Age and Second Age and Second Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition

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REMINDER Next week’s workshop topics are: - Empathy - Extroversion vs. Introversion

- Self –esteem- Inhibition- Risk-taking- Anxiety

- attitudes - egocentricity (self image)

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Some initial questions

The topic of age in SLA involves a number of interrelated issues. The most basic questions we need to consider are these:

Is there an age effect in SLA? Are younger learners better at learning second languages than older learners?

Assuming there is such an effect, how can we explain it?

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What does “better” mean?

The commonly held view that younger learners make better SLLs than older learners is an oversimplification

We need to separate two things:

rate of learning

and

ultimate attainment

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The age effect in SLA

In terms of rate of learning older learners may have an initial advantage

In terms of ultimate attainment younger learners (early starters) are superior, especially for accurate pronunciation

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How can we explain this?

Two broad explanations have been proposed:

1. The age effect reflects the existence of a critical/sensitive period for SLA

2. The age effect reflects the operation of various psychological and/or social

factors

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What evidence is there for a CP in FLA?

Some researchers see Genie’s very limited language proficiency as evidence of a critical period

Other non-human species seem to have their own “critical periods” for various abilities. This might suggest that humans too have their critical period for acquiring language

Children of Deaf Adults (CODAs) have an advantage over later-learners of ASL in signing

Aphasia:Aphasia:– Less chance of recovery of linguistic function after age

5.– Lateralization04/10/23 7

6. Observe a critical periodObserve a critical period

What is a critical period?What is a critical period? For first language acquisition, there

seems to be a critical period of the first five years, during which children must be exposed to rich input. There is also a period, from about 10-16 years, when acquisition is possible, but not native-like.

For SLA, the issue is more complicate.

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More evidence for the More evidence for the Critical Critical PeriodPeriod HypothesisHypothesis

Second Language Acquisition:Second Language Acquisition:

– Younger learners native fluency.– Older learners (>17) never quite make it.

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The Critical Period Hypothesis and SLA?

Do you think it is related to success in second language acquisition??

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Look at second language learning.

Why? Children who learn a second language when they are young often become indistinguishable from their native-born peers.

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Is there a CP in SLA?

Many researchers have claimed that the best explanation for young learners superior ultimate attainment is the existence of a CP

Most of the support for this comes from studies of pronunciation(Remember: Young learners invariably end up with more accurate L2 pronunciation than late starters)

Some studies have focused on areas other than pronunciation, e.g. Patkowski (1980), Johnson & Newport (1989), Spadaro (1996), DeKeyser (2000)

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Some people are not convinced that there is a CP in SLA

“It is undoubtedly the case that the descriptive statement regarding the general success of younger learners in acquiring a second language is true.  However, the evidence does not provide convincing support for the claim that this advantage is the reflection of a sensitive period in learning” Bialystok 1997, 133

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What counter-evidence is there?

Argument 1

Some researchers claim to have found late-starting SLLs who display very high (almost native-like) pronunciation of the TL (e.g. Bongaerts 1999, Bongaerts et al. 1995)

The fact that older SLLs can (apparently) attain very high levels of proficiency in pronunciation suggests to some researchers that the CPH is invalid i.e. there is no CP in SLA

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What counter-evidence is there?

Such near-native late-starters are “a fairly exceptional phenomenon” (Bongaerts 1999, 154), reflecting “high motivation, continued access to massive L2 input, and intensive training in the production of L2 speech sounds” (155)

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What counter-evidence is there?

Argument 2Social factors make it easier for young children to acquire L2.

E.g. a nurturing environment simplified input more educational opportunities cooperative peers04/10/23 16

What counter-evidence is there?

Argument 3

Psychological factors make it easier for young children to acquire L2

E.g.Younger learners may be more motivated to acquire L2 and have better attitudes towards target group than older SLLs

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Reminder

Older SLLs have an initial advantage in terms of rate of learning. This may be due to their superior cognitive skills and ability to consciously study the TL

However, the above-mentioned social and/or psychological advantages enjoyed by younger SLLs enable them to catch up and overtake older learners, eventually achieving higher levels of L2 proficiency

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A recent alternative approach (1)

Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (2005) argue that even very young SLLs display subtle, but still measurable, non-native tendencies in their L2 production and comprehension

These slight differences are unnoticeable in real-world language use, but they exist.

Even the very youngest SLLs can only achieve “near-native” proficiency rather than genuinely native levels of proficiency

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A recent alternative approach (2)

“A formulation along these lines might be considered a less spectacular view of maturational constraints, according to which it is true that biology contrains language acquisition, but not necessarily in terms of a critical period”

Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2005, 570

The process of SLA is still essentially biologically-determined, and the age at which exposure to the L2 begins continues to be a highly significant factor

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A recent alternative approach (3)

“Given the fact that there are no published accounts of a single adult starter who has reached nativelike overall L2 proficiency, and given the frequent observation of non-native features even in the very early starters, we would suggest the possibility that absolute nativelike command of an L2 may in fact never be possible for any learner. According to such a view, the language learning mechanism would be designed in such a way that it requires immediate triggering from the environment in order for it to develop and work appropriately; that is, the learning mechanism inevitably and quickly deteriorates from birth if not continuously stimulated”

Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2005, 57504/10/23 21

Other factors affecting SLA

How might neurological development affect second language success?

Does the maturation of the brain at some stage spell the doom of language acquisition ability?

To examine these issues, we will look at: Neurological considerations Phonological considerations Cognitive considerations Affective considerations Linguistic considerations

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Hemispheric Lateralization

Left hemisphere seems to control intellectual, logical, and analytic functions including language functions, while right hemisphere controls functions related to emotional and social needs.

Then when does this lateralization take place, and how does that lateralization process affect language acquisition?

Some scholars contended the lateralization is completed about at the age of puberty, and some said it’s about five.

Thomas Scovel applied this lateralization concept to the second language acquisition. 

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Biological Timetables

Thomas Scovel cited evidence for a sociobiological critical period in various species of mammals and birds.

He concluded that human beings’ native accents may be a genetic left-over just like animals’.

Walsh and Diller concluded that different aspects of a second language are learned optimally at different ages: Lower-order processes are dependent on early maturing, while higher-order language functions are more dependent on late mature circuits.

However, those were mainly about the acquisition of an authentic “accent.”

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Right-Hemispheric Participation

Another branch of neurolinguistic research focused on the role of the right hemisphere in the acquisition of a second language.

Olber noted that in second language learning, there is significant right hemisphere participation especially at early stages. 

Genesee concluded that there may be greater right hemisphere involvement in language processing in bilinguals who acquire their second language late relative to their first language and in bilinguals

Second language learners, particularly adult learners, might benefit from more encouragement of right brain activity in the classroom context.

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Anthropological Evidence

Jane Hill cited anthropological research on non-Western societies that yielded evidence that adults can acquire second languages perfectly.

Sorenson studied the Tukano culture of South America and reported that during adolescence, individuals actively and almost suddenly began to speak two or three other languages to which they had been exposed at some point.

Hill suggested that we have to explore the influence of social and cultural roles.

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ACCENT Although there are some exceptions, most of the

evidence indicates that persons beyond the age of puberty do not acquire authentic pronunciation of the second language.

There had been some studies to contradict Scovel’s strong CPH such as Gerald Newfeld’s, Moyer and Bongaerts, Planket, and Schils.

However, these studies at the end have left the strong CPH unchallenged.

We are left with powerful evidence of a critical period for accent, but for accent only! Great accent only doesn’t mean that the learner is a successful second language learner.

Even though poor at accent, one can have fluent control of a second language. 04/10/23 27

COGNITIVE CONSIDERATIONS

Jean Piaget outlined the course of intellectual development in a child through various stages:

• Sensorimotor stage (birth to two)• Preoperational stage (ages two to seven)• Operational stage (ages seven to sixteen)• Concrete operational stage (ages seven to eleven)• Formal operational stage (ages eleven to sixteen)

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Caracteristics of the Sensorimotor Stage:

The first stage of Piaget’s theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world.

During the sensorimotor stage, an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor activities (object permanence).

Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with, such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening, to learn more about the environment.

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Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage:

The preoperational stage occurs between ages two and six.

Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period

Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people.

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Animism and Egocentrism

Animism" refers to young children's tendency to consider everything, including inanimate objects, to be alive.

children's language also reflects their "egocentrism," whereby they attribute phenomena with the same feelings and intentions as their own.

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Characteristics of Concrete Operations:

The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven.

During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. (e.g. conservation)

Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

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Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage:

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve and lasts into adulthood.

During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.

Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

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AFFECTIVE CONSIDERATIONSThe affective domain includes many factors. A case in point is the role of egocentricity. Very young children highly

egocentric. In preadolescence children develop an acute consciousness of themselves as separate and identifiable entities but ones which need protecting. They therefore develop inhibitions about this self-identity.

For any monolingual person, the language ego involves the interaction of the native language and ego development.

Guiora suggested that the language ego may account for the difficulties that adults have in learning a SL. A new language does not pose a threat or inhibition to the ego of a child.

Younger children are less frightened because they are less aware of language forms, and the possibility of making mistakes in those forms does not concern them greatly. But mature adults manifest a number of inhibitions.

Among other affective factors is ego identification. The role of attitudes is another important factor. Younger children are more likely to succeed in learning other languages because they don’t have negative attitudes toward races or cultures yet.

Finally, children are under high peer pressure. They want to be like the rest of the kids. It can lead them to learn the second language.

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Affective considerations Empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition,

imitation, anxiety, attitudes, egocentricity.A. language ego The child’s ego is dynamic and growing and

flexible through the age of puberty. Mature adults manifest a number of inhibitions. B. Attitudes Very young children are not developed enough

cognitively enough to possess attitudes. C. Peer pressure Adults tend to tolerate linguistic differences

more than children.04/10/23 35

LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

Bilingualism Children learning two languages

simultaneously acquire them by the use of similar strategies.

They are learning two first languages. Researches show a considerable cognitive

benefit of early childhood bilingualism, supporting that bilingual children are more facile at concept formation and have a greater mental flexibility.

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LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

Interference Between First and Second Languages

The linguistic and cognitive processes of second language learning in young children are in general similar to first language processes.

Similar strategies and linguistic features are present in both first and second language learning in children.

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Interference Between First and Second Languages

Interference in Adults Adults appear to operate from the solid foundation

of the first language and thus manifest more interference.

But adults, too, manifest errors not unlike some of the errors children make.

The first language, however, may be more readily used to bridge gaps that the adult learner cannot fill by generalization within the SL.

In this case the first language can be a facilitating factor, and not just an interfering factor.

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LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

Order of Acquisition Researchers claimed that transfer of L1 syntactic patterns rarely

occurs in child second language acquisition. Children learning a SL use a creative construction process, just as

they do in their first language. Data about the acquisition order of eleven English morphemes in

children learning English as a SL supported this claim. “The younger, the better” is a myth that has been fueled by media

hype and, sometimes, “junk science.” There appear to be some potential advantages to an early age

for SLA, but there is absolutely no evidence that an adult cannot overcome all of those disadvantages save one, accent, and the latter is hardly the quintessential criterion for effective interpersonal communication.

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Linguistic considerations

Bilingualism

Strategies and processes in child L1 and L2 acqusition similar

- similar mistakes in acquisition

- acquisition order (Dulay and Burt, 1974)

- transfer is rare, creative langauge acquisition

- adults rely more on system of L1

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So, What is the best age to start teaching a language?

“Younger is better” Maturity in language acquisition. Accent : So What?! ample time vs. age of acquisition Is it important to be native-like speaker? L2 early instruction and first language. Early age and amount of instruction.

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References

Bongaerts, T. (1999). Ultimate Attainment in L2 Pronunciation: The Case of Very Advanced Late L2 Learners. In D. Birdsong (ed.) Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Bongaerts, T., B. Planken, & E. Schills, (1995.) Can Late Learners Attain a Native Accent in a Foreign Language? A Test of the Critical Period Hypothesis. In Singleton, D. & Z. Lengyel, (eds.) The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition Clevedon: Multilingual Matters

Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition Oxford: Oxford University Press

Hyltenstam, K. & N. Abrahamsson (2005). Maturational Constraints in SLA. In C. Doughty & M. H. Long (eds.) The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition Blackwell, Oxford

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