INDIAN TEMPLESThe major Buddhist temple structures of India are the stupa, a hemispherical mound, sometimes of great size) and the cave-hall, or chaitya. Stupas are reliquaries and represent the heavens. Rising from bases that symbolize the earth, they are the goals of pilgrims and are often set in groups within precincts. The Great Stupa (3rd century BC-early 1st century AD) at Sanch is the most notable extant example. Encircling the base of the stupa is a fenced-off walkway for the ritual passage around it. The hemisphere proper is solid and is surmounted by a fenced enclosure symbolizing the peak of Mount Meru, the world-mountain. Within is often a schematized tree of stone representing humanity. The cave-hall, on the other hand, is emphatically an interior space, usually cut out of the rock, as is the Great Chaitya Hall (circa early 2nd century AD) at Karle. It has a stupa at its far end separated from the curving back wall by an ambulatory. Both the stupa and the chaitya are usually decorated with a profusion of highrelief sculpture. Freestanding Hindu temples are large, rectangular, symmetrical precincts containing a towering sanctuary and various subordinate structures. Typical is the Lingaraja Temple (circa AD 1000) at Bhubaneshwar. The sanctuary, placed at the intersection of the cardinal axes of the precinct, is very tall, resembling an immense fountain of stone with a domelike, small-scale top bearing a finial. The nearby structures echo this great form. This style is common to the north of India; in the south a main feature is the towering, intricately formed gateway or gopura. All Hindu temples are highly articulated and are charged with symbolic carvings. The sanctuary proper is a kind of cave, dark and vaulted over by cantilevered stones. Jain temples (see Jainism), such as the marble temples at Mount bu (13th century) in western India, are placed in rectangular precincts lined on the inside with repeated cells. On the long axis are a dancing pavilion, a large gateway, a square vestibule, and then the shrine proper. Buddhist architecture appears also in other Asian countries. In Indonesia, for example, near Magelang on the island of Java, the Borobudur temple was built in the 9th century in the style of the Gupta architecture of India. The temple-mountain design symbolizes the structure of the universe. The central stupa is on a massive stepped base and is surrounded by scores of lesser stupas, the whole representative of Buddhist beliefs. Borobudur architecture influenced the famous Khmer temples, or wats, of Cambodia such as Angkor Wat (early 12th century), which has three vast rectangular terraces, each edged with passages, one higher than the other. The outermost, largest terrace wall is marked by low towers, the second by higher ones, and the innermost by still taller ones centered around the tallest of allan awesome composition. The whole is covered with miles of religious relief sculpture.

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The Great Stupa is an ancient Buddhist temple located in Sanch, a historic site in the state of Madhya Pradesh in central India. Constructed between the 3rd century BC and the early 1st century AD, the temple is solid and enclosed by a stone outer fence with toranas, or gateways, on all four sides. Worshipers at the site pay their respects to Buddha by circling the dome, which represents the world mountain. Atop the dome, a square fence called the harika represents the heaven. The harika surrounds the yasti, a spire with three chatras, or disk shapes. The yasti represents the axis of the universe.

Microsoft Encarta Enciclopedia DeLuxe 2001

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Stupa Se spune ca pagodele au puterea de a transforma mintile dezordonate si agitate in unele disciplinate si bine organizate. Se crede ca pagoda este fara egal ca simbol al imbunatatirii performantelor intelectuale. Acest lucru se datoreaza, probabil, originilor pagodei. Multe texte antice chinezesti sustin ca pagoda a evoluat din stupa budista, care simbolizeaza mintea sfanta a lui Buddha. Budistii venereaza stupa, deoarece este locul unde sunt pastrate ramasitele incinerate ale sfintilor lama. Chiar si in zilele noastre, stupa este considerata un obiect sfant. Ei cred ca, prin ocolirea unei stupe sfintite, in sensul acelor de cesornic, se deschide calea catre iluminare. Probabil ca cea mai celebra stupa din lume este stupa Mahboudhi din Bodhgaya, India, micul oras unde Buddha a atins iluminarea sub copacul Bodhi. Cand budismul a patruns in China, stupa s-a transformat treptat in pagoda si, la scurt timp, fiecare mica asezare avea propria ei pagoda, amplasata, de obicei, in imediata apropiere a localitatii. Se crede ca pagoda chinezeasca este locul unde calugarii sunt capabili sa intemniteze spiritele fara rusine. Exista o legenda veche despre sarpele alb, care s-a transformat intr-o femeie frumoasa pentru a ademeni un tanar inocent. Cand un calugar ce trecea pe acolo si-a dat seama cine era de fapt femeia, s-a hotarat sa o captureze pentru a-l scapa pe tanar de sub vraja ei. Calugarul a recurs la utilizarea unei pagode pentru a domoli spiritul sarpelui, reusind sa-l inchida in ea pentru o mie de ani. Iata de ce se crede ca pagoda are puterea de a alunga tot ceea ce ar putea distrage mintea. Din acest motiv, ea este privita ca un bun paznic al copiilor neascultatori si obraznici. Totusi, de-a lungul secolelor, pagoda a ajuns sa fie utilizata ca simbol pentru cresterea capacitatii de invatare a copiilor si ca simbol de protectie. Astazi se crede ca, daca pui o pagoda cu sapte trepte in camera copilului, ea va crea chi-ul ce duce la succesele scolare, dar numai daca i se insufla pretioasa energie Yang, legand in jurul ei un snur rosu.. Aceasta deoarece pagodele sunt considerate, in general, simboluri yin si chi-ul pagodei se trezeste numai daca se introduce chi-ul yang, cu ajutorul culorii rosu. Pentru a obtine succesul scolar, pune o pagoda cu spate trepte in coltul de nord-est al dormitorului sau al camerei unde invata copilul sau in sectorul unde pica steaua 4 academica anuala sau, pur si simplu, pe biroul la care invata copilul tau. http://www.neogen.ro/group/29434/view-posts/70224

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Stupa Ruwanveli Saya din Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

Wikipedia

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Spaiul sacru n Budism Dac lcaul de cult este privit ca o sintez a concepiei despre Dumnezeu, lume i om, atunci este destul de dificil s vorbim despre spaiu cultic n budism. Budha nu vorbete prea mult despre Dumnezeu, nici despre originea sau sfritul lumii, iar rspunsurile pe care le d celor ce cer informaii sunt ironice, artnd inutilitatea speculaiilor teologice sau cosmologice. Ceea ce intereseaz budismul este omul, mai exact cum poate fi eliberat omul din aceast ,,main a suferinei care este lumea empiric, i s intre n parinibbana. Dei Budha nu a afirmat despre sine c are o origine divin, i nici ucenicii nu au crezut acest lucru despre el, dovada fiind Scripturile budiste ce vorbesc despre el la timpul trecut, i faptul c buditii nu-i adreseaz rugciuni, totui tradiia l-a nvluit ntr-o aur legendar. n aceast tradiie i are originea i stupa budist, care ar fi luat natere chiar a doua zi dup moartea lui Budha, prin cldirea mai multor astfel de lcauri pe rmiele sale. Alt tradiie afirm chiar c nc din timpul vieii Budha ar fi construit o stupa pentru osemintele sale. Este destul de dificil s stabilim originea clar a stupei; n timp ce opinia general ar fi c ea deriv de la tumulii n care se ngropa cenua incinerailor, exist i preri ce susin o evoluie treptat ce a nceput de la micile sanctuare numite agnyagara. Ultima ipotez ar avantaja caracterul sacru pre-budist al stupei (mile Senart, Eseu despre legenda lui Buddha, , p. 212). Stupa n India , dagoba n Ceylon, sau pagoda n China este de departe cel mai important monument al artei budiste. Este vorba de o construcie emisferic de mari proporii nconjurat de balustrad i sculptat n piatr. Baza sa era rotund, dar de cele mai multe ori ptrat. Monumentul are n mijloc un stlp vertical din lemn sau metal , la temelia sa aflndu-se o camer tip celul n care se pstrau relicve sacre (dini ai lui Budha, resturi cremaionale ale unor personaliti budiste, obiecte sacre). Stlpul depea cupola devenind un fel de mner pentru mai multe umbrele de piatr suprapuse, cu circumferina din ce n ce mai mic pn ce ultima se transforma ntr-o sgeat. Se pare c acest element a avut o valoare deosebit din moment ce a cunoscut o asemenea dezvoltare, culminnd n tipul cel mai interesant i mai gustat de cldire budist anume pagoda (Encyclopedia, p. 695). Evident la forma consacrat i cunoscut astzi s-a ajuns n urma unei evoluii influenate de gusturi estetice specifice, dar i de dezvoltarea treptat a cultului budist: sanctuarul primar caitya constnd din vestibul, deambulatoriu i o cmru izolat nconjurat de stlpi rituali se identific n cele din urm cu templul. Simbolismul stupei este destul de complex: ,,Cupola este numit n sanscrit anda ,,ou, iar echivalentul tibetan este bumpa ,,recipient, ,,vas, deci oul are funcie de recipient. Stupa, cum o califica Paul Mus, este o ,,replic a oului cosmic, care ,,excludea credinciosul din snul su, ,,o lume nchis n care nu se intr, o imagine arhitectural a cosmologiilor arhaice pentru care lumea a fost la nceput un vas nchis. De aici nu trebuie s se conchid la eliminarea de principiu a spaialitii din interiorul ovoidului. Reprezentat de camera relicvelor i de coninutul simbolic al acesteia spaiul rmne raiunea formei ovoidului: textele majore ale budismului relateaz legende despre o accedare miraculoas n interiorul stupelor a unor personaje mitice, fapt care-l face pe P. Mus s accepte c: ,,s-ar putea foarte bine ca stupele s fi fost ntotdeauna considerate n mod ideal goale, chiar dac, nu au fost dect n mod ocazional construite pe acest principiu (Paul Mus, Barabudur, Esquisse une histoire du Bouddhisme fonde sur la critique archologique des textes, Hanoi, 1935, p. 90, cf. Sergiu Al-George, Arhaic i universal. India n contiina romneasc, p. 77).

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Aceste simbolisme de natur budist i pre-budist sunt potentate de prezena emblemelor budiste nelipsite din diferitele tipuri de arhitectura (arborele, roata, picioarele sfinte). n aceast categorie poate fi nscris emblema flcrii de lng umbrela de piatr a stupelor piramidale ce duce cu gndul la ,,flacra ce se nal spre cer, tridentul lui iva sau toiagul budist al rugciunii, adic fulgerul (Kppen, Religiones de Buddha, vol I, p. 539, cf. . Senart, Eseu despre ..., p. 211). Multe din ceremoniile budiste au la baz ritualuri populare non-budiste, dar care au fost adoptate treptat. Astfel exist un cult deosebit adus lcaului stupa, care uneori simbolizeaz parinibbana lui Budha. Evident pare contradictorie cinstirea sau consacrarea unor lcae de cult unei persoane ce nu mai are nici o legtur cu lumea deoarece a atins iluminarea, chiar dac unele tradiii afirm c Budha ar fi acceptat cultul ce urma s i se aduc. Dar cultul budist nseamn mai degrab dect adorare, ncercare de imitare i urmare a exemplului Celui Preafericit: ,,Cci a te apropia de rmiele corpului fizic al lui Budha reactualizat n stupa, sau n corpul su arhitectural simbolizat n structura templului, echivaleaz cu asimilarea Doctrinei, adic absorbirea corpului su teoretic, dharma. Cultul trziu al statuilor lui Budha, sau al pelerinajelor n diverse locuri sanctificate de prezena sa (Bodh-Gaya, Sarnath etc),se justific prin aceeai dialectic: diferitele activiti sau obiecte aparinnd samsarei sunt susceptibile de a ajuta mntuirea credinciosului graie grandioasei i ireversibilei aciuni soteriologice a Celui Trezit (Mircea Eliade , Istoria credinelor i ideilor religioase, vol II, p. 211-212). n concluzie templul budist nu este un loc de cult n accepia cunoscut ci un spaiu sanctificat datorit simbolurilor i forei exemplului lui Budha, mai exact un loc de comemorare (credincioii nu rostesc aici imne devoionale). Dup cum vedem se pot remarca diferene profunde n concepiile despre spaiul sacru din marile religii. Originea spaiilor cultice pornete deseori de la premise diferite, evoluia lor nu s-a datorat exclusiv funcionalitii, iar semnificaia acestora n viaa credinciosului e diferit. Complementaritatea nu lipsete ns nici ea i este evident de exemplu n simbolismul cosmic al spaiului sacru, n comportamentul omului n interiorul su, sau n atitudinea fa de el, i are la baz nostalgia i aspiraia omului ,,de a tri n cosmos pur i sfnt aa cum era la nceput cnd ieea din minile Creatorului (Idem, Sacrul i profanul, p. 63).

http://inoe.inoe.ro/ianus/Valentin%20Ilie.htm

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Hindu building traditions are rich in visual symbols; the early stone architecture of India was elaborately carved, and as such are almost more like sculpture than architecture, especially as structural elements were not emphasized and buildings were rarely constructed to enclose large spaces. The Indian commemorative monument takes the form of a large hemispherical mound called a stupa, like the one built from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD, during Buddhist ascendancy, at Sanchi, near Bhopal in central India. In the early period of monastery and temple building, shrines were sculpted out of the solid rock of cliffs. The Ellora and Ajanta caves, north-east of Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay), are a series of great artificial caves carved out of the living rock over many centuries. As the art of temple building developed, carving into rock gave way to the more conventional method of building in stone to form a structure, always, however, with greater concern for sculptural mass than for enclosed space. Hindu temples are found throughout India, especially in the south and east, which were less dominated by the Mughal rulers. Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

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Columns at Ajanta Caves, India Many Indian temples were supported by massive stone columns decorated with carved horizontal bands and richly sculpted capitals. The Ajanta cave temple shown here was carved between the 2nd century BC and the 7th century AD. Art Resource, NY/Scala

Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Stupa, also tope or dagoba, hemispherical or bell-shaped masonry monument designedas a Buddhist (or occasionally Jain) shrine or reliquary. The stupa form derives from the eight mounds under which the remains of the Buddha were buried after his death, following Hindu burial custom, and was the basis of Buddhist temple architecture. Ruined stupas at the ancient Buddhist site of Vaisali were found to contain ashes, presumably those of the Buddha himself. The earliest stupas were hemispherical mounds enclosing relics and effigies, with a single apical pillar (yasti) bearing three umbrella-like discs (chatras), and railings round both mound and pillar. The mound represented the world-mountain Mount Meru, the pillar its axis, the square fence (harika) round the pillar heaven, and the three discs the Triple Refuge of the Buddhist faith. The railings following the Hindu practice of enclosing sacred spaces. The four gateways (toranas) in the fence round the stupa were decorated with relief sculptures of the Jatakas, the legends of the Buddha's deeds. Stupas range in size from small, rudimentary structures to massive, ornately decorated monuments such as the stupa at Sanchi, India (3rd century BC to 1st century AD). Worship consisted at first of walking round the stupa in the direction of the Sun, though this later changed in Mahayana Buddhism. As Buddhism spread, the shape of the stupas changed, becoming more complex and tending to combine dome and pillar into a single conical shape. In Sri Lanka relatively austere stone stupas evolved, while in Nepal the stupas were decorated with eyes. A bell-shaped stupa profile became prevalent

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among the Hinayana sects of South East Asia. In East Asia the stupa form was combined with native Chinese watchtower designs to produce the pagoda. Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Great Stupa, Sanchi The Great Stupa at Sanchi, in the state of Madhya Pradesh, central India, was constructed between the 3rd century BC and the early 1st century AD. The solid temple is enclosed by an outer stone fence with toranas (gateways) on all four sides. Devotees circle the dome, which represents the world mountain. A harika (four-sided enclosure) atop the dome represents the heavens and surrounds the yasti, a spire with three chatras (discs) that represents the axis of the universe. Art Resource, NY/Scala

Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Jaya Sthamba Temple, Ranakpur

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The Jain temple of Jaya Sthamba, Ranakpur, has elaborately carved stone towers (sikharas) which culminate finials. The decoration of Jain temples, as well as manuscripts, marks one of the peaks of Indian art. Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York

Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Surya The Hindu sun god Surya was said to have so dazzling a visage that his wife, overwhelmed by looking on him, eventually left him. This relief carving of Surya is from the Temple of the Sun at Konarak, India. Corbis/Eye Ubiquitous

Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

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