impact of global warming on insects

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This article was downloaded by: [Moskow State Univ Bibliote] On: 14 February 2014, At: 19:48 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Archives Of Phytopathology And Plant Protection Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gapp20 Impact of global warming on insects Muhammad Mohsin Raza a , Muhammad Aslam Khan a , Muhammad Arshad b , Muhammad Sagheer b , Zeeshan Sattar a , Jamil Shafi a , Ehtisham ul Haq a , Asim Ali a , Usman Aslam a , Aleena Mushtaq a , Iqra Ishfaq a , Zarnab Sabir a & Aiman Sattar a a Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan b Department of Agri. Entomology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan Published online: 05 Feb 2014. To cite this article: Muhammad Mohsin Raza, Muhammad Aslam Khan, Muhammad Arshad, Muhammad Sagheer, Zeeshan Sattar, Jamil Shafi, Ehtisham ul Haq, Asim Ali, Usman Aslam, Aleena Mushtaq, Iqra Ishfaq, Zarnab Sabir & Aiman Sattar , Archives Of Phytopathology And Plant Protection (2014): Impact of global warming on insects, Archives Of Phytopathology And Plant Protection, DOI: 10.1080/03235408.2014.882132 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2014.882132 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &

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Page 1: Impact of global warming on insects

This article was downloaded by: [Moskow State Univ Bibliote]On: 14 February 2014, At: 19:48Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Archives Of Phytopathology And PlantProtectionPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gapp20

Impact of global warming on insectsMuhammad Mohsin Razaa, Muhammad Aslam Khana, MuhammadArshadb, Muhammad Sagheerb, Zeeshan Sattara, Jamil Shafia,Ehtisham ul Haqa, Asim Alia, Usman Aslama, Aleena Mushtaqa, IqraIshfaqa, Zarnab Sabira & Aiman Sattara

a Department of Plant Pathology, University of AgricultureFaisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistanb Department of Agri. Entomology, University of AgricultureFaisalabad, Faisalabad, PakistanPublished online: 05 Feb 2014.

To cite this article: Muhammad Mohsin Raza, Muhammad Aslam Khan, Muhammad Arshad,Muhammad Sagheer, Zeeshan Sattar, Jamil Shafi, Ehtisham ul Haq, Asim Ali, Usman Aslam,Aleena Mushtaq, Iqra Ishfaq, Zarnab Sabir & Aiman Sattar , Archives Of Phytopathology And PlantProtection (2014): Impact of global warming on insects, Archives Of Phytopathology And PlantProtection, DOI: 10.1080/03235408.2014.882132

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2014.882132

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &

Page 2: Impact of global warming on insects

Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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Page 3: Impact of global warming on insects

Impact of global warming on insects

Muhammad Mohsin Razaa*, Muhammad Aslam Khana, Muhammad Arshadb,Muhammad Sagheerb, Zeeshan Sattara, Jamil Shafia, Ehtisham ul Haqa, Asim Alia,Usman Aslama, Aleena Mushtaqa, Iqra Ishfaqa, Zarnab Sabira and Aiman Sattara

aDepartment of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan;bDepartment of Agri. Entomology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan

(Received 2 January 2014; accepted 3 January 2014)

Climate change is the most debated issue of time-posing hazardous impacts on lifeon earth. Like other living entities, insects are also influenced by rising temperatures,elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) and fluctuating precipitating patterns as range expan-sion, increased epizootics (insect outbreaks) and new species introduction in regionswhere previously these were not reported. Increasing temperature and elevated CO2

have substantial impacts on plant–insect interaction and integrated pest managementprogrammes. Rising temperature leading to rapid development of insects and increas-ing the epizootics of harmful insects is a precarious threat not only to agroforestrybut to urban extents as well. By employing the proactive and modern scientific man-agement strategies like monitoring, modelling prediction, planning, risk rating,genetic diversity and breeding for resistance, the suspicions innate to climate changeeffects on can be diminished.

Keywords: insects; global warming; climate change; insect outbreaks; insect man-agement

Introduction

As most people know, a rise in global temperature is happening from last few decades.Studies revealed that since 1850, 11 of the last 12 years are observed as the warmestmost. Over the last 100 years, average increase in global surface temperature is by0.7 °C while maximum increase in temperature of 2–5 °C has been observed near to thepoles. Consequently, it is subsequent to increased ocean-water level which is due tomelting of polar ice, warmer and littler winters with prior onset of spring season andlater arrival of winter periods (Houghton 2001; Salinger et al. 2005; Collins et al.2007). Generally, the warming is due to enhanced emissions of greenhouse gases(including methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs) engendered due to burning of fossil fuels by human beings. Forinstance, atmospheric concentration of CO2 has amplified by 35% over the last 200years and temperature is predicted to be increased by 1.8–4 °C from 2007 to 2100(Johansen 2002; Karl & Trenberth 2003; Collins et al. 2007).

Like other organisms, insects are also under the influence of climate change. Forinstance, according to a survey of 1600 insect species, 940 revealed the influence of cli-mate change. Due to earlier spring events, range limits of different insects are expanding

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

© 2014 Taylor & Francis

Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 2014http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2014.882132

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northward by 6.1 km/decade such as 35 species of butterflies have shifted their survivalranges 35–240 km northward in Europe (Parmesan et al. 1999). Moreover, in California,70% of 23 butterfly species have reformed their first-flight behaviour as 24 days earlierthan they did 31 years ago (Parmesan & Yohe 2003; Parmesan 2006). Future turbu-lences will depend on the global increase in temperature over the next 100 years. A sur-vey of about 1100 insect species revealed that climate change due to global warmingengendered about 15–37% of those species to extinction by 2050 (Thomas et al. 2004;Hance et al. 2007).

Global warming and insect pests

Biologically, insects are cold blooded having body temperature similar to their environ-ment. Thus, only temperature can influence on insect behaviour, development, distribu-tion, reproduction and survival. It is believed that the impact of increasing temperature oninsects mainly overwhelms the effects of other environmental elements (Bale et al. 2002),such as it has been estimated through models that with a 2 °C increment in temperaturemight result in 1–5 additional life cycles per season (Yamamura & Kiritani 1998).

Global warming, particularly increased temperatures, will bolster the insect popula-tion which results in increased public health pests and especially insect-vectored dis-eases. But it can also bring more severe climatic conditions such as longer andadditional droughts, more frequent storms along with increased rainfall and elevatedCO2 which will have adverse effects on plant growth and ultimately encourage insectsto attack (Karl et al. 1995; Easterling et al. 2000; Stireman et al. 2005). Furthermore,due to warmer and shorter winters, insects will start breeding earlier (Bale et al. 2002);principally insects of medical importance like mosquitoes are likely to be influencedpotentially (Epstein 2001; Hopp & Foley 2001).

Rising temperature have already exerted influence on species distribution and diver-sity. For instance, in the USA and Canada, mountain pine beetle catastrophic forest pesthas prolonged its range northward by about 186 miles with 1.9 °C increase in tempera-ture (Logan & Powell 2001). Elevated CO2 will increase carbon–nitrogen balance inplants, which in turn will influence insect-feeding behaviour, defensive chemical con-centrations in plants, competition between insect species and plant compensationresponses to insect herbivory (Coviella & Trumble 1999).

Rising temperatures

Globally, the temperature is rising, and insects and plants are responding in severalways (Table 1). It has been predicted through climatic models that average temperatureof globe would rise 1.8–4 °C till 2100 (Johansen 2002; Karl & Trenberth 2003; Collinset al. 2007). So, focus should be on range expansions of insects, arrival of new insectsto areas in which those pests were not previously reported and modifications of ecosys-tem that will allow some insects to reach extreme population level while driving otherspecies into extinction.

Range development

Northward migration of insect population has been observed due to rising temperatures.For instance, green stinkbug (Acrosternum hilare) in England and Japan has demon-strated dramatic shifts of range of 185 miles in past 25 years with an increase of 2 °C.

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Similarly in Europe, corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) has shifted northward of more than1000 km (Porter et al. 1991). In the same way, Edith’s checker spot butterfly(Euphydryas editha) has exhibited its population expansion northward in the USA(Parmesan 2006). Furthermore, mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) hasextended its range northward of more than 180 miles in last 15 years in the RockyMountains (Logan & Powell 2001) and now giving birth to each one generation peryear in place of one every two years (Parmesan 2006) and it is expected to occur inCanadian pine forests. As similar range shifts have been detected in insect-fossil recorddue to changes in climatic conditions these migrations are not astonishing (Elias 1994).Change in frost pattern is one of the major reason behind range expansion (Fleming &Volney 1995). Incidence of spring frosts decreases as temperature increases and theresulting prolonged warmer periods enhance the period and intensity of insect epizoot-ics. By planting earlier, growers can take advantage but these plants will then be acces-sible for crop-damaging insects and allowing them to take a quicker start and possiblyadd surplus generations of these insects during typical growing season.

New insects

Due to hurried movement of people and goods, new insect species are arriving habitu-ally to areas that are previously not reported to those insect species. However, risingtemperature results in the survival of insects in those areas where these insects couldnot thrive previously. For instance, in the twentieth century, potato psyllid, a destructivepest which migrated several times to California but usually persisted there only for ayear primarily due to winter-cool temperatures that enforced this insect to flight to Mex-ico. Although, in 1999 or 2000, potato psyllid again migrated to California and estab-lished a large, year-round population since that time and persisted there for the lastseven years. Resultantly, pepper, potato and tomato industries have undergone heftylosses (Liu & Trumble 2007).

Ecosystem modifications

Rising temperatures will bolster the survival of some insect species over others such asa 3 °C rise in temperature would decrease 90% offspring production of important antag-onistic beneficial wasps (Cotesia marginiventris), a common parasite of some caterpillarspecies. Thus, minor increase in temperature leads to debilitate the population of thisbeneficial insect and increase the damage by caterpillar species, and would likely toenhance pesticide operations.

Table 1. Examples of how increasing temperatures affect arthropod species and arthropod-relatedsystems.

Increasing temperature leads to:

Increasing Decreasing� Insect Population� Insect extinctions� Insect developmental rates� Invasive species introductions (due to rapid

migration of people)� Migration up elevation gradients� Northward migration� Potential for insect outbreaks

� Effectiveness of insectbio-control by fungi

� Insect diversity in ecosystems� Parasitism� Reliability of ETL

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In contrast, rising temperatures will favour some urban and agricultural insects.For instance, at higher temperatures, Argentine ants (Linepithema humile) are bettercompetitors than other ant species (Dukes & Mooney 1999). So, as temperaturerises, Argentine ants will likely disseminate northward, dislocating more inborn antspecies. Similarly, another insect named spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana)will also profit from rising of temperatures as eggs laid by this insect is 50% greaterat 25 °C rather that at 15 °C (Régnière 1983). Additionally, rising temperatures mayinfluence the reproduction timing in this insect in such a way that might be nolonger affected by parasitoids which usually retain its population small (Fleming &Volney 1995).

Logically, another outcome of rising temperatures is increase in the incidence andamount of forest fires. For instance, trees become more vulnerable to insect attack whenhigher temperatures and droughts happen together such as in southern California wherethis effect was observed early in this decade, bark beetle dead trees of thousands ofacres and fuelling enormous forest fires. Consequently, some insect species are appealedto fire-damaged trees and their populations can be expected to upsurge if their food sup-plies increase continuously.

Subsequently, epizootics of destructive insect pest are expected to increase withrising temperature and can lead to considerable ecosystem modifications such as incarbon and nitrogen cycling, energy flows and biomass decomposition (Haack &Byler 1993). For example, when premature leaf drop or defoliation will occur as aresult of outbreaks, it would entirely change the specific nutritional composition ofleaf litter, thus influencing the biomass-decomposing organism’s success. But with theexisting research grounds, long-term effects are difficult to predict at such fundamentallevel.

Raised CO2

Impact of increasing CO2 concentrations on plants is one of the most studied features ofclimate change and global warming (Table 2). As carbon is the key element in plant’sstructure, raised CO2 let them to nurture more quickly due to rapid carbon assimilation.For example, greenhouse growers are familiar with this for a long time and many addCO2 deliberately to boost plant growth. Likewise, due to high photosynthetic rates inraised CO2, scientists initially supposed that it would be a remedy to world’s food secu-rity (LaMarche et al. 1984). Additionally, many crop plants would become moredrought tolerant along with having a more quick growth rate because in elevated CO2

stomata do not open much.

Table 2. Illustrations of how growing atmospheric CO2 affects plant–insect interactions.

Increasing atmospheric CO2 leads to:

Increasing Decreasing� Carbon-based plant defences� Effects of foliar applications of B.

thuringiensis� Food consumption by caterpillars� Reproduction of aphids� Predation by lady beetle

� Effects of transgenic B. thuringiensis� Insect developmental rates� Nitrogen-based plant defences� Parasitism� Response to alarm pheromones by

aphids

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Crop yields

Under raised atmospheric CO2 conditions, crop plants are likely to become moredrought tolerant and predicted to produce good yields even under disparaging condi-tions (LaMarche et al.1984). But the prediction has not proven exact due to severalfactors such as under elevated CO2, plants grow more and ultimately insects eatmore. For instance, it has been demonstrated through some early researches thatLima beans (Phaseolus lunatus) photosynthesize better and grow more quickly inraised CO2 concentrations along with 20% more attack by its primary pest, the cab-bage looper (Trichoplusia ni). It occurred due to 28% less nitrogen-containing leavesin contrast to plants grown in ample concentrations of CO2. Being animal, nitrogenis the key element in insect’s body for its development. Plants grown in elevatedCO2 when have less nitrogen in leaves, the cabbage looper respond to eat more leafarea to accumulate required amount of this key element. Such behaviour of increasedfeeding has been demonstrated by several insect groups like beetles, butterflies,grasshoppers and moths (Coviella & Trumble 1999). Other potential factors forreduced crop production can be adaptation to raised CO2 that decelerates photosyn-thesis (Hollinger 1987) and rising temperatures that will reduce the crop efficiencyin warmer areas (IPCC 2012).

Plant defences

Insects can be further affected due to disturbances such as plenty of carbon and lack ofnitrogen that bring other major changes in plants. Mostly there are two kinds of chemi-cal defences in plants that save plants from insect feeding i.e. carbon-containing com-pounds like tannins and phenolics, and nitrogen-containing compounds such asalkaloids and cyanogenic glycosides. Carbon-based compounds decrease the insect’sfood digestion capability often by binding with proteins such as cotton having phenolicsthat can reduce insect feeding. In atmosphere of raised CO2 concentrations, carbon-based defences increase in many plant species. While nitrogen-based defences either actas toxins and debilitate the insects or make the plants inedible by acting as repellentslike potatoes and plums having nitrogen-based defences and under raised CO2 conditionthese plant defences become reduced. So, the carbon and nitrogen balance will poten-tially influence insect’s feeding behaviours.

Impact on crops

There may be a vigorous growth of some crops in raised CO2 conditions, but thereis a trade-off because as temperature rises seed production may drop (Vara Prasadet al. 2005). Droughts and floods linked with rising temperature will likely affectsome of the increased growth. Along those lines, an increase of 1.5–2.5 °C in aver-age global temperature will extend the range of pink bollworm (Pectinophora gos-sypiella), though it is now circumscribed to frost-free regions of Arizona. Suchchanges could result in subsequent crop damage (Gutierrez et al. 2006). Moreover,pine aphid (Schizolachnus pineti) demonstrated increases population rate, fertility andfeeding at 26 °C in contrast to 20 °C (Holopainen & Kainulainen 2004). So, withrising temperature diversity of herbivorous insects and their influence on plantsincreases generally (Wilf & Labandeira 1999).

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Increased epizootics

Global warming will bring a number of disastrous events like floods and droughts andthese frequencies of such events will result in herbivore populations. Predictions ofincreased incidence and extended durations of insect epidemics have been made for for-est insects based on their previous studies (Volney & Fleming 2000; Logan et al. 2003).For example, in Norway birch forests, lepidopteran (Argyresthia retinella) outbreak wasobserved and concomitant to high temperatures and droughts (Tenow et al. 1999). Simi-larly, increased range of winter moth (Operophtera brumata) has been observed in Nor-way birch forests (Hagen et al. 2007). An outbreak of caterpillar (Thaumetopoeapityocampa) on Scot pine was encouraged by warmer winters due to rising temperatures(Hodar & Zamora 2004; Buffo et al. 2007). Epidemic of oak dieback disease occurredin Japan due to encounter of this fungus with ambrosia beetle (Platypus quercivorus)which has increased its range due to global warming (Kamata et al. 2002). Moreover,warming temperatures are anticipated to bolster European pine sawfly (Neodiprionsertifer) and shoot beetle (Tomicus destruens) which result in excessive pine damage(Faccoli 2007).

Impact on beneficial insects

Pests and predators are potentially influenced by temperature. With the modification intemperature, behaviour of predators can be stimulated or dispirited. For example, below11 °C, reproduction rate of pea aphid at which lady beetle (Coccinella septempunctata)can prey it exceeds while the situation is reversed above 11 °C. On the other hand, athigher temperatures the natural enemies of spruce budworm (C. fumiferana) become lessoperative (Harrington et al. 2001). Due to global warming, herbivorous insects mayenlarge their ranges. Consequently, they could migrate to enemy-free areas where theirparasitoids may or may not track them. Monophagous parasitoids will be likely to mostextremely effected having difficulty to adopt a new host (Hance et al. 2007).

Implications of global warming and strategies to mitigate the issue

Various models have been used to predict how global warming will affect insect ecosys-tems. Some of these models have been used to predict the response of individual insectpests to climate change (Logan et al. 2003). For example, CLIMEX has been used toexplore the response to climate change of various insects and pathogen(Desprez-Loustau et al. 2007). Regrettably, many climatic models do not consider allimportant factors involved in global warming though these models have become assophisticated. Furthermore, predictions of currently developed climatic models do notaccount for insect impacts on vegetation and mostly these models do not include theimpact of insect as regime change agent (Folke et al. 2004).

A little has been studied regarding the interactions of climate and disturbancewhether the impacts of individual turbulences like forest insects on forest function andstructure have been studies (Dale et al. 2001). Therefore, it is difficult to predict theextent to which global warming will affect the magnitude, severity or frequency of dis-turbances (Loehle & LeBlanc 1996). Much has been focused on the influences of singledisturbances on host plants and climate but knowledge concerning climate changeimpacts on insects has been insufficient yet. Oftenly, the role of insects, pathogens, abi-otic stressors and their synergistic interactions with host under changing climate scenario

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are not included (Scherm 2004). There is consensus that climate change likely willstress trees and increase their vulnerability to insects, pathogens and emerging diseases(Brasier 2005).

Modification in developmental rates of insects, host resistance, phenology and physi-ology of host–insect interactions will occur from global warming. For instance, plantdefences will be affected by elevated CO2 by altering host anatomy and physiology likeextra accumulation of carbohydrates in leaves, lowered nutrient concentration, increasedfibre content, extra layer of epidermal cells and greater number of mesophyll cells(Chakraborty et al. 1998). Tree density and canopy size may increase as CO2 increasein atmosphere resulting in substantial increase in insect feeding (Manning 1995).

Here, we suggested different categories of management tactics to cope the issue ofinsect outbreaks under climate change. Our coverage of management impacts addressesonly a portion of the full scope. We have focused on key points where we feel crophealth agents have the greatest influence. Implementation of the discussed strategies willdiffer, depending on the “state of the science” to bolster the activities, financial status,human perception and other existing resources, and what resource management aims areproposed.

IPM modification

Integrated pest management generally integrates chemical controls (pesticides), biologi-cal controls (antagonists, predators and parasites) and cultural controls (sowing time andresistant varieties) to decrease insects below population threshold that will result in eco-nomic losses. Many of the pests can deal with enough flexible IPM methods but thedesire is to reduce the amount of global warming (Socolow 2005). Mostly, growers andresearchers design IPM tactics to minimise detrimental environmental impacts whilemaximising economic returns (Trumble 1998). Because insect populations will develop-ment is more quick and faster at higher temperatures which result in hefty crop damagequickly, IPM strategies should be modified to address the issue of rising temperature.For instance, degree day models containing IPM programmes may need only slightmodification unless biological control agents include in the control strategies (Stacey &Fellowes 2002).

Monitoring

Monitoring the spatial occurrence patterns of insects in relation to annual weather pat-terns and ranges of host crops and trees will inform adaptive management. By conduct-ing systematic surveys of host-plant growth, health and mortality by skilled personnel atregular intervals, the consistency of monitoring data will be enhanced. The efficiency ofmanagement tactics can be employed meritoriously for long-term management of hostcrops and trees by coordinating monitoring data with disturbing agents (Sturrock et al.2011).

Modelling prediction

With the abrupt variations in environmental conditions by global warming, it will bedifficult for professionals to depend on previous experiences and observations to planand predict for the future, otherwise must develop and use a diversity of modelling tools(Sturrock et al. 2011). Climate models coupled with environmental envelopes such as

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those developed by Hamann and Wang (2006) provide a powerful tool to forecast thepotential range of changes across a landscape. Phenomenally diverse model such asfrom vegetation to climate to disturbance agents, when well integrated can lead to effecthost-crop management under changing climate. The next step is to couple those chang-ing environmental envelopes with the ecology of host plants and insects. Modellinginsects’ climate envelopes along with host reactions to climate can thus increase thecapability to forecast insect attack outcomes.

Risk rating

Risk- and hazard-rating systems are essential components of crop-health strategy andshould be in place, and applied, in advance of insect epidemics (outbreaks). As thesesystems have proven to be useful when attempting to forecast future pest impacts due toclimate change, they should be a priority for crop-health research and development.Relating historical occurrence with bio geo-climatic zone variants can be helpfulmomentary.

Genetic diversity

Increased host-crop species and genetic diversity in combination with facilitated migra-tion is one of the most effective, efficient and durable methods to maintain healthy plan-tations in the aspect of climate change and global warming (Millar et al. 2007; O’Neill2008). Planting species and populations (seed lots) that adapt to future climatic fluctua-tions preserve the host–pest balance in the forest ecosystem. Facilitated migration ofhost species provides an opportunity to increase resilience and reduce vulnerability toinsects because most of the insect pests are species specific, so the simple act of increas-ing the number of species directly reduces the risks of outbreak, and assist to attainmanagement goals.

Breeding for resistance

Gene conservation will be critical as climate change, both for maintaining and enhanc-ing the resilience of host species and for the hope of improving crop-level resistance topests (Yanchuk 2001). Through breeding, insect and disease resistance, genetic diversityand tolerance to environmental stresses can be promoted. As global warming bolsteringinsects by increasing generation per year and range expansion (Bale et al. 2002), suchrate of climatic fluctuations might exceed the current capability of breeding programmesto face the drastic effects of these fluctuations on crop plants. The unprecedented levelof uncertainty of climate patterns, host conditions and insect pests, signals to investigateand adopt resistance mechanisms that will provide a general insect tolerance orresistance to forest trees (Woods et al. 2010).

Conclusions

Global warming is a serious challenge to agribusiness and our ecosystem as its conse-quences are hazardous to crop health. Rising temperatures will influence the insectbehaviour, distribution, development, survival, reproduction, geographical rang end pop-ulation size and elevated CO2 on the other hand will alter the chemical plant defences,parasitism, reproduction and insect developmental rates. Ultimately, these disturbances

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pose hazardous impacts on crop health and our ecosystem. A proactive and scientificapproach will be required to cope with this issue. We recommend different tactics tomanage the insects under changing climate scenario: modifying IPM, monitoring, mod-elling prediction, risk rating, genetic diversity and breeding for resistance. These strate-gies can be a promising programme for crop-health management and sustainableecosystem from insects under changing climate.

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