impact of land use change on groundwater quality in a typical karst watershed of southwest china: a...

Impact of land use change on groundwater quality in a typical karst

watershed of southwest China: a case study of the Xiaojiang

watershed, Yunnan Province

Yongjun Jiang & Cheng Zhang & Daoxian Yuan &

Gui Zhang & Raosheng He

Abstract The impact of land-use change on the quality ofgroundwater in the Xiaotjiang watershed, China wasassessed for the period 1982–2004. Groundwater sampleswere collected from 30 monitoring points across thewatershed, and were representative of the various changes,determined by remote sensing and geographical informa-tion systems. The results indicate that 610 km2 (60% ofthe total watershed area) were subject to land-use changeduring the period. The most important changes were theconversion of 135 km2 of forested land to cultivated land,and 211 km2 of unused land to cultivated land. The mainimpact was ascribed to diffuse pollution from fertilizersapplied to newly cultivated land, and from buildingdevelopment. Overall the groundwater pH value wassignificantly increased, as were the concentrations of ionsNHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , and Cl− in groundwater whilst

the concentrations of Ca2+ and HCO�3 declined. More

precisely, in the regions where forested land and unusedland were converted into cultivated land, the pH value andthe concentrations of Mg2+, NHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , Cl

−

increased whilst the concentrations of Ca2+ and HCO�3

declined. However in the region where cultivated land wasconverted into construction land, the pH value and theconcentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, NHþ

4 , HCO�3 , SO

2�4 , NO�

3 ,NO�

2 , Cl− increased.

Résumé L’impact des changements de l’utilisation duterritoire sur la qualité de l’eau souterraine dans le bassinversant de Xiaojiang, en Chine, a été évalué de 1982 à2004. Des échantillons d’eau souterraine ont été récoltés àpartir de 30 points d’observation éparpillés sur le bassin,représentant les divers changements déterminés par télé-détection et système d’information géographique. Lesrésultats indiquent que 610 km2 (soit 60% de la surfacedu bassin) ont été sujets à des modifications de l’utilisa-tion du territoire sur cette période. Les changements lesplus importants furent la conversion de 135 km2 de forêtet 211 km2 de terres inutilisées en terres cultivées. Leprincipal impact est attribué à la pollution diffuse desengrais utilisés en agriculture et pour les bâtiments. Demanière générale le pH de l’eau souterraine a augmentésignificativement, ainsi que les concentrations des ionsNHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , et Cl−, tandis que les

concentration en Ca2+ et HCO�3 ont diminué. Plus

précisément dans les régions transformées en terrescultivées, la valeur du pH et les concentrations en Mg2+,NHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , Cl

− ont augmenté tandis que lesconcentrations en Ca2+ et HCO�

3 ont diminué. Toutefoisdans les régions cultivées converties en zones deconstruction, le pH et les concentrations en Ca2+, Mg2+,NHþ

4 , HCO�3 , SO

2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , Cl

− ont augmenté.

Resumen El impacto del cambio en uso de la tierra en lacalidad del agua en la cuenca Xiaojiang, China fueevaluado para el periodo 1982–2004. Muestras de aguasubterránea fueron tomadas de 30 puntos de monitoreo através de la cuenca, y fueron representativas de losmúltiples cambios, determinados por sensores remotos ysistemas de información geográfica. Los resultados indi-can que 610 km2 (60% del área total de la cuenca) estabansujetos a cambios de uso de la tierra durante el periodoestudiado. Los cambios más importantes fueron laconversión de 135 km2 de bosques a tierra cultivada, y211 km2 de tierra sin uso (ociosa) a tierra cultivada. Elimpacto principal fue causado por contaminación difusa

Received: 17 July 2006 /Accepted: 3 December 2007Published online: 4 January 2008

* Springer-Verlag 2007

Y. Jiang ()) :C. Zhang :D. YuanSchool of Geographical Sciences,Southwest University,No.2 Tiansheng Ave, Chongqing 400715, Chinae-mail: [email protected].: +86-23-68254191Fax: +86-23-68252425

Y. Jiang :D. YuanResearch Institute of Karst Environment and Rocky Desert Control,Southwest University,No.2 Tiansheng Ave, Chongqing 400715, China

C. Zhang :D. YuanInstitute of Karst Geology,CAGS, Karst Dynamics Laboratory,50 Qixing Road, M L R Guilin 541004, China

G. Zhang :R. HeInstitute of Geology Investigation in Yunnan Province,Kunming 650041, China

Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 727–735 DOI 10.1007/s10040-007-0259-9

de fertilizantes aplicados a la tierra recientemente culti-vada, y a desarrollo de construcciones. En general el pHen agua subterránea creció significantemente, al igual quelas concentraciones de los iones NHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 ,

y Cl− en agua subterránea mientras que las concentra-ciones de Ca2+ y HCO�

3 decrecieron. Mas precisamente,en las regiones donde bosque y tierra ociosa fueronconvertidas en tierra cultivada, el valor de pH y lasconcentraciones de Mg2+, NHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , Cl

−

crecieron mientras las concentraciones de Ca2+ y HCO�3

decrecieron. Sin embargo en la región donde tierracultivada fue convertida en construcciones, el valor depH y las concentraciones de Ca2+, Mg2+, NHþ

4 , HCO�3 ,

SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , Cl

− crecieron.

Keywords Karst . Land-use change . Groundwatermonitoring . Xiaojiang watershed . China

Introduction

Ecological environments such as water or soil are veryfragile and, in karstic areas, the environment can beadversely affected due to land use or cover changescaused by rapid economic growth and fast populationincrease (Williams 1993; Yuan 1993, 2003; Jiang et al.2006; Jia and Yuan 2003; Zhang and Yuan 2004; Turneret al. 1995). Changes in hydrological balances are notunique to karstic regions, but karstic regions are moresensitive than others (LeGrand 1984; Prohic 1989).

Existing study results indicate that inappropriate land-use changes can have a great influence on karst waterquality such as the clear increase in concentrations of Ca2+

and Cl− ions and nitrate caused by deforestation in karsticareas (Kastrinos and White 1986; Ellaway et al. 1998;Whitmore et al. 1992). Increasing nutrients transferred

from the forest also contribute to the groundwaterpollution (Whitmore et al. 1992; Lichon 1993; Hatanoet al. 2002; Liang et al. 2005). Mineralization of the karstgroundwater increases because of the expansion offarming land and development of intensive agriculture,which also leads to salinization and alkalization ofgroundwater (Laws 1999; Lushichik 1986; Chambel andDuque 1999). Concentrations of nitrate and sulphateincrease notably as a result of the large amount of chemicalfertilizer used in agriculture (Libra et al. 1986, 1987; Libraand Hallberg 1998; Boers 1996; Molerio and Gutiérrez1998; Aravena et al. 1999; Lahermo and Backman 1999;Fialho et al. 1999; Witkowski 1999; Milde et al. 1988;Compton and Boone 2000). Waste gas, waste water andwaste residues produced in the processes of industrializa-tion and urbanization cause groundwater acidification andan increase of pollutants such as nitrogen, phosphate,chloride, sulphate, heavy metals and organic solvents(Fetter 1993; Barker et al. 1987; Howard et al. 1989;André et al. 1999; Stephenson and Beck 1995; Wakida andLerner 2006). However, relevant research in China is stilllacking (Jia and Yuan 2003; Zhang and Yuan 2004).

In this study area, there has been research on theimpact of land-use change on soil properties (Jiang et al.2006). Following this, land-use change from 1982 to 2004has been analyzed and the effects of land-use change ongroundwater quality assessed within the River Xiaojiangwatershed, a typical karst agricultural region of YunnanProvince, southwest China.

The study area

The Xiaojiang watershed, lying around the city of Luxi, inthe southwest of the Yunnan Province, covers an area of1,034 km2 (Fig. 1). It is a subtropical plateau with a

Fig. 1 Location of the Xiaojiang watershed

728


monsoon climate. The mean annual rainfall is 1,000 mmand the mean air temperature is 15.2°C. The watershedlies in the northwest of the Huanan belt of folded stratawhere the complex structure is mainly controlled bynortheast trending tectonics. The central part of thewatershed is a fault basin, and the edges are the faultblock mountains. It is a typical karst watershed, mainlyunderlain by Mesozoic Triassic strata. Carbonate rockscover an area of 617 km2 or about 60% of the totalwatershed area, of which the Triassic Gejiu formation(T2g) is the main aquifer (Fig. 2, Fig. 3). The central basin

is covered by the lateritic clay of the Quaternary Periodand its bottom is underlain by Triassic Gejiu formation(T2g). The western part of the watershed is underlain byTriassic sandstone and Triassic carbonate, but the easternpart is underlain only by Triassic carbonate. The karstphysical geography (Fig. 4) shows karst basin, karstgroove and valley, karst mesa, karst depression/valley/gorge, covering 75.35 km2, 165 km2, 135.9 km2 and508.7 km2, respectively. The mountain and the karstdepression, which are located on the edge of thewatershed, are the primary recharge areas, and the edgesof the central basin are the recharge-discharge areas inwhich some springs can be found. The central basin andthe valley of the Xiaojiang River are the discharge areas(Fig. 3). The watershed is mainly covered by lateritic soil,and has an area of 730 km2. In 2004, the population was2.27×105 inhabitants, of which 2.0×105 was rural,accounting for 87.9% of the total population. The grossdomestic product (GDP) was 4×107 US$, of whichagriculture gross domestic product was 3×107 US$ in2004. So the Xiaojiang watershed is a typical karstagricultural region in China.

Materials and methods

Land-use data and analysisThe land-use categories in the Xiaojiang watershed werelimited to five classes—i.e., forested land, cultivated land,unused land, water bodies and construction land (towns andother urbanized areas). Cultivated land included dry andpaddy land, and unused land included grass and shrub land in1982, but mainly grass and rock desertification land in 2004.

Land-use data (scale 1:50,000) were obtained byinterpreting aerial photos from 1982 and ThematicMapper (TM) images from 2004. Firstly, the supervised

Fig. 2 Geology map of the Xiaojiang watershed

Fig. 3 Conceptual hydrogeological model of the Xiaojiang watershed

729


classification was chosen to establish the interpreting keyand a sample training region, and the land-use category wasobtained using ERDAS software (Dang et al. 2003a, b).Then the land-use map was edited in ArcGIS software(Dang et al. 2003a, b). Finally, the land-use map wasverified and calibrated through field survey (Figs. 5 and 6).Because the land-use data sources are different, there maybe some errors between the land-use maps of the twoperiods.The analysis of land-use change was completed byoverlaying the maps of the two periods in ArcGIS.

Water sampling and analysisThirty springs were monitored within the watershed area.Twelve are located in cultivated land that was convertedfrom forested land, 11 in cultivated land that wasconverted from unused land, 4 in forested land that wasconverted from unused land, and 3 in construction landthat was converted from cultivated land (Fig. 7). Watersamples were collected in the rainy season (July) in 1982and 2004, and measured in the field for pH, Ca2+, Mg2+,HCO�

3 by Multiline P3 pH/LF, and subsequently analyzedin the laboratory for SO2�

4 , NHþ4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , and Cl−.

The same analysis program was used in 1982 and 2004.Plastic bottles with 1,000-ml volumes for sampling werecleaned with diluted acid and then washed with distilledwater in the lab. The sampling bottles and plugs werewashed with the water to be sampled at least three timesfirst in the field, and then the water was made to flowslowly into the bottles, leaving a 10–20 ml space, with thebottles being closed as soon as the sampling was finished.Finally, the type of water, sample location, sample numberand date were marked on the bottles and any notes taken.The samples were sent to the laboratory for analysiswithin two or three days. All samples were stored at 4°C.Samples for SO2�

4 , NHþ4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , and Cl− were

collected in 60 ml HDPE bottles through a 0.45-μm filter,and were analyzed by ion chromatography following USEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) standard methods.The estimated analytical errors were 5%.

Other dataThe climatic data for the watershed from 1980 to 2004was provided by the weather bureau of Luxi county,Yunnan Province. Other available data are the yearbooksof 1982 and 2004, land annals and agricultural annals.

Fig. 4 The physical geography map of Xiaojiang watershed

Fig. 5 Land-use map of the Xiaojiang watershed in 1982

Fig. 6 Land-use map of the Xiaojiang watershed in 2004

730


Statistical analysisThe groundwater quality data summary and statisticalanalysis were calculated using SPSS (originally StatisticalPackage for the Social Sciences) computer procedures.The paired samples t-test of groundwater quality indicesproved the significance test.

Results and discussion

Land-use changeAs shown in Table 1, land use changed significantly inthe Xiaojiang watershed over the 22-year period. Thetotal land converted covers an area of 610 km2. The

main land-use type changes were from unused land intocultivated land and forested land, and from forestedland into cultivated land. So, the cultivated landincreased by 269 km2 or 132.5%, but unused landdecreased by 278 km2 or 54.2% over the 22 years (Jianget al. 2004).

The increase in cultivated land was caused primarily bythe increase in demand for food due to the rapid growth ofthe population, which increased by 5.4×104 in theXiaojiang watershed in the 22 year period. Also, becausethe cultivated land is the main economic source in thekarstic agricultural region, the development of the survivaleconomy has brought about the increase in cultivatedland.

Fig. 7 Distribution of the monitored springs

Table 1 The land-use change matrix in the Xiaojiang watershed from 1982 to 2004 (km2)

Land-use category Cultivated land Forested land Construction land Unused land 1982 total Percentage (%)

Cultivated land 125 37 6 35 203 19.7Forested land 136 115 3 34 288 27.8Construction land 0 0 20 0 20 1.9Unused land 211 131 5 166 513 49.62004 total 472 283 34 235Percentage (%) 45.6 27.4 3.3 22.7

The rows show the area of different land-use types in 1982; the columns show the area of different land-use type in 2004. For example,there were 37, 6, and 35 km2 of cultivated land changed into forested land, construction land and unused land respectively; meanwhile136 km2 of forested land changed into cultivated land, and 211 km2 of unused land changed into cultivated land over the 22-year period

731


Groundwater quality changeAs shown in Fig. 8, indices of groundwater quality havechanged significantly in the 22-year period 1982 to 2004.The pH mean value, and mean concentrations of Mg2+,NHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , and Cl− in the groundwater

increased by 0.74, 10.26, 0.40, 38.13, 25.75, 0.24, and

14.19 mg/L, respectively, but the concentration of Ca2+

and HCO�3 decreased by 6.60 and 24.20 mg/L, respec-

tively over the 22 years.As shown in Fig. 9, the fluctuation in climate was very

little during the 22-year period in the Xiaojiang watershed.So the modification in groundwater quality was primarily

Fig. 8 The modification of the indices of groundwater quality from 1982 to 2004 in the Xiaojiang watershed

Fig. 9 The fluctuation curve of precipitation and air temperature from 1980 to 2004 in the Xiaojiang watershed

732


caused by human activities, especially the change of land-use and land-management measures.

Forested land to cultivated landIn the regions where forested land was transformed intocultivated land, the pH value and concentrations of Mg2+,NHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , and Cl− in the groundwater

showed an increasing trend, however the concentration ofCa2+ and HCO�

3 showed a decreasing trend (Table 2).Concentrations of NHþ

4 , NO�3 and NO�

2 in the ground-water seriously exceeded the drinking-water standards inChina in 2004. These changes are interpreted as being dueto the following processes. The ions adsorbed on the soilare likely to be transported into the groundwater withrainwater scour due to forest clearance. The thin overlyingcultivated soil weakens the soil retention, and allowsfaster pollutant infiltration into the groundwater along thekarstic cracks and pipelines (Jia and Yuan 2003).Furthermore, large amounts of fertilizer and pesticidesare the main source of diffuse pollution (Tim and Jolly1994), which makes concentrations of NHþ

4 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 ,NO�

2 , and Cl− increase, resulting in the deterioration ofgroundwater quality.

Meanwhile, a decrease in the concentration of CO2 insoil and groundwater weakens the karstic erosion function(Yuan 2001) and leads to a reduction of concentrations ofCa2+ and HCO�

3 . This can happen as a result of vegetationclearance into cultivated land and the associated decrease inbiological activity. Also, with the decrease in CO2 content,concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ showed an opposite andincreasing trend due to the differential dissolution effect ofCa2+ and Mg2+ in groundwater.

Unused land to cultivated landThe variations of groundwater quality when unused landwas converted to cultivated land follow the same patternas forested land converted into cultivated land (Table 2).The data showed increasing trends of concentrations ofMg2+, NHþ

4 , NHþ4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , Cl

− and pH value, whileconcentrations of Ca2+ and HCO�

3 showed a decreasingtrend (Table 2). Furthermore, concentrations of NHþ

4 ,NO�

3 and NO�2 in the groundwater exceeded the

drinking-water standards. The effect on groundwaterquality of changing unused land into cultivated land issimilar to that resulting from a change from forested landinto cultivated land. This is because most unused land inthe watershed in 1982 was mainly covered by grass andshrub. Only the changing range of concentrations aredifferent, which might be relevant to the past land use.For instance, the range of the decreasing trend of Ca2+

and HCO�3 in groundwater when unused land is

converted into cultivated land is lower than that whenforested land is converted into cultivated land, becausethe biological function in forested land is stronger thanland covered by grass and shrub. Concentrations of CO2

in the soil and water are, therefore, high, and the Tab

le2

The

mod

ificatio

nof

theindicesof

grou

ndwater

quality

follo

wingland

-use

change

(+indicatesincrease,-indicatesdecrease)

Land-use

change

No.

mon

itoring

points

Mon

itoring

time

pHCa2

+

mg/L

Mg2

+

mg/L

HCO

� 3mg/L

NH

þ 4mg/L

Cl−

mg/L

SO

2�

4mg/L

NO

� 3mg/L

NO

� 2mg/L

Forestedland

conv

ersion

into

cultivatedland

1219

827.3

86.8

10.1

323.4

01.7

1.6

0.5

020

048.1

71.8

26.4

270.7

0.6

8.7

49.8

23.8

0.3

Variatio

nvalue

+0.8

−15

+16

.3−5

2.7

+0.6

+7

+48

.2+23

.3+0.3

Variatio

npercentage%

+10

.8−1

7+16

2−1

6.3

+40

2+29

18.8

+43

11Significant

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

Unu

sedland

conv

ersion

into

cultivatedland

1119

827.5

68.4

13.8

266.3

02.0

5.1

0.2

020

048.3

58.4

22.8

223.5

0.3

14.8

39.8

22.1

0.1

Variatio

nvalue

+0.8

−1+9

−42.8

+0.3

+12

.8+34

.7+21

.9+0.1

Variatio

npercentage%

+11

−14.6

+64

.8−1

6.1

+66

1+68

8.9

+13

700

Significant

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

Unu

sedland

conv

ersion

into

forested

land

419

827.8

74.9

10.7

330.7

01.7

0.8

00

2004

7.6

85.2

8.9

361.5

013

.512

.118

0.03

Variatio

nvalue

−0.2

+10

.3−1

.8+30

.80

+11.8

+11.3

+18

+0.03

Variatio

npercentage%

−2.6

+13

.7−1

7+9.3

0+69

4.1

+15

09.3

Significant

S05

S01

S05

S05

NS

S01

S01

S01

S01

Cultiv

ated

land

conv

ersion

into

constructio

nland

319

827.4

61.1

24.5

292.1

013

.38.5

1.00

020

048.8

7831

.437

7.1

0.5

63.3

54.5

60.9

0.9

Variatio

nvalue

+1.4

+16

.9+6.9

+85

+0.5

+50

.0+46

+59

.9+0.9

Variatio

npercentage%

+20

+27

.7+28

.1+29

.1+37

4.8

+53

9.7

+59

90Significant

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

S01

NSno

tsign

ificant;S0

5sign

ificant

at0.05

level;S0

1sign

ificant

at0.01

level

733


corrosion ability of the groundwater is strong. However,biological action weakens after conversion into cultivatedland and the content of CO2 decreases, resulting in adecline in the corrosion ability of the groundwater and thuscausing a reduction of Ca2+ and HCO�

3 concentrations.

Unused land to forested landIn the regions where unused land was converted into forestedland, the concentrations of Ca2+, HCO�

3 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 ,NO�

2 , and Cl− in the groundwater showed an increasingtrend, but the pH value and the Mg2+concentration showeda decrease (Table 2). These changes are explained by thefact that biological activities are strengthened due toforestation, which increases CO2 contents in soil andgroundwater, and which in turn reinforces the process ofkarstification (Yuan 2001). The dissolution of CO2 in waterfacilitates the dissolution of carbonate rock, leading to adecrease of pH and an increase of Ca2+ and HCO�

3 .Furthermore, the increase of Ca2+ restrains the dissolutionof Mg2+, which leads to a decrease of Mg2+ in groundwa-ter. Meanwhile, forestation and the increase of organicmatter and nitrate in soil result in increases in SO2�

4 , NO�3 ,

and Cl− concentrations.

Cultivated land to construction landIn regions where cultivated land was converted intoconstruction land, the pH value and concentrations ofCa2+, Mg2+, HCO�

3 , SO2�4 , NO�

3 , NO�2 , and Cl− in the

groundwater increased (Table 2). The pH value andconcentrations of NHþ

4 , NO�3 and NO�

2 significantlyexceeded the drinking water standards in 2004.Theimpacts from human activities become more intensefollowing the conversion of cultivated land into construc-tion land. Pollutants such as sewage and waste effluentpass along conduits and cracks or discharge directly intogroundwater resulting in the pH value and concentrationsof SO2�

4 , NO�3 , NO�

2 , and Cl− in the groundwaterincreasing, which leads to a deterioration in groundwaterquality. Meanwhile, the content of HCO�

3 in the ground-water increased due to the large amount of CO2 generatedby the dense population, sewage and garbage, whichstrengthens dissolving ability of water leading to thecontents of Ca2+ and Mg2+ increasing correspondingly.

Summary and conclusions

This study reveals that the significant changes in land usedue to the rapid growth of population, have resulted in theextensive modification of groundwater quality in a karsticagricultural region in southwest China. As shown, afterforested land and unused land were converted intocultivated land, and cultivated land converted intoconstruction land, the concentrations of NHþ

4 , SO2�4 ,

NO�3 , NO�

2 , and Cl− in the groundwater increasedsignificantly, and even more serious, concentrations of

NHþ4 , NO�

3 and NO�2 in the groundwater seriously

exceeded the drinking-water standards.Groundwater is a very important source for drinking

water and, as groundwater is very vulnerable in karsticareas, in order to protect the groundwater quality, rationaland effective use of land resources should be improved.For example, ecological agriculture should be developedprogressively; the use of fertilizer and pesticides should bereduced and diffuse pollution should be prevented; andwater pollution, caused by the sewage of a large andincreasing population, infiltrating into the karstic ground-water system, should be controlled.

The change in groundwater quality may be caused byglobal change, or by the change of the karstic systemitself, or by human activities. Because the groundwaterquality has not been continually monitored on a daily or amonthly basis, just in the rainy seasons in 1982 and 2004,this study does not reveal the short-term variations ingroundwater quality caused by human activities or by thekarstic system itself. On the other hand, because thegroundwater quality was not determined for land forwhich there has been no change in use, it is not possible toestimate precisely the global or local change of thegroundwater quality. So, the study of dynamic changeand the cause of groundwater quality change shouldcontinue in the future.

Acknowledgements This research was funded by the key projectof the Eleventh Five-Year Plan of China’s Ministry of Science andTechnology, project code 2006BAC01A16; the Physical GeographyDoctorial Program Open Foundation of Southwest University ofChina, no. 250-411109; the Doctorial Foundation of SouthwestUniversity of China, no. SWNUB2005035, and the Project ofMinistry of Land and Resources, China, no. 2003104000.

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