safety of Asian neighbours e.g. Malaysia, Indonesia, Hong Kong,
where they faced lengthy stays in refugee camps
o Some were fortunately accepted by other countries such as Australia, Canada and
the USA (Australia took 250,000 Indochinese refugees)
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LAOS
General France granted Laos its independence in 1953, prior to the Geneva Accords. With US
assistance and aid it tried to ensure the country was ruled by non-Communist governments.
However, there were frequent clashes between the Royal Lao forces and an insurgent
Communist group, the Pathet Lao.
Despite a second Geneva Conference in 1961 Civil war erupted once more in Laos, this time
with NV who backed its Communist fellow travellers in Laos. The country’s precarious
position was further compromised with the US bombing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail, that
frequently crossed over the Laotian border.
On 21 February 1973, the Laotian government and Pathet Lao signed an agreement calling
for a Provisional government and continuance of the Monarchy. Soon after the fall of South
Vietnam and Cambodia to Communist forces in late 1975, Laos suffered the same fate. In
December 1975, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic was proclaimed.
Life under Communist regime
Laos formed close economic relationships withs its other Communist neighbour, Vietnam,
and in 1977, the two countries signed a 25-year Friendship Pact. Prior to the collapse of the
Soviet union and the Eastern European Communist governments Laos received significant
aid, although this dried up after 1990. Under the Communist government, re-education
camps were introduced for supporters of the previous regime and other political opponents.
In addition, forced collectivisation was imposed on a society of peasant farmers, often with
disastrous results. To all intents and purposes Laos copied the policies of Vietnam although
in more recent years it has permitted western companies to participate in the growing
market economy.
After 1953 independence – fighting occurred between Royal Lao forces and Communist
Pathet Lao
Geneva Conference held in 1961 but civil war broke out 2yrs later
Nth Vietnam backed communists (US constantly bombed Laos along HCM trail)
As Vietnam and Cambodia fell to communism, so did Laos (Domino Theory) – monarchy
fell
Life expectancy 46, poor, backward farming, economy linked to Vietnam (USA banned
aid to Laos until 1986)
Re-education and collectivisation policies – resulted in refugees fleeing
1980: 80 000 refugees in UN camps
Many border issues with Thailand
Eventual Doi Moi policy (socialist-oriented market economy i.e. state plays decisive role
in economy but private sector plays a role in commodity production)
‘Lam Son 719’ – ARVN attempted destruction a northern section of HCM Trail and VC
supply
bases. Massive failure as they fell into VC’s trap (quite similar to Dien Bien Phu) – caused
much bombing of Laos as USA tried to intervene.
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51
o the reasons for the Communist victories in Cambodia and Laos
Cam
bo
dia
o After its formation in 1968 the Khmer Rouge launched a national insurgency across Cambodia. This was
supported by NV, making it impossible for the Cambodian military to effectively counter the Khmer
Rouge. the insurgency grew and Prince Sihanouk did little to stop it. The Khmer Rouge declared itself the
Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK).
o In 1970 Sihanouk was removed as head of state by premier Lon Nol. Sihanouk went into exile in Beijing
and made an alliance with the Khmer Rouge backed by China. Initially President Nixon’s administration
announced its support for the newly proclaimed Khmer republic.
o On 29 March 1970, the NV attacked the Cambodian army and eventually defeated all opposition, turning
over the newly won territories to the local insurgents. The Khmer Rouge established so-called liberated
areas in the south and southwestern parts of the country, where they operated independently of the NV.
The Khmer Rouge ranks continued to swell and with the support of the popular Prince, Sihanouk (due to
deference to authority), it extended its power and influence. By 1973 it was in control of most of the
country. On April 17, 1975 the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh.
o There is little doubt that the US bombing and ground incursion through Operation Menu, plunged
Cambodia into the chaos that Sihanouk had worked for years to avoid, even though he had sided initially
with the Khmer Rouge. the NV invasion of Cambodia at the request of the Khmer Rouge, was another
major factor in their eventual victory.
Lao
s
o Laos was a vital player in the Vietnam War largely because parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by
the NVA for use as a supply route for its war against the South. The US bombed these supply lines and
supported regular and irregular anti-Communist forces in Laos and supported the SV incursions into
Laos.
o In 1968 the NVA attacked the Royal Lao Army in support for the Pathet Lao. Thereafter a civil war was
fought between irregular ethnic Hmong forces backed by the US and Thailand and led by General Vang
Pao. The US now bombed the Pathet Lao and the invading PAVN (Vietnam army) forces, causing the
Royal Kingdom of Lao to collapse, plunging the country into chaos and ruin.
o In 1975 the Pathet Lao and the PAVN (backed by the Soviet Union) overthrew the royalist Lao
government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate. The Pathet Lao government under Kaysone
Phomvihane renamed the country the Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
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52
o Democratic Kampuchea under Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge: aims and impact of the
regime, foreign policy
Pri
nci
ple
s o
f th
e re
gim
e
1. Evacuate people from all towns.
2. Abolish all markets.
3. Abolish all currency.
4. Defrock Buddhist monks.
5. Execute Lon Nol and his government.
6. Introduce communal eating.
7. Expel from Cambodia, the minority ethnic
Vietnamese population.
8. Send troops to safeguard the borders, especially
with Vietnam.
When the Khmer Rouge took control of Phnom Penh
on 17 April 1975, he became, ‘Brother 1’ which meant that he was the prime minister of the totalitarian
regime.
Initially the Kampuchean population regarded Pol Pot and his forces as a Liberating force (this was to soon
change)
Des
tru
ctio
n o
f th
e ca
pit
al
Having occupied Phnom Penh, the Khmer Rouge ordered its evacuation. In an orgy of homicidal cruelty,
hospital patients were forcibly ejected, some while undergoing surgery in operating theatres. Those who
resisted where shot dead on the spot. The city was comprehensively trashed: the National Bank and all
cultural institutions were vandalised and left to be reclaimed by the jungle. The country was renamed
Kampuchea.
The people living in the cities were sent on often deadly marches into the countryside where they would
either die or suffer the worst years of their lives.
Kh
mer
Ro
uge
ideo
logy
In the same way that Hitler and the Nazi’s had tried to remake society to fit their own distorted notions,
the leaders of the Khmer Rouge wanted to create a socialist, peasant society of agricultural workers. In
this it had the absolute support of the Communist authorities in China, who saw Pol Pot's experiment in
the same light as the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Over the next four years their brutal rule resulted in
the death of over 1.5 million Cambodians. The country’s professional and technical class were virtually
exterminated (including those with glasses).
Dating the start of the regime from Year Zero, the Khmer Rouge leaders intended to eliminate towns,
cities, and their urban inhabitants [making a new class divide between the ‘new’ and the ‘old’ people-
those that migrated to the country and those that were already living there]. There would be no need for
education (and educated people), hospitals, schools, modern transport or, in fact, any attributes of
modern society (or westernised society). individuals would be denied the comforts of singing, smiling
and showing love, affection, sympathy, grief, or fear.
Co
mm
un
al li
vin
g +
dea
th o
f th
e in
div
idu
al
Once clear of the cities and towns, everyone was forced to live in agricultural communes where they
laboured for 12-16 hour days. Families were separated because the communes were relating to age and
gender. Families were separated and punishments were frequent for minor infringements such as holding
hands or being seen to cry. Wearing spectacles (a sign of western decadence) was punished by torture
and death. Starvation was the norm and there are even accounts of cannibalism. It is no wonder that
mortality rates skyrocketed.
So extensive were these grotesque abuses that the country became a vast killing field under the Khmer
Rouge. In fact after its liberation by Vietnamese forces and the entry of journalists it soon became known
as the ‘Killing Fields’. A secondary school (S21) at Tuol Sleng was set up as a torture centre in which
many helpless victims were brutally murdered. Photo records and meticulously written accounts of
interrogations were kept, all of which survived intact even after the collapse of the regime. Many of those
who passed through S21 were party members and their families (including infants on the suspect that
they would be influenced by their parents treason) who were purged for being ‘suspect’ in their loyalty
towards the regime.
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Fo
reig
n p
oli
cy
Thailand was the first country to recognise the new regime in Cambodia, followed by other members of
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Thailand and Cambodia resumed trade and
diplomatic relations but relations deteriorated at the end of 1976 following a bloody coup by extreme
rich wing sections of the Thai military in October 1976.
Date Event
1974 The first clashes between Kampuchea and Vietnam took place.
1975 Further fighting ensued over the islands of Phu Quoc and Tho Chu within days of the fall
of Saigon.
30 April 1977 Kampuchea attacked Vietnam on the second anniversary of the Fall of Saigon (a Public
Holiday). Its forces advanced about 10km into Vietnam before being forced back by the
defenders.
24 Sept 1977 Pol Pot was on an official visit to Beijing during which time an operation advanced over a
150km front in Tay Ninh province. The Kampucheans massacred 2000 Vietnamese and
again withdrew, stopping short of the border, and taking up positions on the Vietnamese
side.
Oct 1977 A further raid by Kampuchean forces was carried out supported by armoured cars
(captured US armoured personnel carriers) and aircraft. Chinese-manned anti-aircraft
batteries shot down some Vietnamese planes.
End Oct 1977 Vietnamese forces commenced a major offensive and invaded Kampuchea.
June 1978 Air and ground attacks carried out on Kampuchea, with Vietnamese infantry penetrating
within 16km of the town of Kompong Cham.
3 Dec 1978 Kampuchea National United Front for National Salvation (KNUFNS) was announced, led by
Heng Samrin, a 44-year-old former commissar in the Khmer Rouge and Chea Sim who had
held a number of political posts. Both men broke with Pol Pot in May 1978.
25 Dec 1978 Vietnamese and KNUFNS troops invaded Kampuchea with 12 divisions. King Norodom
Sihanouk was released from palace arrest and sent to the United Nations to lease
Kampuchea’s cause. The Khmer Rouge retreated into remote areas and resumed guerrilla
warfare, this time operating from bases near the border.
China, Kampuchea’s closest ally during this period, used Pol Pot's regime in the fight against the newly
formed People’s Republic of Vietnam. Relations between China and Vietnam had soured to such an
extent that war broke out between the two neighbours. Chinese forces withdrew, defeated after being
severely mauled by the battle-hardened Vietnamese Armies.
Shockingly, only later did it come to light that the British and US governments supported Kampuchea
because of it’s indirect opposition to the Soviet Union.
Vie
tnam
inva
des
Kam
pu
chea
Relations between Democratic Kampuchea and Vietnam were strained from the outset for various
reasons;
o The Khmer Rouge believed that Vietnam was looking for an excuse to extend its territory and
create an Indochinese empire of its own.
o Cambodians are traditionally extremely xenophobic and have a strong hatred for the Vietnamese.
o Vietnamese authorities were aware of the brutality of the Pol Pot regime but this was not enough
to justify an invasion and oppose him.
o Kampuchean raids and disputed territory were the prime cause of friction.
o Invasion plans were given and added impetus by the defection of two prominent Khmer Rouge
leaders (Heng Samrin + Chea Sim) who could now be relied upon to lead a pro-Vietnam
government in the event of a successful invasion.
After two and a half years In power the Khmer Rouge was overthrown by the Vietnamese on Christmas
day 1978. On 15 January 1979 the Thai border was closed and the Vietnamese victory was complete
apart from some minor pockets of resistance.
Ariane Mckenna 2021
54
Po
stsc
rip
t
In the months that followed the USA, China and their allies, notably the British Thatcher government,
continued to back Pol Pot who was living in exile in Thailand. He was the enemy of their enemy: Vietnam,
whose liberation of Cambodia could never be recognised because it had come from the wrong side of
the cold war.