Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK:

A HOLISTIC MODEL FOR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT

Tariq Zaman

Doctor of Philosophy

(Computer Sciences)

2013

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK:

A HOLISTIC MODEL FOR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT

TARIQ ZAMAN

A thesis submitted

in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

2013

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework:

A Holistic Model For Indigenous Knowledge Management” submitted by Mr. Tariq

Zaman for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Degree at the Universiti Malaysia

Sarawak (UNIMAS), Sarawak, Malaysia is an authentic work carried by him under my

supervision and guidance.

Date: 27/ 09/ 2013

Place: Malaysia

Associate Prof. Dr. Alvin Yeo Wee

Faculty of Computer Science and Information

Technology Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS)

94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia

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AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I declare that the work in this thesis was carried out in accordance with the regulations of

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. It is original and is the result of my work, unless otherwise

indicated or acknowledged as referenced work. This thesis has not been submitted at

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak or to any other academic institution or non-academic institution

for any other degree or qualification.

Name of Student: Tariq Zaman

Student ID No: 09011437

Programme Degree: PhD

Faculty: Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology

Thesis Title: Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework: A Holistic Model For

Indigenous Knowledge Management

Signature of Student:

Date: 27/ 09/ 2013

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the past three and a half years, innumerable people have assisted me in my goal of writing a

PhD thesis. They have offered their time, knowledge, experience, wisdom and moral support.

It would be impossible to mention everyone by name, but here are a few of the individuals

who deserve acknowledgment, with sincere apologies to those who have not been mentioned

by name.

Firstly, to my supervisors Associate Professor Dr. Alvin Yeo Wee and Professor Dr.

Narayanan Kulathuramaiyer, I would like to say a big thank you. They have been a

tremendous support throughout this process, both intellectually and personally. I am much

humbled by their generosity toward me and words will never be able to do justice to what

they mean to me and have done for me over the course of my graduate career.

I would like to thank all my mentors over the years: Professor Dr. Roger Harris, Professor Dr.

Martin Nakata, Dr. Poline Bala, Dr John Phoa Chui Leong, Dr. Cheah Wai Shiang and

Professor Dr. Michael Gurstein for helping me to see the bigger picture, and Garen Jengan,

Wilson Bian Bilare’, Ezra Uda and Gerawat Nulun for spending many hours explaining the

Penans and Kelabits indigenous concepts to me. Without you, there would be no thesis.

I would also like to thank all the admin staff members and research fellows of ISITI, the folks

at Faculty of Computer Sciences and IT, and so many other colleagues at Universiti Malaysia

Sarawak, too numerous to mention, who provided support or took the time to be interested in

what I was doing, or offered some friendly words of encouragement. Thank you.

A special mention and thanks to Gary Loh Chee Wyai and Nor Fadzilah Kamarudzaman for

their immense patience and support in helping me settle in Sarawak. I do not know how I

could have managed without their help, guidance and administrative support.

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I would also like to acknowledge, with gratitude, the financial support of the UNIMAS

Zamalah Pascasiswazah (ZPU) scholarship and Dana Principal Investigator (DPI) funding for

my fieldwork. Without this, I would have been unable to commence or complete the project.

I am grateful to my colleagues and friends at UNIMAS namely Faheem Ullah Khan, Teh Lee

Na, Chin Soo Kuan, Siew Siang Ting, Panceras Talita, Nancy Bundan, Nasir Gul,

Muhammad Javed, Sajid Ullah Khan and the FCSIT Postgraduate Society team.

Along with these people, I also want to thank my friends Matiullah Khan and Hidayat Khan

who always believe in me and in my crazy ideas.

Along with my friends, I would like to take this opportunity to thank my family: my mother

who has been the “backbone” of my life, my brother Amer and sister Faryal, for being a

positive force in my life, my sister-in law Fouzia, for always supporting me; and lastly, my

father for not giving up on me.

Last but not least, to my wife Shaista Falak, for sharing this with me and making it possible in

many ways. I could not have done it without you. I have done this for us.

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ABSTRACT

Development organisations acknowledge and recognise the role of Indigenous Knowledge

(IK) in solutions to local problems. It is a resource that can help produce more and better

food, maintain healthy lives, share wealth, prevent conflict, manage local affairs, and thus

contribute to global solutions. As a wide range of digital tools have been developed,

researchers and development experts are focusing on how to use information and

communication technologies (ICTs) to manage this highly-valued resource. Indigenous

knowledge mainly relies on tacit and implicit knowledge forms, which are deeply rooted in

the social and cultural context of indigenous communities. However, ICTs for Indigenous

Knowledge Management (IKM) have been designed using the conventional approach of

creating and manipulating databases of knowledge. This typical approach of IKM generates

the issues of indigenous knowledge governance, de-contextualisation and data manipulation.

Hence, the main research question of the study is “How can we introduce indigenous

knowledge governance into ICT-based Indigenous Knowledge Management System (IKMS)?”

The investigation was done in three phases: first, we explored the theoretical gaps and the

inherent structure of indigenous knowledge management system in communities. Second, we

addressed the gaps by modelling IKMS in communities and proposing a structured

Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework (IKGF). Third, we used the framework to

model an existing IKMS and then validated the framework by using it as a base for design,

development and implementation of ICT-based IKMS.

The thesis argues that in order to design appropriate ICT tools for indigenous knowledge

management, ICT professionals need to understand the holistic indigenous knowledge

management system and then use this understanding as a basis for ICT-based IKMS’ design

and approaches.

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ABSTRAK

Organisasi pembangunan mengiktiraf peranan Ilmu Peribumi (IK) dalam menyelesaikan

pelbagai masalah tempatan, sebagai suatu sumber yang boleh membantu menghasilkan

makanan yang lebih baik dengan kuantiti yang tinggi, mengekalkan kehidupan yang sihat,

berkongsi kekayaan, mengelakkan konflik, menguruskan hal ehwal tempatan, dan seterusnya

menyumbang kepada penyelesaian global. Manakala pelbagai alat digital telah dibangunkan,

perhatian khusus telah diberikan kepada penggunaan ICT dalam menguruskan sumber yang

sangat berharga ini. Pengetahuan Ilmu Peribumi sangat bergantung kepada bentuk

pengetahuan tersirat dan berakar umbi dalam konteks sosial dan budaya masyarakat peribumi.

Walau bagaimanapun, ICT untuk Pengurusan Ilmu Peribumi telah direka dengan mencontohi

pendekatan konvensional dalam mencipta dan memanipulasi pangkalan data. Pendekatan

biasa IKM menjana pelbagai isu tadbir urus ilmu peribumi, di nyah-kontekstualisasi dan

manipulasi data. Oleh itu, soalan utama yang menggalakkan kajian ini adalah “Bagaimana

kita boleh menggabungkan tadbir urus pengetahuan peribumi ke dalam Sistem Pengurusan

Ilmu Peribumi berasaskan ICT (SPIPI)?” Kajian telah dijalankan dalam tiga fasa: pertama,

kami telah meneroka jurang teori dan struktur yang ada pada sistem pengurusan ilmu

peribumi dalam masyarakat. Kedua, kami mengenal pasti jurang-jurang ini melalui

pemodelan IKMS dalam masyarakat dan mencadangkan Rangka Kerja Tadbir Urus Ilmu

Peribumi (IKGF) yang berstruktur. Ketiga, kami menggunakan rangka kerja tersebut untuk

pemodelan IKMS sedia ada dan kemudiannya merasmikan rangka kerja tersebut dengan

menggunakannya sebagai asas untuk merekabentuk, membangun dan melaksanakan IKMS

berasaskan ICT. Tesis ini berpendapat bahawa untuk merekabentuk alat ICT yang sesuai

untuk pengurusan pengetahuan asli, tenaga kerja ahli teknologi maklumat yang profesional

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memahami, sistem pengurusan ilmu peribumi yang holistik dan kemudian menggunakan

kefahaman ini sebagai asas bagi mrekabentuk teknologi dan pendekatan.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate i

Author’s Declaration ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract v

Abstrak vii

Table of Contents ix

List of Tables xvi

List of Figures xvii

List of Abbreviations xx

List of Journal Publications, Conference Proceedings, Presentations and Awards xxii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Background 2

1.1.1 Holistic Systems 3

1.1.2 Living Systems 3

1.2 Research Problem 5

1.3 Research Objectives 5

1.4 Research Question 6

1.5 Research Operationalisation 7

1.6 The Research Sites 8

1.6.1 Bario 8

1.6.2 Long Lamai 9

1.7 Thesis Organisation 10

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1.8 Summary 12

Chapter 2 Literature Review 14

2.1 Definitions of Indigenous Knowledge 14

2.1.1 Non-Indigenous Viewpoint 15

2.1.2 Indigenous Viewpoint 16

2.2 Distinguishing Indigenous Knowledge from Non-Indigenous Knowledge 17

2.3 Why Study Indigenous Knowledge? 18

2.4 Indigenous Knowledge Management: The Processual Perspective 19

2.5 The Use of Information and Communication Technologies for Indigenous

Knowledge Management 20

2.6 Indigenous Knowledge Management with Knowledge-Centric Approach 22

2.6.1 World Bank's Indigenous Knowledge for Development Program 22

2.6.2 Best Practices on Indigenous Knowledge-UNESCO Program 23

2.6.3 The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library India 25

2.7 Indigenous Knowledge Management with Knower-Centric Approach 26

2.7.1 Virtual Repatriation - The Spiral of Knowledge Project 27

2.7.2 The IKM Software System 28

2.7.3 Ara Irititja Archival Project 30

2.7.4 The Mukurtu Wumpurrarni-Kari Archive 31

2.8 Factors of Appropriate Indigenous Knowledge Management System Development 33

2.9 Summary 46

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Chapter 3 Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge Management: Case Study of

Bario 48

3.1 The Structure of Indigenous Knowledge Management System in Communities and

Alien Conceptualisation 49

3.2 Related Work: Assessment Tools 50

3.3 Theoretical Framework 53

3.4 Methodology 56

3.5 Data Collection 58

3.6 Results 58

3.6.1 Demographics 58

3.6.2 Survey Questionnaire 59

3.6.3 Semi-Structured Interviews 62

3.7 Discussion 67

3.8 Summary 68

Chapter 4 Modelling Indigenous Knowledge Creation as a Living System 69

4.1 Knowledge Creation 69

4.1.1 Nonaka’s SECI Model 71

4.1.2 Rachel Bodle’s Model 73

4.1.3 Jackson and Klobas’ Model 74

4.1.4 Shortcomings of the Current Knowledge Creation Models 75

4.2 Knowledge Creation in Indigenous Communities 75

4.2.1 Interaction Process and Forms of Indigenous Knowledge 76

4.2.2 Action Process and Community Engagement with New Information 78

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4.3 Tacit, Implicit and Explicit Knowledge Creation Model 80

4.4 Case Study: Bario – Long Lamai Knowledge Creation and Exchange 83

4.4.1 Background of the Case Study 83

4.4.2 Community to Community Information Exchange and Knowledge

Creation 85

4.5 Summary 90

Chapter 5 Expanding Indigenous Knowledge Management Framework with

Notion of Indigenous Knowledge Governance 91

5.1 The Concept of Governance 92

5.2 Data, Information, Knowledge and Indigenous Knowledge Governance Concepts 94

5.3 Data, Information and Knowledge Governance Frameworks 96

5.4 Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework 100

5.4.1 Formation of the Layered Model 101

5.4.1.1 IK Governance Layer 102

5.4.1.2 Activity Layer 104

5.4.1.3 Data Repository Layer 105

5.4.1.4 Knowledge Management Layer 106

5.4.1.5 Community Engagement Layer 106

5.4.1.6 Capital Layer 107

5.4.1.7 Cross-Cutting External Environment 108

5.5 Discussion 109

5.6 Summary 110

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Chapter 6 Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework: Case Study of the

Penan Toro 112

6.1 Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework for Penan Toro System 112

6.1.1 Indigenous Knowledge Governance Layer 114

6.1.2 Activity Layer 117

6.1.3 Data Repository Layer 118

6.1.4 Knowledge Management Layer 119

6.1.5 Community Engagement Layer 120

6.1.7 Capital Layer 121

6.1.6 Cross-Cutting External Environment 122

6.2 Discussion 123

6.3 Summary 124

Chapter 7 Validating Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework: Case Study

of Design, Development and Implementation of eToro 125

7.1 Generalised Digital Indigenous Knowledge Management System Development

within Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework 125

7.1.1 Phase 1: Contextualising 127

7.1.2 Phase 2: Analysis and Design 128

7.1.3 Phase 3: Development 129

7.1.4 Phase 4: Implementation 129

7.1.5 Phase 5: Evaluation 130

7.2 Background of the Case Study 130

7.3 Methodology 131

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7.3.1 Contextualising 132

7.3.2 Analysis and Design 136

7.3.3 Development 137

7.3.4 Implementation 139

7.3.5 Evaluation 140

7.4 Summary 143

Chapter 8 Conclusion 144

8.1 General Conclusion 144

8.2 Contributions 147

8.3 Future Directions 149

8.4 Summary 150

References 151

Appendix I: Indigenous Knowledge Management Diagnostic Tool 167

Appendix II: Respondents’ Profile of Survey Questionnaire 174

Appendix III: Survey Questionnaire for Assessing Bario’s Indigenous Knowledge

Management System 175

Appendix IV: Results of the Survey to Assess Bario’s Indigenous Knowledge

Management System 176

Appendix V: eToro Team Members (Community Representatives) 177

Appendix VI: Guidelines for Researchers 178

Appendix VII: Free, Prior and Informed Consent Certificate and Research Agreement 186

Appendix VIII: Data Instrument 193

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Appendix IX: Entity Relationship Diagram of Indigenous Content Management System 194

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LIST OF TABLES

No List of Tables Page No

1 Table 1.1: Structured overview of the thesis 13

2 Table 2.1: Indigenous knowledge compared with modern

organisational knowledge 17

3 Table 2.2: User story narratives for community Agile development of

Mukurtu CMS 32

4 Table 2.3: Factors of appropriate indigenous knowledge management

system development 34

5 Table 2.4: The gaps that need to be addressed given current state of the

art solutions for indigenous knowledge management 36

6 Table 3.1: Demographic Table- Gender, Age and Occupation of

respondents 59

7 Table 3.2: Comparing indigenous knowledge management processes 60

8 Table 3.3: Indigenous knowledge management processes and assigned

scores 60

9 Table 7.1: Questions and guidelines for information and

communication technology researchers 127

10 Table 7.2: Indigenous knowledge management system’s user types 137

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LIST OF FIGURES

No List of Figures Page No

1 Figure 1.1: Research operationalisation 7

2 Figure 2.1: Flowchart for selection of the best practices 24

3 Figure 2.2: Screenshot of Traditional Knowledge Digital Library 26

4 Figure 2.3: Information workflow for NMAI's Spiral of Knowledge

project 28

5 Figure 2.4: IKM system architecture and workflow 29

6 Figure 2.5: Front screen depicting restricted access to Ara Irititja database 31

7 Figure 2.6: Contested domains of local knowledge 38

8 Figure 2.7: Levels of community engagement in the system development 42

9 Figure 3.1: Knowledge management process framework 51

10 Figure 3.2: Organisation’s knowledge management model 52

11 Figure 3.3: Indigenous knowledge management processes model 55

12 Figure 3.4: Result of indigenous knowledge management processes

comparisons 61

13 Figure 3.5: Bario community governance systems 63

14 Figure 3.6: Community structure of social network in Bario 63

15 Figure 3.7: Integrated indigenous knowledge learning system 66

16 Figure 4.1: Spiral evolution of knowledge conversion and self-

transcending process 72

17 Figure 4.2: Model for mobilising tacit knowledge 73

18 Figure 4.3: The knowledge transfer model 74

19 Figure 4.4: Forms of indigenous knowledge 76

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20 Figure 4.5: Distinctions between tacit, implicit and explicit knowledge 77

21 Figure 4.6: The processes of information acquisition and knowledge flow

in a community 79

22 Figure 4.7: Tacit-Implicit-Explicit knowledge creation model 80

23 Figure 5.1: The commonalities of the “governance” definitions 92

24 Figure 5.2: Decision domains for data governance 96

25 Figure 5.3: The DGI Data governance framework 97

26 Figure 5.4: OCAP framework and addressed issues 98

27 Figure 5.5: IBM Information governance framework 99

28 Figure 5.6: The logical architecture view of a layered indigenous

knowledge governance system 101

29 Figure 5.7: The relationship between indigenous knowledge governance

framework layers and the existing frameworks and models 102

30 Figure 6.1: Indigenous knowledge governance framework for Toro 113

31 Figure 6.2: Activities in Toro 117

32 Figure 7.1: Methodology to validate framework and develop indigenous

knowledge management system 126

33 Figure 7.2: Methodology to validate indigenous knowledge governance

framework for eToro 132

34 Figure 7.3: indigenous knowledge governance framework for eToro 133

35 Figure 7.4: Components and services of indigenous knowledge

management system 139

36 Figure 7.5 Community meetings: Discussion on eToro and selection of

community representative team 141

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37 Figure 7.6 Users’ satisfaction level 141

38 Figure 8.1: Factors of appropriate indigenous knowledge management

system development, indigenous knowledge governance framework and

eToro 146

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation Word

APQC American Productivity & Quality Center

CSCCP Culturally Sensitive Collections Care Program

DGI Data Governance Institute

FP&IC Free, Prior and Informed Consent

IBK Indigenous Botanical Knowledge

iCMS indigenous Content Management System

ICT Information and communication Technology

IK Indigenous Knowledge

IKG Indigenous Knowledge Governance

IKGF Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework

IKM Indigenous Knowledge Management

IKMS Indigenous Knowledge Management System

IP Intellectual Property

IPR Intellectual Property Rights

ISITI-CoERI Institute of Social Informatics and Technological Innovations-Centre of

Excellence for Rural Informatics

IT Information Technology

JDBC Java Database Connectivity

JKKK Jawatankuasa Kemajuan dan Keselamatan Kampung (Village’s

Development and Safety Committee)

KGA Knowledge Governance Approach

KM Knowledge Management

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KMAT Knowledge Management Assessment Tool

KMD Knowledge Management Diagnostic

NMAI National Museum of the American Indian

OCAP Ownership, Control, Access and Possession

ODK Open Data Kit

SDLC System Development Life Cycle

SECI Socialization, Externalization, Combination and Internalization

TEK Traditional Ecological Knowledge

TIE Tacit, Implicit and Explicit

TKDL Traditional Knowledge Digital Library

TKRC Traditional Knowledge Resource Classification

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNIMAS Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

XML eXtensible Markup Language