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I K RESULTS

IV. I. Honey bee Resources: Biology and Management

IV. i . l . Diversity, comb architecture and host specificity of honeybees

More than three fourth of the known animals are insects. They are the

most successful creatures among all the life forms on earth. Out of the 10

lakh insects in the whole world, about 20,000 of them are bees, of which a

few are honey producing bees belonging to the genus Apis, Trigona,

Melipona and Bombus. A majority of the honey production is mediated by

the genera, Apis and Trigona.

Asia has three native tropical species of Apis, the hive bee A. cerana

and the wild bees A. dorsata and A. florea. A. mellifera usually thrives in

temperate and sub-tropical climates and in some tropical regions where

there are no native honeybees.

In India, the genus Apis is represented by three different species,

A. dorsata, A. cerana, and A. f/orea. Apis cerana is found in two varietal

forms, A. cerana var. cerana and A. cerana var. indica. Even though, the

genera Trigona and Melipona are less productive, they are also utilized in

honey production.

The species of Apis are the common honeybees and are readily

distinguished by their size. A. dorsata Fabr, being the largest, A. c. indica

Fabr., the medium-sized and A. florea Fabr., the smallest. While all three

are common in India, they do not all appear to occur together.

Observations on dwelling places for individual honeybee species

presented strict preferences for host trees. The host preference varied

between different bee species. This host specificity was determined by the

behaviour of honeybee species, branching pattern, flowering phenology of

preferred species and tendency of tree species to form crevices in tree

trunks. Table 2 sumn~arizes the host preferences shown by different

honeybee species in the area under investigation.

Except in modern movable-comb hive, bees construct their nest by

building a group of parallel combs vertically downwards from the roof of the

hive or nest cavity. The distance they leave between the combs is an in built

character of the bee species and varies slightly for different species or sub-

species according to their body size. The bees observe this spacing very

precisely with regard to the combs in which brood is reared; these are

normally the central ones, where the temperature can most easily be

controlled. There is a greater tolerance to the spacing between the honey

storage combs above and around the brood nest.

Different honeybee species make their hives in different patterns and

this correspond to the behaviour of honeybees. The structural differences in

combs reflect even in the nature of honey. Hive architecture play a

significant role in the purity of squeezed honey and pollen concentration in

honey. The host specificity and the structural differences in hive make up of

different species are summarized below.

Table 2. Host specificity shown by different honey bees

e ~ o s t

Apis cerana indica

1. Dillenia pentagyna

2. Bridelia retusa

:3. Careya arborea

4. Lophopetalum wightianum

5. Anacardium occidentale

6. Canarium strictum

7. Symplocos cochinchinensis

8. Terminalia paniculata

Dilleniaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Lecythidaceae

Celastraceae

Anacardiaceae

Burseraceae

Symplocaceae

Combretaceae

1 / 1. Bombax ceiba 1 Bombaceae 2. Artocarpus hirsutus

Apis dorsata 3. Knema attenuata

Moraceae

Myristicaceae

Trigona irridipennis

1. Terminalia paniculata

2,. Bridelia retusa

3. Hopea parviflora

4. Vitex altissima

5. Schliechera oleosa

6. Terminalia bellerica

7. Pterocarpus marsupium

Combretaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Dipterocarpacez

Verbenaceae

Sapindaceae

Combretaceae

Fabaceae

IV. 1. 1. 1. Apis dorsata

These are comrnonly known as Rock bees and are the big bees that

build large nests in the forest and away from cultivation. These are photo

tactic bees and make their dwellings on parallel branches of huge trees. The

hives appear as semi-.lunar structures and occur widely in natural forests.

The comb cells near to the branch are found filled with pollen loads, below

which the cells have larvae and the lower most part of the hive is filled with

honey. The presence of larval zone in between the pollen and honey zone is

a distinguishable feature of these combs. This brings ease for larval feeding

by pollen as well as honey. Majority of the honey produced in natural

forests is contributed by this species and is not yet proved to be tamable for

honey industry.

These bees generally preferred the parallel branches of huge trees

like Bombax ceiba L., Artocarpus hirsutus and Knema attenuata. A strict

specificity of A. dorsata to Bombax trees was a significant observation in the

natural forest ecosystern. Bombax ceiba L., a member of Bombacaceae, is

a prickly tree ranging from a height of about 6m to 60m. The flowering period

coincides with the swarming of A. dorsata. The coincidence of colony

multiplication, swarming and search for new nesting place with the well built

tree architecture with loosely held parallel branches allowing sufficient

sunlight between, efficient floral display and abundant rewards of pollen and

nectar might have contributed for this specificity. The tree put forth many

horizontal branches and flowering extends from October to February. During

this season, the trees are completely defoliated and the bright red flowers

with efficient floral display fill the whole canopy. The flowers are auxiliary,

solitary or 1-3 together. In most of the seasons, one and the same tree was

found to have many hives and the number varied between 6 to even 48.

Similarly. Artocerpus hirsutus and Knema attenuata also presents a

well-built system of tree architecture offering sufficient nesting places for

A. dorsata bees. These are frequent in evergreen and semi evergreen

forests at lower elevations adjacent to streams or rivers in Kallar and

Bonnoccord.

IV. 1.1.2. Apis cerana indica F .

These are photophobic bees and make their dwellings in crevices of

tree trunks. These are commonly known as Indian bees and are the

commercially exploited bees in beekeeping. They are smaller than the rock

bees and are less aggressive than the former. In artificial hives, they store

honey in upper hive cells, pollen in lower cells and the larva in between. In

natural forest hives also they follow the same pattern but without a distinct

demarcation between the zones but rather with a transition from one to

other.

IV. 1.1.3. Apisflorea F.

These are the smallest honeybees and known as little bees. They

make their dwelling on small branches of bush-like plants and are photo

tactic. They store honey in those cells near to the branch where the

attachment of the hive occurs, larva below this zone and pollen in lower most

cells.

IV. 1 . 1 . 4 . Trigona irridipennis

These are sting less bees, which store nectar and pollen in globular

cells. With reference to the pattern of storage of pollen and honey, two

different forms ex~st (Plate 1 ).

'Cherutheneecha': This is one form of T. irridipennis. In this the pollen and

honey are stored in separate region. In the hive, the globular cells containing

larvae are seen in between the honey and pollen zone (Plate 1- Fig. a -c).

'Arakki': This seems to be a variant of the above one and here a beak like

projection of bees wax guards the entrances of the hives. In these hives,

there is no distinction between the honey zone and the pollen zone. Here

pollen and honey are stored in intermittent cells and the larval cells are near

to this zone. The honey obtained from these hives contains more

concentration of pollen grains and the occurrence of honey and pollen in

intermittent cells may be the reason for this (Plate 1- Fig. d - h).

IV.1.2. Annual bee management and commercial honey production

Bee keeping as an industry is not getting much attention here in

Kerala even though 'the climatic and vegetation elements are supportive.

However, the farmers who earn their living through this are actively engaged

in this profession. Topography and vegetation constituents of this district are

positive elements in honeybee management. Mountainous and midland

zones are the potential sites of honey production. Hilly areas with flourishing

vegetation constitute floral elements, which can contribute critical resources

for honeybees throughout the year except during rainy season. But these

areas are not getting exploited in this respect. Lack of scientific knowledge

62

b of 'Cherutheneecha' ; b. Pollen and larval zone of 'Cherutheneecha , d. Bees wax guardlng the entrance of 'Arakkl' (Slde view) ;

on seasonal flowering and potentiality of critical resources these plants can

offer are the two major factors for non- exploitation. Inaccessibility to some

areas also creates hindrances to this. But the accessible available resources

are in no way utilized by the commercial beekeepers.

The maximum utilization of floral elements for honey industry has

been concentrated on midland zone, where most of the areas are under

cultivation. Hevea brasiliensis, one of the major plantation components in

this area is utilized by beekeepers in honey production. Extra floral nectaries

at the base of the compound leaves secrete nectariferous liquid during

flushing of trees. This period, Jan-May is the honey flow season in this

region. While mountainous and midland zones are potential areas of honey

production, the coastal zone having coconut cultivation serves winter

management areas for honeybees. Another interesting factor in this respect

is that most of the beekeepers of the district belong to the coastal zone and

only a few belong to m~dland areas.

The professional beekeepers of the coastal zone practice migration of

their hives to midland and a part of hilly tracks, before honey season. By the

month of October, the beekeepers transfer their hives to Rubber plantations

and the areas in between Rubber plantation and forest outskirts. This

transfer is done on anticipation of the flushing of Hevea trees by the end of

December and the beginning of January. During this period, they utilize the

flowering of small herbaceous plants and weeds near hive areas. These

include Antigonon, Manihot sp., Mimosa pudica, Peuraria sp., etc. Lack of

flowering plants necessitates the feeding of bees by sugar solutions. During

this period, bees actively engage in pollen collection and storage. By the

middle of January, the honey flow begins. They actively engage in nectar

collection and the beekeepers extract the honey stored in comb cells with an

interval of 8 days.

By the onset of honey flow season, the bee colonies become

populous and may undergo swarming. But the beekeepers divide the

colonies, according to the needs of individual colonies, thus adding up to the

total strength of the colonies. Then by the end of May, "honey spring" comes

to an end with the onset of monsoon. By keeping necessary amount of

honey in the combs, they' migrates their hives into the coconut laden central

zones, for monsoon management. Coconut provides the pollen necessary

for brood rearing. The monsoon with heavy rainfall is the most adverse

period for the beekeeping industry here. During this time, the bees may

easily get affected by pests and mites leading to the destruction of the hive.

So the beekeepers pay more attention to their hives by periodical

observations. At this time feeding of the hives with sugar syrup is a

necessity.

By the beginning of August, the strength of rain decreases with

intervening sunny days. Then the bees start coming out of the hive in search

of food. Cocos nucifera is the most important plant giving its pollen to the

pollinator visitor. With the storage of enough of pollen load, brood rearing

takes place. With the newly emerged little bees, the population of the

individual colonies increases and beekeepers divide the colonies. By

October the hives are ready to migrate to different parts of the district.

The winter season from October to December marks the critical brood

rearing season. During this period the pollen resources available to the

younger generation forms the limiting factor for the preparation of the bee

colony. High lands of the district with diverse flora are not utilized for the

present time for bee keeping. The study has also been focused on the

utilization of floral resources in the critical brood rearing season in the

transition zones of high land and midland. From this it is clear that the

highlands and nearby areas can hold the bee colony during the winter. The

presence of honey stores in these hives in a small quantity also suggests

that some plants can offer nectar resources too during this period. This can

reduce the artificial feeding rates of the colony in these periods, which is a

major problem now the bee keepers are facing.

IV.1.3. Beekeeping in Rubber plantations

The beekeepers of the state in general and the district in particular

depend on monocultures of Hevea braziliensis for commercial honey

production. Flowers are either male or female and self-pollination within an

inflorescence is roughly 10 - 20% productive as cross-pollination. Some sting

less bees of the genus 'Trigona collect pollen both in the new world and the

old, but provide minimal pollination and Apis often do not collect the pollen at

all, or only visit the extra floral nectaries and very seldom visit the female

flowers.

Beekeepers practice migratory beekeeping to these plantations at the

midland zone after the monsoon management at the coconut laden coastal

zone. They m~grate their bee colonies by the month of October, anticipating

the flushing of Hevea trees by December. The bees forage on the extra floral

nectaries of these trees and make honey from this nectar. The dependence

of beekeepers on monoculture plantations like Rubber, even though gives

sufficient quantity, the necessary quality for export is not reached and this is

a major problem for honey exporters in Kerala. The exploitation of natural

forest resources of southern Western Ghats may solve the problem. For this,

forest management policies must have a flexibility to accommodate the

requirements of the beekeepers.

IV.1.4. Impact of Thai sac brood Disease

The period between 1990 -1994 created severe damage to the

A. cerana indica colonies of many beekeepers. Many people gave up this

business and turned to other activities. But those colonies which overcome

this menace, started establishment during 1995 and at present many people

have better colonies and had a better income during the last few honey flow

seasons. The viral disease that affected the apiary bees has an impact on

the natural forest A. cerana colonies also. The frequency of occurrence of

colonies also diminished during the peak period of the disease. A gap then

generated for nectar and pollen sources in natural habitat. This might have

created an emergence of Trigona colonies in the forests.

IV.1.5. Introduction of Apis rnellifera

The beekeepers of the district made an attempt to domesticate the

introduced Itallan bee, the Apis mellifera through Khadi and Village

Industries Commission. The attempt ended in utter failure. The probable

reasons are,

1. Large size of the bees results in slow speed in foraging and hence, bee-

eaters especially Drongo catch these bees with more ease than A. c. indica

bees. Hence, few bees return the hive after each foraging mission. This

reduces the colony strength resulting in loss of the colony.

2. Inadequacy of large foraging field blossoms like mustard in northern

states.

3.Different specles of honeybees have evolved through the ages under

particular environmental and climatic conditions to suit the local

requirements and this natural phenomenon can be the reason for the failure

of acclimatization of A. mellifera here. This confirms that the introduction of

an exotic species that has proved superior in an area may not necessarily be

superior in a different geographical region (Kshirsagar, K.K, 1968).

IV.2. Honey Plant Resources: Biology and Management

IV.2.1. FORAGING

The species vary considerably in aggression and in mode and degree

of communication between foraging workers and these differences have

profound effects on the manner in which a colony finds and harvests

resources. Some species can recruit quickly to large numbers; others do not

recruit at all. Some species consistently forage in groups, but others forage

as solitary workers. Some species employ aggression as a competitive

technique to sequester resources from rival bees and other species are

rarely seen in agonistic encounters.

Group foraging behaviour is well suited for rapid, efficient and

monopolistic exploitation of localized, high reward resources, whereas

solitary foraging in social bees is better suited for exploiting low density, low-

reward resources. As far as A. c. indica bees are concerned, they can recruit

quickly large numbers of workers and they consistently forage in groups.

IV.2.1.1. Nectar foraging and honey production

Honey is made by bees, and their raw material for nearly all the

world's supply of honey is nectar produced in the nectaries of flowers, and a

much smaller amount comes from the plants having extra floral nectaries.

Most of the variations between honeys originate in differences between the

nectars from which the honeys are derived.

The amount of honey that can be produced from the nectar of a single

flower depends on the total amount of nectar secreted and on the sugar

concentration of the nectar. In most flowers, only a minute amount of nectar

is available at any orle time. Honey can only be made by bees after raw

materials have been collected from plants. If the nectar is inaccessible to

bees, or not sweet enough to attract them, or if the bees find a flower

tiresome to collect from because of floral structure and behaviour, then it is

unlikely that the nectar will be used for honey. So, higher nectar productivity

of a particular species does not imply that it is a good source of honey

production. Here floral structure, floral display and the bee behaviour on

individual species act together so as to offer the sweet for the bee visitor.

Neither the plants honey potential nor can the bees' foraging potential

be realized in poor weather. Bees do not fly to collect nectar if the

temperature is less than I;!" C and the plants cannot yield nectar unless the

temperature is high enough.

Rain or high humidity can make nectar more dilute and give the bees

much extra work, both in carrying nectar home and in evaporating-off the

excess water. Climatic variation is the major factor underlying year-to-year

variations in nectar flows from the same plant species apart from the

damages by diseases and pests and catastrophes such as fire.

IV.2.1.2 Nectar foraging on Bombax ceiba L.

Bombax ceiba (Semal) belonging to Bombacaceae is one of the

major elements of deciduous forest. The trees of this species emerge above

the canopy line of the forest occupying the gaps. These trees are leafless

during the blooming periods and their large sized flowers accumulate good

stores of nectar. This species is typically an ornithophilous one, offering

abundant stores of nectar for the bird visitors.

But the analysis of honey and pollen loads collected by the native

honeybee colonies showed the abundance of pollen grains of this species in

honey as well as in pollen stores of the comb cells. This implies the species

as a better resource of nectar and pollen for the honeybees. Based on this

observation, foraging of Apis cerana indica bees on this species was

analyzed.

IV.2.1.2.1. Phenology

The huge trees of this species shed the leaves during the month of

December with the onset of winter. Flowering season extends from January

to February and the flushing of leaves begins by March. The flowers are

large, showy, fleshy and red in colour. They are hermaphrodite, protandrous,

actinornorphic and pentamerous. It consists of numerous stamens arranged

in bundles. The anthers host numerous large plano-convex pollen grains.

The nectaries situated at the base of the petals secrete abundant nectar of

about 3.25-mll flower, which form the resource for visiting bees and birds.

IV.2.1.2.2. Nectar quantification

On the previous day of quantification, 4 different mature unopened

flower buds were bagged in order to avoid nectar robbing. The flowers were

marked as FI, F2, F3 and F4. The flowers FI and F2 were continuously

bagged while F3 and F4 were kept open after the first quantification of nectar

at 6.30AM. The quantification was done using micropipette with duration of

one hour. The colour of the nectar was light blue and was less dense.

The kept opened flowers were visited by Apis cerana indica foragers

for pollen collection. 'These bees collected only pollen even though flowers

contained abundant nectar. This indicated that the pollen foragers and

nectar foragers are different in Apis cerana indica bees. The details of

nectar quantification are summarized in table 3. The total amount of nectar

produced by a single flower during single day ranged from 2309 to 3696 pl.

Table 3. Nectar quantification in Bombax ceiba

IV.2.1.2.3 Quantification of flower productivity

Total nectar production of a single Bombax tree:

No. of large branches = 25

NO. of small branches in a large branch = 10

No. of branches in a tree = 25 X l o = 250

No. of branch lets in a small branch = 10

No. of branch lets = 250 x lo= 2500

No. of flowers in a single branch let = 20

Total No. of flowers in a tree = 2500 x 20 = 50,000

Quantity of nectar in a single flower = 3267~1 = 3.25 ml

Total nectar productiorl of the tree = 50,000 x 3.25 = 162500 ml

=162.5 liters

IV.2.1.2.4. Foraging behaviour for nectar and pollen

Observations for foraging were made in the same tree in which nectar

quantification was done. The table 4 summarizes the details of bee activity

in 5 different flowers. Even though one more tree was considered for

observation, because of less number of fresh flowers, bee activity was

negligible. The detailed bee activity during the day in intensive observation is

outlined below.

6.30 AM - Pollen foraging was lacking. Bees were found to rest on anthers

but forag~ng was absent. They sweep inside and suddenly flies away.

6.40 AM - Anther dehiscence occurred.

7.00 AM - Both pollen and nectar foragers were found in one and the same

flower. Nectar foraging was found to be instant. The nectar foragers rest on

71

one of the petal side and sweeps into the nectar and flies away.

7.15 AM -Active poller~ foraging.

7.25 AM - Foraging as a whole in this tree is high. Most of the freshly

opened flowers are having bees and most of them are pollen foragers.

Random sampling of bees at this time presented varying numbers of pollen

foragers. Each flower was having 11,8,7,8,5,10 etc. numbers of bees. After

collecting the grains on the corbiculae, the bee rests on the petal and

arranges the load and flies away.

8.00 AM - 6 bees in F3, 7 bees and 1 Melipona bee in F4.

8.05 AM - 16 bees were found foraging in a single flower. F5 was having 12

bees and F4 was having 5 bees. Anthers near to the stigma were preferred.

At the peak foraging period, strong competition between bees could be

observed.

8.15 AM - On the tree as a whole, the activity was less. Only 5-6 bees were

found in the tree (random obsewation). Only the freshly opened flowers

showed active foraging. Bees were found circling the bagged flowers.

8.45 AM - (F4); One A. c. indica, visited the central anthers and spent 10

seconds.

9.15 AM - One A. c. indica came to one flower, goes inside, coming to

anther, then again goes inside and flies away. (Time 58 seconds).

9.35 AM - Fland F2 are bagged flowers and in these, the pollen grains at

the surface of the dehisced anthers are abundant. But in F3 and F4, the

surface of the anthers are absolutely devoid of pollen grains and this is

because of the voracious feeding of bees in these left opened flowers. By

9.00 AM, the pollen foraging was found to be ceased. By this time, the

temperature rises; heavy sunshine was found falling on the tree. After this a

few Meliponinae were found making glance visits and this may be for nectar

foraging. Foraging of sting less bees after the ceasing of foraging activity

may be because of the high competition offered by A. cerana indica bees.

Hence a critical observation of the periodicity of nectar production

and foraging by bees in Bombax ceiba L. indicated that the species offers

the maximum resources for the insect and bird visitors during the peak

periods of foraging. When the flowers bloom, they are full of nectar and the

production of nectar continues through out the day. The peak foraging was

found to be between 7 AM and 9 AM and this declines, as the temperature

rises. The anther dehiscence occurs at about 6.40 AM and this may also

be a reason for this peak foraging.

The observation indicates that these flowers produce nectar through

out the day so that it can offer their resources even to those small insect

visitors, which cannot compete with the active foragers. As this species is a

protandrous one, the stigma attains maturity only very late and this is also

one of the reasons for the production of the nectar through out the day.

By evening, nectar production stops and there is no further activity of

bees. The absence of foraging of honeybees between 11 .OO AM and 4.00

PM is because of high atmospheric temperature and the energy utilization

during flight at this period may reduce the efficiency of foraging.

Table: 4. Foraging for nectar and pollen

.. .. . - -

B: Apis cerana indica M : Meliponinae

IV.2.2. Pollen foraging and beebread production

Pollen is an essential resource for bees as it provides the proteins

required for larval development and growth. Bees typically collect pollen

from a limited subset of the available plant species, indicating that bees

perceive qualitative or quantitative differences between species. Despite

the joint requirement of nectar and pollen for survival and the concurrent

production of pollen and nectar by many plant species, bees do not often

collect pollen and nectar simultaneously. While collecting pollen bees visit

more different plant species than in nectar collection.

Plant species differ considerably in many pollen characteristics that

may influence the selective behaviour of pollen-collecting bees, including

standing crop, grain size and protein content. Bees are responsive to

variation in the amount of pollen available per plant and can be expected to

adjust their behaviour l:o collect pollen from plant with the highest standing

crop. Pollen grain size could also affect pollen value because bees use only

the protoplasmic nutrients found in pollen and discard the pollen wall.

The behaviour of bees, while collecting pollen from a single plant

species depend on foraging time and metabolic costs in a manner that is

consistent with maximization of gross pollen-collection efficiency. The

observations on pollen loads collected by native bee species have shown

the abundance of Dillenia pentagyna pollen in southern deciduous forest

zones. With this background information, an attempt has been made to

observe the pollen foraging of Apis cerana indica bees in this species.

IV.2.2.1. Pollen foraging on Dillenia pentagyna L.

Dillenia pentagyna L. (Dilleniaceae) is an important element of

deciduous forest patches of southern Western Ghats. By the end of

February the whole tree gets defoliated and all the branches simultaneously

set into bloom. Flowers are bright yellow and are fascicled on nodes of old

branches. Each fascicle consists of 3-6 flowers and the flowers are

actinomorphic and pentamerous. Stamens are arranged in two whorls and

the anthers linear dehiscing by slits.

IV.2.2.1 .I. Quantification of flower productivity

1 Inflorescence = Average 5 flowers.

lsmall branch = 22 inflorescences.

1 large branch = 112 srnall branches.

Itree = 6 large branches.

Total No. of small branches = 6x 112 = 672

Total No. of inflorescences = 672 x 22 == 14784

Total No. Flowers = 14784 x 5 = 73920 Flowers

IV.2.2.1.2. Bee activity for pollen collection

Obsewat~ons for bee activity on this species were initiated at about

6.30 AM and ceasing of foraging was recorded by 9.30 AM. Details of

foraging are outlined below;

Three different trees were selected for observations on foraging.

Dehiscence of anthers takes place even before the opening of flowers. In

mature unopened buds, anthers were dehisced. Not a single bird was found

visiting the trees. The bees were the dominant insect visitors. As the

dehiscence of anthers occurs before the opening of flowers, this plant must

be a self-pollinated one. Even though the whole tree is having intense

foraging, the time each bee spends in a single flower decreased by 7.45

AM. This may be because of the decrease in pollen forage in each flower

after the heavy foragrng. By this time the temperature starts rising and

humidity decreases. In one of the tree, three different branches were

selected for observation. The 0 b S e ~ a t i o n ~ of bee activity in three different

branches are outlined in table 5.

Buzz~ng of bees was prominent and by 9.00 AM the A. c. indica

foraging was found to be decreasing, but the Melipona bees were found

collecting pollen. This may be because of the fact that Meliponinae need

only very less amount of pollen and this might have left even after the active

foraging of A. c. indica bees. A. c. indica bees and Meliponinae were found

actively foraging for pollen between 8.15 AM and 9.00 AM. Prominent loads

were found on bee corbiculae and the colour was found to be orange red.

IV.2.3. Pollen Analysis and Biological Standardization

The study of pollen in honeys or honeybee loads is important not only

for gaining knowledge on the honey flora, but also for making an insight into

the nutritional aspects of the honeys as related to pollen grains. It is known

that the pollen constituents of the honeys is the chief source of vitamins,

mineral contents, fatty acids and amino acids in honeys and it varies with

the different pollen grains and amount of each pollen type contained in the

specific honeys. Such information will provide a new base to promotion of

apiary industry by raising the plants flowering at various times covering a

Table '5. Bee activity in Dilleniapentagyna

- . --

Time 62

6.45AM 38 26

- --

B - A.cerana indica, M - Meliponinae (Trigona irridipennis)

whole year and producing nectar and pollen in desirable quantities around a

specific bee colony un~t.

Of the varlous botanical problems connected with apiculture, the

more important ones are the resource identification (both for nectar and

pollen), preparation of floral calendars, toxicity to bees and detection of

botanical composition and geographical origin of honeys.

Analysis of pollen grains in honey provides information about the

geographical origin and period of honey production as pollen grains in honey

indicate the plants visited by bees. (Deodikar et a/, 1958; Chaubal, et a/,

1963; Nair, 1964; Sharma, 1970; Chanda and Ganguly, 1981; Bhattacharya

et a/, 1983). Many of the identified honey plants are important ecological

indicator types in the area of honey production (Agwu and Akanbi, 1985).

Based on the quantity of pollen grains in a given honey sample, the degree

of its purity in commercial honey can be tested. The nature of mixing native

honeys with the exotic can also be effectively judged from honey pollen

analysis.

A detailed characterization of all the honey and pollen samples

collected from different agro-ecological situations of the district with respect

to honeybee species and species preference for the nectar and pollen

requirements have been done in order to find the potential resource diversity

for the apiculture ~ndustry in this part of the state. The results showed the

presence of 58 different identified major species and 26 unidentified species

in chance occurrence. The pollen characteristics of these species are

summarized below.

IV.2.3.1. Pollen characterization

1. Abutilon indicum (L.;I Sweet

Grains in monads; Polar and equatorial outlines circular;

Trizonocolporoidate; C:olpi very faint, narrowly elliptic and ora not distinct;

Exine +I-4pm thick; Sculpturing echinate, tips of echinae acute with swollen

bases.

2. Abutilon persicum (E3urm.f.) Merr.


Trizonocolporoidate; Colpi faint; Ora distinct; Exine +I- 4pm thick;

Sculpturing echinate; tips of echinae acute with swollen bases.

3. Achyranthus aspera L.

Grains in monads; polar and equatorial outlines circular;

polypantoporate; Ora distinct; Exine +I- 2prn thick; Sculpturing verrucate.

4. Adenanthera pavonina L.

Pollen grains in polyads, polyads 12-celled, spherical, polar outline

circular; equatorial outline elliptic-obtuse-plane; polypantoporate; Pori

circular; Exine +I- 2pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

5. Ageratum conyzoides L.

Grains in monads; 42pm x 46prn; polar and equatorial outlines

circular; Trizonocolporate; Colpi elliptic, sides abruptly tapering towards the

poles, tips acute; ora narrowly elliptic, equatorially elongated; sides tapering

to acute tips; Exine +/- 6pm thick; Sculpturing echinate, echinae narrowly

triangular in outline.

6. Aporosa lindeliyana (Wt. Baill)

Grains in monads; polar outline triangular-obtuse-convex; equatorial

outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Colpi elliptic; sides tapering to acute tips;

Ora distinct; Exine +i'-lpm thick. Sculpturing micro reticulate; reticulam

lumen < I pm diameter.

7. Areca catechu L.

Grains in monads; Pollen I-colpate, elongate, 30pm x 28pm; Colpus

with tapering ends; Exine +I-2 prn thick; Sexine almost as thick as nexine;

Sculpturing reticulate.

8. Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.

Grains in monads; polar and equatorial outline circular;

rnonoaperturate; Ora circular; Exine +I- 2 pm; Sculpturing psilate.

9. Bombax ceiba Linr~.

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline triangular obtuse-plane;

equatorial outline elliptic; planaperturate; trizonocolporate; Colpi narrowly

elliptic; sides tapering towards the poles; Exine +I- 3pm thick; Sculpturing

reticulate, lurnina broader on poles, becoming finer towards equator; muri

with a single or rarely double rows of columellae.

10. Bombax insignae Wall.

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline triangular obtuse -plane;

corners slightly tapering; equatorial outline elliptic; Planaperturate;

trizonocolporate; Colpi narrowly elliptic; Exine +I- 4pm thick; Sculpturing

reticulate, lumina broader on poles, becoming finer towards equator; Muri

with a single or double rows of columellae.

11. Caesalpinia bonduc (Linn.) Roxb.

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; equatorial outline elliptic;

Trizonocolporate; Operculate; Colpi narrowly elliptic; sides tapering towards

apocolpia, tips acuminate; opercula equalling the size of colpi; Ora circular or

oblate, slightly meridionally elongated, included in the colpi; Exine +I- 3prn

thick; Sculpturing reticulate, lumina reduced to margo along the colpi; Muri

with a single row of colurnellae.

12. Careya arborea Roxb.

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-convex;

Equatorial outline transversely elliptic; Trizono pseudo syncolpate, syncolpia

operculate; Colpi bordered by opercula on either side, pseudo syncolpia

operculate on poles; Opercula reticulate; Exine 2.5prn thick; Sculpturing

psilate.

13. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.

Grains in monads; Polar outline more or less circular; Equatorial

outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Colpi narrowly elliptic, wide at equator,

sides tapering, tips acute, margins lined by rnuri; Ora faint; Exine +I- 4pm

thick; Sculpturing reticulate, rnuri with 1-3 rows of columellae.

14. Cocos nucifera L.

Grains in monads; Pollen I-colpate, 3 9 ~ m x 53prn; Colpus 14

prn x 35pm, with rounded ends; Exine 1.4 prn thick; Sexine almost as thick

as nexine; Sculpturing faintly reticulate.

Fig. a - c. Bombax ceiba; d - e. Bombax insignae; f. Ceiba pentandra

15. Commelina diffusa Burm.f.

Grains in monads; Pollen 1-colpate; elongate; CoYpus tapering at both

ends; Exine +I- 1 pm thick; Sculpturing spinulose.

16. Delonix regia (Boj. er: Hook.) Rafin

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; equatorial outline elliptic;

trizonocolporate; Colpi narrowly elliptic; tips obtuse; Ora circular, slightly

meridionally elongated, included in the colpi; Exine +I- 3pm thick; Sculpturing

reticulate; muri with one or two rows of columellae.

17. Dendrophthoe falcata (L . ) Etting

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-concave; Equatorial

outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Colpi emarginate, since are much longer than

the polar axes, sides parallel or slightly narrowed at middle; Apocolpia

absent, since 3 colpi unite at poles without forming syncolpia; Exine 1.5 pm

thick; Sculpturing psilate.

18. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.

Type I: - Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Equatorial

outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Colpi narrowly elliptic, wide at equator, sides

tapering and tips acute; Exine 2.5pm thick; Sculpturing verrucate.

Type II: - Exine 1.9pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

Sub type I: - Grains with Syncolpia on one pole and parasyncolpia on

another pole; Syncolpia and parasyncolpia triangular; Sculpturing psilate to

psilate-Verrucate.

19. Elaeocarpus serratus L.

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Equatorial outline

elliptic; Trizonocolporoidate; Colpi faint and narrowly elliptic, sides tapering;

Exine +I- I pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

20. Entada rheedii Spreng.

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-convex; Equatorial

outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Exine +I- 4pm thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

21. Erythrina variegata Linn.


outline elliptic; Trizonoporate, mildly annualate; Pori circular; Exine +I-3pm

thick; Sculpturing reticulate, lumina irregular, minutely verrucate or psilate

becoming finer and forrning rnargo; Muri flat and devoid of columellae.

22. Glochidion malabaricum Bedd.


elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Colpi faint and narrowly elliptic; Exine +I-1pm

thick; Sculpturing microreliculate.

23. Gmelina arborea R.oxb.

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular - obtuse - convex to

circular; equatorial outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Colpi narrowly elliptic,

sides tapering towards apocolpia, tips acuminate, margins devoid of

sculpturing; Exine +I- 3pm thick; Sculpturing very faintly reticulate, lumina

variously polygonal to isodiametric.

Sub type I: Grains tetrazor~ocolpate; Apocolpia not distinct.

Sub type II: Grains trizonosyncolpate on one pole; Syncolpia triangular.

24. Helicterus isora Linn.

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-plane; Equatorial

outline elliptic-acuminate-obtuse; Trizonoporate, costate to vestibulate; Exine

+I- 1.25 prn thick; Sculpturing psilate; Columellae not distinct.

25. Helixanthera wallichiana (Schult.) Dans.

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-concave; Equatorial

outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Colpi emarginate, since colpi are longer than

the polar axes, sides parallel, margins thick; Apocolpia absent and 3 colpi

meet on poles without forming syncolpia or very rarely with apocolpia; Exine

+I- 1.9 pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

Sub type: Grains with parasyncolpia on one or both poles; Parasyncolpia

triangular.

26. Holigarna arnottiana H0ok.f.

Pollen grams in monads; Polar outline circular; Equatorial outline

elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Colpi, narrowly elliptic, sides taper towards

apocolpia to acute tips; Exine +I- 4pm thick; Sculpturing striate-reticulate.

27. Hopea ponga (Denst) Mabberly

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline triangular, obtuse-convex;

equatorial outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Colpi wide, sides tapering towards

apocolpia to acute tips; Exine +I- 2pm thick; Sculpturing microreticulate.

28. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poir.

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline triangular, obtuse-convex; Equatorial

outline elliptic; Hexazonocolpate; Colpi wide, sides tapering towards

apocolpia to acute tips; Exine+/- 3prn thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

a b

ir - \-

-1 _ ---- /

e

-qCC -- -- f c d

i

g R i k

I' L J' 1.

m Plate 4 ( Magnification x 1000)

Fig. a - d.Careya arborea. a - b.Polar view. c - d. Eq. view; e - f. Cocos nucifera; g - i. Dillenia pentagyna;

j - k. Elaeowrpus serratus; I - n. Entada rheedii I

m

n o @ q Plate 5 ( Magnification x 1000)

Fig. a - b. Erythrina variegata; c - d. Helixanthera wallichiana; e - g. Holigama amottiana; h - j. Hyptis suaveolens; k - rn. Lannea coromandelica; n - q. Mimosa pudica

29. Impatiens grandiflora L

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline quadrangular, obtuse-convex;

Equatorial outline elliptic; Tetrazonoporate; Exine+/- 2pm thick; Sculpturing

reticulate.

30. Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.

Pollen grains in monads, equatorially elongated; Polar outline

triangular, obtuse-cor~vex; equatorial outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Colpi

narrow, sides tapering towards apocolpia to acute tips; Exine +I- 6pm thick

at poles, +I-4 um thick at equator; Sculpturing micro reticulate.

31. Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merrill


elliptic; Fossaperturate; Trizonocolporoidate; Colpi, narrowly elliptic, sides

tapering towards apocolpia to acute tips; Exine 2pm thick; Sculpturing

striate.

32. Lantana camara L.


outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Exine +I- 2pm thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

33. Leptonychia moacurroides Bedd.

Grains in rnorlads; Polar outline circular; Equatorial outline elliptic;

Tetra-penta zonocolporate; Exine +I- 1 pm thick; Sculpturing micro reticulate.

34. Lophopetalum wightianum Arn.

Pollen grains in tetrads, tetrads spherical; Polar outline circular;

Equatorial outline elliptic-obtuse-convex; Tetrapantoporate; Pori circular;

Exine +I-4 prn; Sculpturing psilate.

84

35. Madhuca latifolia

Grains in monads; Polar out line circular; Equatorial outline elliptic;

Penta-to- hexa-zonocolporate; Colpi linear, sides gradually tapering to

acuminate tips; Ora elliptic or oblong, equatorially elongated, margins

equatorially thick; Exine .+I- 5 pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

36. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Maebride.

Grains in monads; Polar out line circular; Equatorial outline elliptic;

Penta-to- hexa-zonocolporate; Annulate; Colpi linear, sides gradually

tapering to acuminate tips; Ora elliptic or oblong, equatorially elongated,

margins equatorially thick; Exine +I- 5 pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

37. Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb. ) Kurz.


outline elliptic; Trizonolporate; Exine +I- 6pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

38. Melastoma malabathricurn L.


outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate with pseudocolpi; Exine+/-3pm thick;

Sculpturing psilate.

39. Merremia tridentata (L.) Ha1l.f.


outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Exine +I- 5pm thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

40. Mimosa pudica L.

Pollen grains in tetrads, tetrads spherical, polar outline circular;

Equatorial outline quadrangular-obtuse-plane; Tetrapantoporate; Pori

circular; Exine +I- 1 pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

41. Mimosa invisa Mart.

Pollen grains in tetrads, tetrads elliptic, polar outline circular;

Equatorial outline quadrangular-obtuse-plane; Tetrapantoporate; Pori

circular; Exine +I- 2pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

42. Olea dioica ROX~I.


elliptic; Trizonocolporoidate; Colpi faint and narrowly elliptic; Exine +I-1pm


43. Passiflora foetida 1..


outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Exine +I- 7pm thick; Sculpturing reticulate,

reticulam lumen large

44. Peltophorum pterocarpum (decandolle) Back ex Heyne

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Equatorial outline circular to

elliptic; Trizonocolporate; Colpi narrowly elliptic, sides tapering, tips acute,

margins thick; Ora circular to oblate, included in the colpi; Exine +I- Zpm

thick; Sculpturing reticulate, lumina irregularly polygonal to isodiametric; Muri

with one, occassionally 2 and rarely 3-4 rows of columellae.

45. Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult.

Grains in monads; Polar outline and equatorial outline circular;

Monoporate; Exine +I- 2pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

46. Phyllanthus emblica Linn.

Grains in monads; Polar and equatorial outline circular;

Tetrazonocolporate, costate; Colpi narrowly elliptic, sides tapering, tips

I

f

i

00 L a d

k

&.$p AJ% I o :*?a.

n o

6) I m

r &\ - -- Plate 6 ( Magnification x 1000)

Fig. a - c-Lagerstroemia speciosa; d - f. OIea dioica; g - h. Passiflora foetida; i. Pennisetum polystachyon; j - m. Phyllanthus emblica;

n - q. Schleichera oleosa; r. Syzygium cumini; s - t. Terminalia paniculata.

Q t 0 LW

.-

a - b. Eq.view; c - e. Polar view; f. Sachytarpheta jarnaicensis

acute, ora circular; Exine+i- 3 pm thick; Sculpturing microreticulate.

Sub type: Grains penta zono colporate.

47. Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken.

Type I: Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-acute convex to

circular; Equatorial outline elliptic; Trizono para syncolporoidate; Ora not

distinct; Parasyncolpia triangular acute-concave; Exine +I- 2pm thick;

Sculpturing striate-reticulate.

Type II: Grains tetra zono para syncolporoidate; Polar outline

quadrangular-acute-convex or circular; Equatorial outline elliptic;

Parasyncolpia quadrangular-acute-convex.

48. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis ( L . ) Vahl.


outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Exine +I- 4pm thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

49. Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-concavelplane or

circular; Equatorial outline elliptic-obtuse-acuminate; Trizonocolporate

conspicuously vestibulate; Colpi faint, linear, sides gradually tapering; Ora

elliptic, equatorially elongated, sides tapering towards equator, tips acute,

syncolpia triangular; Ex~ne +I- 1 prn thick; Sculpturing psilate.

Sub type I: Grains parasyncolporate on one or both the poles; Parasyncolpia

triangular, more or less equal the size of syncolpia.

Sub type II: Grains tetrazonocolporate, outline quadrangular-obtuse-plane.

50. Tabernaemontana gamblei

Grains in monads; Polar outline quadrangular-obtuse-convex;

Equatorial outline elliptic; Tetrazonocolporoidate; Exine +I- 7pm thick;

Sculpturing psilate.

51. Tectona grandis Linn.f.

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Equatorial outline elliptic;

Trizonocolpate; Colpi narrowly elliptic, sides tapering towards apocolpia, tips

acuminate; Exine +I- 2.5pm thick; Sculpturing psilate to faintly eureticulate.

Sub type: Grains trizonosyncolpate; Syncolpia triangular.

52. Terminalia paniculata Roth.


outline elliptic; Trizonocolporate with pseudocolpi in between; Exine +I- 1 pm


53. Tinospora cordifolia (Wilid.) H0ok.f & Thomas

Pollen grains in monads; Polar outline triangular obtuse concave to

circular; Equatorial outline elliptic; Trizonocolporoidate; Colpi linear,

operculate, wide at equator, sides almost parallel, opercula as long as colpi;

Ora not distinct, three colpi unite on poles; Exine +I- 1.5pm thick; Sculpturing

micro reticulate.

54. Tridax procumbens L.

Grains in monads; 40pm x 45pm; polar and equatorial outlines

circular; Trizonocolpurate; Colpi elliptic, sides abruptly tapering towards the

poles, tips acute, ora narrowly elliptic; Equatorially elongated, sides tapering

to acute tips; Exine +I- 7pm thick; Sculpturing echinate, echinae narrowly

88


Subtype: Grains tetrazonocolporate.

55. Vateria indica L.

Grains in monads:; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-convex; Equatorial

outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate with projecting opercula; Exine +I- 2pm thick;

Sculpturing faint reticulate.

56. Vernonia arborea Buch. -Ham.


Trizonocolporate; Colpi elliptic, sides abruptly tapering towards the poles,

tips acute; Ora narrowly elliptic, equatorially elongated, sides tapering to

acute tips; Exine +/~. 7pm thick; Sculpturing echinate, echinae narrowly


57. Vitex altissima Linr1.f.


outline elliptic; Trizonocolpate; Exine +/- 3pm thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

58. Xanthophyllum flavescens Roxb.


elliptic; Penta-hexazonocolpate; Colpi narrow, sides tapering towards

apocolpia to acute tips:; Exine+/- l pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

Grains unidentified

1 . Type 1

Grams in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-convex;

Trizonoporate; Exine +I- 1 pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

2. Type 2

Grains in monads; Equatorially elongated; Trizono colporate; Exine

+I- 3pm thick; Sculpturing granulate. (Acanthaceae member)

3. Type 3

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-convex; Trizono

colporate; Exine +I- 3pni thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

4. Type 4


colporate; Exine +I- I pm thick; Sculpturing microreticulate.

5. Type 5


porate; Exine +I- 3prn thick; Sculpturing reticulate.

Type 6

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-straight; Trizono

porate; Exine +I- 1 pnl thick; Sculpturing faint reticulation.

7. Type 7

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Trizono colporate; Exine

+I- 3pm thick; Sculpturing echinate. (Compositae member)

8. Type 8


syncolpate; Exine +I- 2pm thick; Sculpturing psilate. (Papilionaceae

member)

9. Type 9

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular - obtuse - convex;

Trizonocolporate; Exine +I- 1 pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

10. Type 10

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Trizono porate; Exine +/-

4pm thick; Sculpturing echinate. (Malvaceae member)

11. Type 11


porate; Exine +I- 2pm thick; Sculpturing microreticulate.

12. Type 12


porate; Exine +I- I prn thick; Sculpturing scabrate.

13. Type 13

Grains in monads; Polar outline roughly circular; Trizono colpate with

alternating pseudocolpi; Exine +I-2pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

14. Type 14

Grains in monads; Elliptic; Monosulcate; Exine +/- 3pm thick;

Sculpturing spinulose. (Palmae member)

15. Type 15

Grains in monads; Polar outline Quadrangular-obtuse-convex;

Trizono colporate; Exirie +I- 3pm thick; Sculpturing reticulate. (Meliaceae

member)

16. Type 16

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Tetra zono colporate; Exine

+I- 3pm thick; Sculpt~lring psilate.

17. Type 17

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Inaperturate; Exine +/- 4pm

thick; Sculpturing crotonoid. (Euphorbiaceae member)

18. Type 18

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Hexazono porate; Exine

+I- 5pm thick; Sculpt~lring rugulate.

19. Type 19

Grains in monads; Polar outline triangular - obtuse - convex; Trizono

colporate; Exine +I- 4pm thick; Grains lacunate and sculpturing echinate.

(Compositae member)

20. Type 20


colporate; Exine +I- 1 pm thick; Sculpturing psilate.

21. Type 21

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; 5-zono colporate; Exine +/-

4pm thick; Sculpturing microreticulate.

*-. ,

k Plate 8 ( Magnification x 1000)

Fig. a - b. Tabernaemontana gamblei; c - f . Type 5; g - h. Type 7; i - j. Type 14; k - m. Type 15.

I m

a b *- ,I-,-

Plate 9 ( Magnification x 1000) Fig. a - b. Type 17; c - d. Type 18; e. Type 19; f - h. Type 21;

22. Type 22

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Poly panto porate; Exine

+I- 3prn thick; Sculpturing reticulate. (Amaranthaceae member)

23. Type 23


colporoidate; Exine +I- 3pm thick; Sculpturing microreticulate.

24. Type 24

Grains in monads; Elliptic; Dizono porate; Exine +I-3pm thick;

Sculpturing scabrate.

25. Type 25

Grains in morlads; Polar outline triangular-obtuse-straight; Trizono

colporate; Exine +I- 3pnl thick; Sculpturing rugulate.

26. Type 26

Grains in monads; Polar outline circular; Pentazono colporate; Exine

+/- 5pm thick; Sculpturing psilate (Sapotaceae member).

IV.2.3.2. Pollen Spectra of honey and Pollen loads

Based on the above pollen characteristics, pollen combinations of

individual samples with respect to the honeybee species were worked out

and this lndlcated wide variability in resource preference and resource

sharing among the bees.

1V.2.3.2.1. Apis dorsata honey ('Thookkuthen')

The characterization Included 4 different honey samples and a pollen

load of A dorsata collected from four different localities. The details of

individual honey samples are outlined below:

93

Honey sample 32

The concentrations of pollen grains were less and a total of 14

different species were present in the sample and 11 of them were identified

up to the species level. Of which Terminalia paniculata was dominant,

Dillenia pentagyna and Lannea coromandelica were frequent and all others

were present in meager concentration. (Fig.3)

1. Terminalia paniculata 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3.Lannea coromandelica

4.Hopea ponga 5.Xanthophyllum flavescens 6.Syzygium cumini

7. Elaeocarpus serratus 8. Lophopetalum wightianum 9. Holigarna arnottiana

10.Bombax ceiba 1'1 .Pennisetum polystachyon 12.Type 7 13.Type 3 14.

Type 9.

Honey sample 69

This sample has been collected from a transition zone between a

cultivated land and a forest ecosystem. The pollen concentration was more

and showed the presence of both wild, cultivated and weedy plants. The

sample harbors 6 different species and Lagerstroemia speciosa was the

dominant one. (Fig.4)

1 .Lagerstroemia speciosa 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Cocos nucifera

4. Helixanthera wal1ic:hiana 5. Pennisetum polystachyon 6. Type 4.

Honey sample 70

The pollen combination of the sample showed the presence of only

three different grains, of which Olea dioica and Lagerstroemia speciosa

showed more or less equal distribution. (Fig.5)

1. Olea dioica 2. Lagerstroemia speciosa 3. Vateria indica 4. Type 2

5. Type 15

Pollen load 70

The pollen loads isolated from the combs also showed the presence

of only those grains, !which were present in honey sample ie. Olea dioica and

Lagerstroemia speciosa.

Honey sample 91

The sample showed the presence of 7 different species and the

frequency of occurrence of Schleichera oleosa was far more than other

species. (Fig.6)

1 .Schleichera oleosa 2. Lannea coromandelica 3. Dillenia pentagyna

4.Vateria indica 5.€laeocarpus serratus 6.Careya arborea 7.Tinospora

cordifolia.

lV.2.3.2.2. Apis cerana indica honey ('Thoduthen')

The characterization of honey samples from this bee species included

16 samples from wild habitat, 32 samples from apiaries and 6 samples from

markets. The critical arlalysis showed variations in species preferences of

this bee in wild and domesticated habitats.

A. Wild samples

Honey sample 2

The forest zone from where the sample has been collected was near

to the cultivated land and the pollen presentation showed a mixture of wild,

weedy and cultivated species. There were 13 different species and all

frequent grains were identified. (Fig.7)

95

Pollen spectra of Apis domata8 Honey

m.3 Pollen Spectrum - HS 32

m.4 Pollen Spectrum - HS 69

11%

ns.5 Pollen Spectrum - HS 70

6% 3%

P- -

Rg.6 Pollen Specbum - HS 91

1% --% 4%

1 . Mimosa pudica 2.Terminalia paniculata 3.Dillenia pentagyna

4.Cocos nucifera 5.Aporosa lindeliyana 6.Syzygium cumini 7.Areca catechu

8.Vateria indica 9,Lagerstroemia speciosa 10.Pennisetum polystachyon

1l.Helicterus isora 12 Type 1 13. Type 10.

Honey sample 3

The area of collection and the period in which the sample has been

collected was more or less similar to sample 2. The bees showed

preferences for some other species also like Schleichera oleosa. This shows

that one and the same species in the same area may show different

preferences. (Fig.8)

1 . Cocos nucifera 2.Mirnosa pudica 3. Terminalia paniculata 4.Dillenia

pentagyna 5. Schleichera oleosa. 6. Type 2 7.Type 10 8. Type 11.

Honey sample 5

This sample has been collected from a region where there is

abundance of exotic, introduced ornamental species, which forms a

continuous supply source of nectar and pollen. But the analysis showed a

strict avoidance of these exotic food resources and showed preferences for

native ones. (Fig.9)

1 .Cocos nucifera 2.Mirnosa pudica 3.Aporosa lindeliyana 4.Holigarna

arnottiana 5. Elaeocarpus serratus 6.Schleichera oleosa 7.Dillenia pentagyna

8.Areca catechu 9.Lagerstroemia speciosa 10.Syzygium cumini

11 .Peltophorum pter'ocarpum 12.Abutilon indicum 13. Type 7 14. Type 12.

Pollen load 5

The pollen analysis showed unifloral loads of Cocos nucifera, bifloral

loads of Cocos nucifera and Schleichera oleosa and multifloral loads with

Cocos nucifera and Holigarna arnottiana as dominant grains and Areca

catechu and an unidentified perforate grain as frequent ones.

1. Cocos nucifera 2, Schleichera oleosa 3. Holigarna arnottiana 4.

Areca catechu 5. Type 12.

Honey sample 9

Even though the sample has been collected from a deciduous forest

patch, it showed the pollen grains of Cocos nucifera and Mimosa pudica.

(Fig.10)

1. Cocos nucifera 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Lagerstroemia speciosa

4. Type 8.

Honey sample 19

This sample was a traditionally marketed tribal collection from the

deciduous forest patch of Kallar. The concentrations of grains were more

and this may be due to the squeezing out of the pollen stores in the

honeycomb. (Fig.11)

1. Cocos nucifera 2.Mimosa pudica 3. Lagerstroemia speciosa

4.Terminal1a panicul,3ta 5.Areca catechu 6.Dillenia pentagyna 7.Syzygium

cumini 8. Schleichera oleosa 9.Passiflora foetida 10. Careya arborea

1 1 .Pennisetum polystachyon 12. Vateria indica 13. Type 1.

Pollen spectra of ApSs m n a Honey "1 A. Wild Samples Fb.7 Pollen Spectrum - HS 2

Rg.8 Pollen Spectrum - HS 3

ne 99 Pollen Spectrum - HS 5

Fig.10 Pollen Spectrum - H.C 7 11% .CONS nucilera

HMimose pudb

L a g e r s M a w c k a 61 16' - - -

.-- Mimosa pu&a

.T- pmlclPI$

Mlhh p e w na

.OharrnlnargraLnr

Honey sample 31

This sample has been collected from the Sanghili forests where rich

diversity having deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen elements are

present. (Fig. 12)

1. Melastoma malabathricum 2. Erythrina variegata 3. Elaeocarpus

serratus 4. Lannea coromandelica 5 Pennisetum polystachyon 6. Type I

7. Type 4 8. Type 8.

Pollen load 31

1 .Erythrina variegata 2.Lannea coromandelica 3.Pennisetum

polystachyon 4. Terrninalia paniculata 5.Aporosa lindeliyana

6.Xanthophyllum flavescens 7.Schleichera oleosa 8.Lophopetalum

wightianum 9.01ei3 dioica 10. Phyllanthus emblica 11. Tectona grandis

12.Type 1 13.Type 13 14. Type 14 15. Type 15.

Honey sample 44

This was a c13llection from a transient zone between cultivated and

wild species. The pollen combination also showed the dependency of bees

to both the elements (Fig.13)

1 . Cocos nucifera 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Ceiba pentandra 4.Aporosa

lindeliyana 5. Type I 6. Type 3

Honey sample 56

Honey has been collected from a deciduous forest patch with close

vicinity to Coconut laden cultivated land. (Fig.14)

1 . Cocos nuc:ifera 2.Mimosa pudica 3.Lannea coromandelica

4. Careya arborea 5.Lophopetalum wightianum 6.Abutilon indicum 7. DiNenia

5.11 Pdlen Spectrum - HS 19


Fig.13 Pdlen Spectrum - HS 44

Fig.14 Pollen Spectrum - HS 56

pentagyna 8. Terminalia paniculata 9. Phyllanthus emblica 10. Olea dioica

11. Type 1 12. Type 15.

Pollen load 56

All the pollen loads analyzed were multi floral in nature. The loads

were found to harbor ti different species in different combinations.

1 . Cocos nucifera 2. Mimosa pudica 3.Abutilon indicum 4. Phyllanthus

emblica 5.01ea dioica 6. Type 16.

Honey sample 57

Sample is a c;ollection from a deciduous forest patch with riverine

vegetation The cornb has been located in a crevice of the tree

Lophopetalum wightianum. (Fig. 15)

1. Bombax ceiba 2.Cocos nucifera 3.Mimosa pudica 4.Aporosa

lindeliyana 5. Phyllanthus emblica 6. Mimosa invisa 7. Terminalia paniculata

8. Schleichera oleosa 9. Pennisetum polystachyon 10. Holigarna arnottiana

1 I. Dendrophthoe fa1c:ata 12. Dillenia pentagyna 13. Lagerstroemia speciosa

14. Glochidion malaberi(:um 15.Areca catechu 16. Peltophorum pterocarpum

17. Careya arborea 18.Abutilon indicum 19. Vateria indica 20. Hopea ponga

21. Type1

Honey sample 66

The pollen analysis has shown that the sample is a unifloral honey of

Lagerstroemia speciosa. The concentrations of all other grains were meager

and negligible (Fig.16).

1 .Lagerstroemia speciosa 2.Cocos nucifera 3.Areca catechu 4.01ea

dioica 5.Vateria indica 6.Phyllanthus emblica 7.Type 6 8. Type 15.

Pollen load 66

Analysis of the pollen loads showed the presence of both bifloral and

multi floral loads. Lagerstroemia speciosa and Cocos nucifera were present

in almost all pollen loads.

1 . Lagerstroemia speciosa 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Syzygium cumini

4. Mimosa pudica 5.Areca catechu

Honey sample 74

The sample is a traditionally marketed tribal collection and there is

chance for mixing of samples from different hives (Fig.17).

1.Mimosa pudica 2.Cocos nucifera 3.Vateria indica 4.Terminalia

paniculata 5.Penniseturn polystachyon 6.Syzygium cumini 7.Areca catechu

8.Dillenia pentagyna 9.Lannea corornandelica 10.Hopea ponga 11.Type 1

12.Type15 13.Type17.

Honey sample 78

The sample has been collected from Kottur reserve forest near to

one of the tribal settelements. Even though the collection location is within

the forest, the pollen combination showed the presence of cultivated

elements. (Fig.18)

1 .Mimosa pudica 2.Helicterus isora 3.Lagerstroemia speciosa

4,Holigarna arnottians Ei.Terminalia paniculata 6.Cocos nucifera 7.Mallotus

tetracoccus 8.Hopea ponga 9.Dillenia pentagyna 10.Aporosa lindeliyana

11 .Pennisetum polystachyon 12.Type 1 13. Type 15.

I PO~len Spectrum - HS 57

Fig.16 1 Pollen Spectrum - HS 66


M i m e pudltg

mHolim9molblone

.Type1

Wolrerrnlnorgdms

Honey sample 82

The sample has been collected from the interior forest zone having

deciduous, evergreen a~nd semi-evergreen elements. (Fig.19)

1. Lannea coromandelica 2.Bombax ceiba 3. Mimosa pudica

4.Dendrophthoe falcata 51.Phyllanthus emblica 6.Cocos nucifera 7.Aporosa

lindeliyana 8.Bombax insigne 9.Dillenia pentagyna 10.Schleichera oleosa

11. Type 6 12. Type1 73. Type 7 14. Type 18.

Honey sample 93

Sample is a traditional tribal collection from Agastyamala hills where

floristic diversity is its maximum in the district (Fig.20).

1 . Terrninalia panic:ulata 2. Lagerstroemia speciosa 3. Syzygium cumini

4.Dillenia pentagyna 5.Schleichera oleosa 6.Lannea coromandelica

7. Vateria indica 8. Coccxs nucifera 9. Careya arborea 10. Dendrophthoe falcata

1 1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 12. Phyllanthus emblica 13.01ea dioica 14. Type 1

15.Type14 16.Type17.

Honey sample 94

The sample is a traditional tribal collection from the hills of

Bonnoccord. The pollen concentration of Peltophorum pterocarpum was

found to be more in this sample and this may be due to the abundance of

the species in and around the tea plantation there (Fig.21).

1 . Peltophorurn pterocarpurn 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Terminalia paniculata

4.Cocos nucifera 5.Minrosa pudica 6.Vateria indica 7.Lannea coromandelica

8. Holigarna arnottrarra 9. Pennisetum polystachyon 10. Melastoma

malabathricum 1 I . Pttyllanthus emblica 12. Helixanthera wallichiana

13.Adenanthera pavonrna 14. Type 1 15. Type 14 16. Type 17.

Honey sample 101 : ((Fig.22)

1 . Dillenia pentagyna 2.Pennisetum polystachyon 3.Aporosa

lindeliyana 4.Vaterisl indica 5.Syzygium cumini 6.Erythrina variegata

7.Holigarna arnottiana 8. Type 1 9. Type 6 10. Type 19.

B. Apiary samples

32 different apiary samples collected from different parts of the district

were analyzed for species preference of the honeybees. The colour, texture,

flavor and taste of the apiary samples do not showed much differences and

this may be due to the preference for nectar from Hevea trees. Those

apiaries, which were close to the forested highlands, were having more

species preference than those in Rubber plantations.

Honey sample 14: (Fug.23)

1. Cocos nucife,ra 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3.Syzygium cumini 4.Mimosa

pudica 5.Elaeocarpus serratus 6. Terminalia paniculata 7.Hopea ponga

8.Schleichera oleosa 9.Bombax ceiba 10.Aporosa lindeliyana I I .Olea

dioica 12.Phyllanthus ernblica 13.Areca catechu 1 4 . v p e l 15.Type 7

Honey sample 15: (Fig.24)

1.Bombax ceiba 2.Mimosa pudica 3.Schleichera oleosa 4.Syzygium

cumini 5.Dillenia pentagyna 6.Lannea coromandelica 7.Glochidion

malabaricum 8.Aporosa lindeliyana 9.Pennisetum polystachyon

10.Lagerstroemia spec;iosa 11 .Mallotus tetracoccus 12.Phyllanthus emblica

13.Helicterus isora 11 4.Cocos nucifera 15.Adenanthera pavonina

16.Dendrophthoe falcata 17.Ceiba pentandra 18. Terminalia paniculata

19.Hopea ponga 20. Type 7 27. Type 77.

102

7nea coromandelica

~ ~ ~ ~ r n o s a pudica

JApomsa lindeliyana

.TY pe 1

.Other minor grains

= p m P==m DWlanLlgyw

mT-penkrlare .Cooas nue#era

.Type 1

.Other minor grains

1

I1

Dillenia pentagy na

.Pennisehrm polystachyon . Apoma lindeliiana . Sy zygium cumini

.TY ~e 1

.Other mim grains

>

Fig .19 Pollen Spectrum - HS 82


14% 4

25% -


-4) , > 26% 26%

n9.22 Pollen Spectrum - HS 101

6% am


1. Mimosa pudica 2. Bombax ceiba 3. Dillenia pentagyna 4. Syzygium

cumini 5. Cocos nucjfera 6. Schleichera oleosa 7.Aporosa lindeliyana

8. Type 5 9. Type 20


1 . Mallotus tetracoccus 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Cocos nucifera 4. Mimosa

invisa 5. Penniseturn polystachyon 6.Aporosa lindeliyana 7. Dillenia

pentagyna 8.Areca catechu 9.Careya arborea 10.Bombax insigne

11. Tinospora cordifolia 12. Bombax ceiba 13. Ceiba pentandra

14.Adenanthera pavclnina 15. Type 3 16. Type 4 17. Type 7 18. Type 20.

Honey sample 28: (FTig.27)

1 . Cocos nucifera 2. Syzygium cumini 3. Mimosa pudica 4. Pennisetum

polystachyon 5. Hopea ponga 6. Type 3.


1. Mimosa pudica 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Dillenia pentagyna 4.01ea

dioica 5. Ceiba pentandra 6. Pennisetum polystachyon 7. Type 1 8. Type 3

Honey sample 34

1 .Mimosa pudica 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Terminalia paniculata 4.01ea

dioica 5. Type 1 6. Type 3.

Honey sample 35

1 . Schleichera oleosa 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Careya arborea 4. Hopea

ponga 5.Lannea coromandelica 6.Pennisetum polystachyon 7.Type 1.

30% . Mimosa pudica

1 Elaeocarpus serratus

.Type 1

Other minor grains

B. APIARY SAMPLES Fig.23 Pollen Spectrum - HS 14

27%

FEg.24 Pollen Spectrum - HS 15

Fig.25 Pollen Spednim - HS 18


11% 4%

I --

85% -

Bombax ceiba . M imosa pudica . Dillenia pentagy na

H C ocos nucifera

Other minor grains

.Bombax aeiba

M i m o s a pudb

Dienia pen@# na

.Cams nucifera

WMwminargains

Honey sample 36

1. Cocos nuciferal2. Lannea coromandelica 3. Mimosa pudica 4.Type 1

5. Type 3.

Honey sample 37

1 .Cocos nuciferi3 :!.Mimosa pudica 3.Aporosa lindeliyana 4.Typel

5. Type 4

Pollen load 37

1 . Cocos nucife,ra 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Type 1 .

Honey sample 38

1 . Cocos nucifera 2.Lannea coromandelica 3. Impatiens grandiflora

4. Type 1 5. Type 3.

Pollen load 38

1 . Cocos nucifera 2. Careya arborea 3. Mimosa pudica 4. Ceiba

pentandra 5.Areca catechu 6.Dillenia pentagyna 7.Aporosa lindeliyana

8.Hopea ponga 9.Type I 10.Type 3.

Honey sample 39

1 . Cocos nucifera 2. Mimosa pudica 3.Areca catechu 4. Terminalia

paniculata 5. Type 1 6.Type 3.

Honey sample 45

1 . Cocos nucifera 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Mimosa pudica 4. Hopea

ponga 5. Type 1

Honey sample 46

?.Mimosa pudic:a 2.Cocos nucifera 3.Syzygium cumini 4.Achyranthus

aspera 5. Type 1

Honey sample 47

No grains were present

Pollen load 47: Even though no grains were present in the honey of this

sample, the comb was found to contain abundant stores of pollen bread.

I . Mimosa pudica 2. Cocos nucifera 3.Areca catechu 4. Lannea

coromandelica

Honey sample 48

7.Mirnosa pudica 2.Cocos nucifera 3.Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Syzygium cumini 5.Hopea ponga

Honey sample 49

1.Mimosa pudica 2.Cocos nucifera 3.Vateria indica 4.Areca catechu

5.Hopea ponga 6.Type.l 7.Type 8 8.Type 16

Honey sample 50

1. Mimosa pudica 2. Type 1

Hony sample 51

I . Mimosa pudica 2. Cocos nucifera 3.Phyllanthus emblica 4. Syzygium

cumini 5. Schleichera oleosa 6. Type 7

Honey sample 52

7. Mimosa pudica ;?. C:ocos nucifera 3. Type 1

Honey sample 53

1. Mimosa pudica 2'. C:ocos nucifera

Honey sample 54

7.Lagerstroemia speciosa 2.Mimosa pudica 3.Syzygium cumini 4.

Areca catechu 5. Elaeocarpus serratus 6. Erythrina variegata 7.Pennisetum

polystachyon

Honey sample 58

I . Mimosa pudi'ca

Honey sample 65

1.Cocos nucifera 2.Lagerstroemia speciosa 3.Type 1 4. Type 4

Honey sample 67

1. Mimosa pudica 2. Cocos nucifera 3.Aporosa lindeliyana

Honey sample 68

This is a sample that has been collected from an apiary depending

on monoculture plantation of Rubber. Due to the dependency on the extra

floral nectaries, the pollen concentration was very low.

1 . Cocos nucifera 2.Mimosa pudica 3. Lagerstroemia speciosa

4.Syzygium cumini 5. Type 7

Honey sample 71

7.Cocos nucifera 2.Mimosa pudica 3.Bombax ceiba 4.Adenanthera

pavonina 5.01ea dioica 6. Type 21

Honey sample 72

The concentration of the grains was very low and the frequency of

fungal elements was more.

1. Cocos nuci'fera 2.Mimosa pudica 3.01ea dioica 4. Type 20

Pollen load 72

Most of the pollen loads analyzed were unifloral of Mallotus

tetracoccus or bifloral of Mallotus tetracoccus and Cocos nucifera.

1. Mallotus letracoccus 2.Cocos nucifera 3. Dillenia pentagyna

4. Type 2 7

Honey sample 80

Even this sarr~ple has been collected from an apiary in a tribal

settlement in Kottur reserve forest, the pollen combination presented

preferences for cultivated species. (Fig.29)

1 .Mimosa pudica 2.Cocos nucifera 3.Mimosa invisa 4.Areca catechu

5.Syzygium cumin; 6.Pennisetum polystachyon 7. Type 2 8.Type 20

Honey sample 85

1. Mimosa puclica 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Careya arborea 4.Holigarna

arnottiana 5. Hopea ponga 6.Syzygium cumini 6. Type 1

Honey sample 86: (F'ig.30)

1. Dillenia pentagyna 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Vateria indica 4. Lannea

coromandelica 5. Erythrina variegata 6. Cocos nucifera 7. Holigarna arnoffiana

8. Dendrophthoe falcata 9. Pennisetum polystachyon 10. Type 1 1 1. Type 3


1. Mimosa pudica 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Syzygium cumini 4. Areca

catechu 5. Dillenia pentagyna 6. Aporosa lindeliyana 7. Vateria indica 8.

Type 1 9.Type 4

Honey sample 99

I . Mimosa pudica 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Syzygium cumini 4. Type 3

5. Type 8

C. Marketed samples

Honey sample 16

1. Syzygium cunlini 2. Schleichera oleosa 3. Holigarna arnottiana

4. Pennisetum polystachyon 5. Type 2 6 Type 7 7 Type 10 8. Type 20

9. Type 22.

Fg.27 Pollen Spectrum - HS 28

m~~cos nuckn t

Wyrygkrrn mini Mhosapu;dica b n n t s e f u m poQstachywr .mow# .TY p9 3 0th minor grains

Fig.28 Pollen Spectnrm - HS 29


m U m a p d a i . I

. C ~ ~

M h m a Rwisa

.-poly-m

.mRlimr@m


I-- .-* .-- hi@% .Tml .wmmbarm

I 1

6'' '

sample 21

1 . Syzygium cumini 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Ceiba pentandra 4. Mimosa

pudica 5. Terminalia paniculata 6. Pennisetum polystachyon 7. Hopea ponga

8.Aporosa lindeliyana 9. Hyptis suaveolens 10. Caesalpinia bonduc 1 1.Cocos

nucifera 12. Phyllanthus emblica 13. Type 1 14. Type 2 15. Type 7 16. Type

1 7.

Honey sample 22

1. Dillenia pentagyna 2 Mimosa pudica 3. Syzygium cumini 4. Type 1

5. Type 23

Honey sample 40

1. Elaeocarpus serratus 2.Schleichera oleosa 3. Dillenia pentagyna

4. Terminalia paniculata 5. Mimosa invisa 6. Syzygium cumini 7. Mimosa

pudica 8. Lagerstroernia speciosa 9. Caesalpinia bonduc 10. Peltophorum

pterocarpum 1 1. Adenanthera pavonina 12.Pennisetum polystachyon 13.

Bombax ceiba 14.Type 1 15.Type 4 16.Type 5 17.Type 6 18.Type 7

19.Type 17.

Honey sample 41

1 . Syzygium comini 2. Type 5

Honey sample 76

1 .Mimosa pudica 2. Elaeocarpus serratus 3, Terminalia paniculata

4,Schleichera oleosa 5,Dillenia pentagyna 6.Syzygium cumini 7.Aporosa

lindeliyana 8. Mallotus tetracoccus 9. Lannea coromandelica

10. Lagerstroemia speciosa 1 1. Vateria indica 12. Helicterus isora 13. Type

1 14.Type5 15.T2vpe11 16.Type14

IV.2.3.2.3. Apis florea honey ('Cothen')


1 .Vernonia arborea 2. Holigarna arnottiana 3. Mimosa pudica 4. Cocos

nucifera 5. Syzygium crrmini 6.Areca catechu 7. Mallotus tetracoccus

8. Leptonychia moacurroides 9.Aporosa lindeliyana 10. Schleichera oleosa

11. Careya arborea 12.Hopea ponga 13. Hyptis suaveolens 14. Bambusa

arundinacea 15. Helicterus isora 16. Type 3 17. Type7 18. Type 14.

1V.2.3.2.4. Trigona irridipennis honey


1 .Dillenia pentagyna 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3.Lannea coromandelica

4. Vateria indica 5 Heli~~terus isora 6.Bombax ceiba 7.Dendrophthoe falcata

8. Careya arborea 9.Phyllanthus emblica 10.Pennisetum polystachyon

1 1. Bombax insignae 12.Entada rheedii 13. Schleichera oleosa 14.Abutilon

indicum15.Typel 16.Type3 17.Type6 18.Type7


1 .Cocos nucifera 2.Dillenia pentagyna 3.Ceiba pentandra 4.Aporosa

lindeliyana 5.Areca catechi:, 6. Hopea ponga 7. Syzygium cumin; 8. Holigarna

arnottiana 9.Schleichera oleosa 10.Abutilon indicum 11.Vitex altissima

12.Dendrophthoe falcata 13. Terminalia paniculata 14. Erythrina variegata

15. Bombax ceiba 16. Tabernaemontana gamblei 17. Peltophorum

pterocarpum 18. Lannea coromandelica 19. Mallotus tetracoccus 20. Type I

21. Type 4 22. Type 8.

m.31 Pollen Spectrum - HS 92 H A m a ~ d i j m a

. . 7 7% I#

Pollen spectrum of AgSs noma Honey

Wernonia & m a

Holigama amdana .Mimosa pudi . Sy zy gium cumini

.Type 7

Dother minor grains

Pollen spectra of Tdgona iddipenni~ Honey

*.33 Pollen Spectrum - HS 1

Fig.34 Pollen Specbum - HS 4

6% 2%


1 . Dllenia pentagyna 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Terminalia paniculata

4. Helicterus isora 5. Schleichera oleosa 6. Holigarna arnottiana 7.Aporosa

lindeliyana 8. Mallot~~s tetracoccus 9. Careya arborea 10. Elaeocarpus

serratus 1 1.Lannea coromandelica 12. Syzygium cumini 13. Type 1


1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Dillenia pentagyna 4.Areca

catechu 5. Holigarna ,arnottiana 6. Hopea ponga 7. Mallotus tetracoccus

8. Peltophorum pterocarpum 9. Erythrina variegata 10. Helicterus isora

1 1. Phyllanthus embl~ca 12. Tridax procumbens 13. Mimosa pudica

14. Pennisetum polystachyon 15.Abutilon indicum 16. Dendrophfhoe falcata

17. Bombax ceiba 18. Madhuca longifolia 19.Caesalpinia bonduc 20. Type 1

21. Type 24.

Pollen load 7

1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Holigarna arnottiana

4.Helicterus isora 5.Dendrophthoe falcata 6.Peltophorum pterocarpum

7.Abutilon indicum 8. Hopea ponga 9. Dillenia pentagyna 1 0. Pennisetum

polystachyon I 1. S!l/z,vgium cumini 12.Areca catechu 13. Cocos nucifera

14. Vateria indica '(5. Phyllanthus emblica 16. Ceiba pentandra 17. Entada

rheedii 18. Bombax ceiba 19. Terminalia paniculata 20. Merremia tridentata

21. Hyptis suaveolens 22. Tridax procumbens 23. Type 1 24.Type 7

25.Type 24.


1.Aporosa lindeliyana 2,Peltophorum pterocarpum 3.Holigarna arnottiana

4. Dillenia pentagyna 5. Dendrophthoe falcata 6. Hopea ponga 7.Helicterus

isora 8. Cocos nucifera 9. Pennisetum polystachyon 10. Terminalia paniculata

1 1.Areca catechu 12. Mimosa pudica 13. Bombax insignae 14. Ceiba

pentandra 15. Vateria indica 16.Abutilon indicum 17.Type 1 1 18.Type 24.

Pollen load 8

1 .Aporosa lintiel'iyana 2. Cocos nucifera 3. Peltophorum pterocarpum

4. Pennisetum polystachyon 5.Areca catechu 6. Vateria indica 7. Holigarna

arnottiana 8. Syzygiurrr cumini 9. Mimosa pudica 10. Dillenia pentagyna

1 1. Helixanthera wallichiana 12. Terminalia paniculata 13. Helicterus isora

14.Abutilon indicum 15. Caesalpinia bonduc 16. Phyllanthus emblica

17. Terremia tridentafa 18.Ceiba pentandra 19.Type 1 20.Type 7 21 .Type

11 22. Type 24.


1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3.Holigarna arnottiana

4. Vateria indica 5.Areca catechu 6. Pennisetum polystachyon 7. Mallotus

tetracoccus 8.Cocos: nucifera 9.Adenanthet-a pavonina 10.Syzygium cumini

1 1. Helicterus isora '12. Ceiba pentandra 13. Mimosa pudica 14.Type 1

15.Type 7 .

Pollen load 10

1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Holigarna arnottiana

4.Pennisetum polystachyon 5.Adenanthera pavonina 6.Syzygium cumini

7. Helicterus isora 8. Ceiba pentandra 9. Mimosa pudica 10.Abutilon indicum

m.36 Pallen Spectrum - HS 7

1

F19 -38 Pollen Spectrum - HS 10

. m a W l y ana

DCm m b

Diknb pw@y na

DAw *h

n M a l o l u s ~ c c u s

n Helldsnra iswa . 8ombax ceibe

Olher mlm grains

11. Caesalpinia bonduc 12. Careya arborea 13.Areca catechu 14. Cocos

nucifera 15. Dendrophthoe falcata 16. Terminalia paniculata 7 7. Vateria indica

18. Gmelina arborea 19. Type 1.

Honey sample 11 : (Fig.39)

1 .Aporosa lincleliyana 2. Mimosa pudica 3.Areca catechu 4. Vateria

indica 5.Pennisetum polystachyon 6.Careya arborea 7.Bombax ceiba

8. Dillenia pentagyr~a 9. Syzygium cumini 10. Dendrophthoe falcata

1 I. Holigarna arnottiana 72Phyllanthus emblica 13.Peltophorum

pterocarpum 14.Cocos nucifera 15.Abutilon indicum 16.Lannea

coromandelica 17.,4denanthera pavonina 18. Mallotus tetracoccus

19. Helecterus isora :!O.Type 1 21 .Type 4.


1 . Dillenia pentagyna 2. Helecterus isora 3. Syzygium cumini

4.Pennisetum polystachyon 5.Areca catechu 6. Cocos nucifera 7. Vateria

indica 8.Aporosa lindeliyana 9.01ea dioica 10. Mimosa pudica 1 1. Holigarna

arnottiana 12. Peltophorum pterocarpum 18Schleichera oleosa 14. Type 7

15. Type 7.

Honey sample 13

1 .Bombax ceiba 2.Dillenia pentagyna 3.Cocos nucifera 4.Pennisetum

polystachyon 5. Helecirerus isora 6. Mimosa pudica 7. Terminalia paniculata

8.Elaeocarpus seriratus 9.Aporosa lindeliyana 10. Mallotus tetracoccus

1 1 .Adenanthefa palvonina 12.Schleichera oleosa 13. Lannea coromandelica

14. Holigarna arnottiana 15.Abutilon indicum 16.Entada rheedii

1 7. Lagerstroemia speciosa 18. Syzygium cumini 1 9. Dendrophthoe falcata

20.Phyllanthus emblic,a 2l.Areca catechu 22.Vateria indica 23.Erythrina

variegata 24. Type 2 25. Type 4 26. Type 5 27. Type 7 28. Type 17.


1.Bombax ceiba 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3.Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Mallotus tetracoccl~s 5.Phyllanthus emblica 6. Lannea coromandelica

7. Dillenia pentagyna 8.Areca catechu 9. Dendrophthoe falcata 10. Madhuca

latifolia 1 1. SchleicheiVa oleosa 12. Mimosa pudica 13. Tinospora cordifolia

14.Helicterus isora :t 5. Cocos nucifera 16. Etythrina variegata 17.Abutilon

indicum 18. Vateria indica 19. Gmelina arborea 20.Type 6 21 .Type 7

22,Type 14 23.Type 22.

Honey sample 23: (Fig1.42)

1 .Bombax ceiba 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4.Caesalpinia bonduc 6.Phyllanthus emblica 6.Abutilon indicum 7. Mallotus

tetracoccus 8. Lannea coromandelica 9. Dillenia pentagyna 10.Syzygium

cumin; I I . Olea dioica 12. Tinospora cordifolia 13. Terrninalia paniculata

14.Xanthophyllum flavescens 15.Madhuca latifolia 16.Schleichera oleosa

I 7. Tabernaernontana gamble; 18. Melastoma malabathricum

19. Dendrophthoe falcata 20. Type 1 21. Type 5 22. Type 6 23. Type 8 24.

Type 17.

Pollen load 23

1.Aporosa lindeliyana 2.01ea dioica 3.Abutilon indicum 4.Lannea

coromandelica 5. Terrninalia paniculata 6.Bornbax ceiba 7.Schleichera

oleosa 8.Penniseturn polystachyon 9.Phyllanthus emblica 10. Type I


.Aporosa limieliy ana

.Mimosa m a . Pennisebm pdystachy on . Dillenla pentagy nrr

.Type 1

O t h e r minor grains

Flg.40 Pollen Spectrum - HS 12 D I M m y n a

Heliilerus ism

Sy zy glum cunhi

Aporosa l i i a m

Io(hermsnorqrrlris


Fig .42 .Bombax cdb

Pollen Spectrum - HS 23 ¤ ~pmm ~indeiiy ana

6% 7% 2% .Penism potys1achyon 33% - '$

n DiUenla pemagy na

n Lanm m W a 6% n TennhiUa panlcum --

15% .Type 1 21 % n Other minor grakw

7


?.Bombax ceil~a 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3,Pennisetum polystachyon

4,Schleichera oieosa 5.Phyiianthus emblica 6.Syzygium cumini 7.Lannea

coromandeiica 8.Dillenia pentagyna 9.Abutiion indicum 10.Dendrophthoe

falcata I I . Type 1 1'2. Type 4. 13. Type 6.

Pollen load 24

1 .Bombax cerbs~ 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4,Caesalpinia bonduc 5.Xanthophyilum flavescens 6.Abutilon indicum

7.Mallotus tetracoccus 8. Erythrina variegata 9.Schleichera oieosa 10. Lannea

corornandelica I I . Type 1 12. Type 6.


1.Bombax ceiba 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3.Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Terminalia paniculata 5. Elaeocarpus serratus 6.Syzygium cumini 7. Lannea

corornandeiica 8. S~?hleichera oleosa 9. Phylianthus embiica 10.Abutilon

indicum 11.Achyrar;rthus aspera 12.Type 1 13.Type 6 14.Type 7

15.Type 17.

Pollen load 25

1 . Bombax ceiba 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Schleichera oleosa 5. Caesalpinia bonduc 6. Mallotus tetracoccus

7.Xanthophyiium flavescens 8.Lannea coromandelica 9.Commelina diffusa

10.Holigarna arnottiana 1 1. Dilienia pentagyna 12.0iea dioica 13.Abutiion

indicum 14.Type 1 15.Type 6 16.Type 7.


1. Bombax ceiba 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4.Abutilon persicum 5.Peltophorum pterocarpum 6.01ea dioica 7.Schleichera

oleosa 8.Dendrophthoe falcata 9.Terminalia paniculata 10.Type 6

11.Type 17

Pollen load 26

1.Aporosa lindeliyana 2.Pennisetum polystachyon 3,Dillenia pentagyna

4.Bombax ceiba 5.Schleichera oleosa 6.01ea dioica 7.Achyranthus aspera

8. Bombax ceiba 9. Dendrophthoe falcata 1O.Xanthophyllum flavescens 1 1. Type

1 12. Type 6.


1. Bombax ceiba 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Cocos nucifera 5. /Mimosa pudica 6. Dillenia pentagyna 7. Lagerstroemia

speciosa 8.Areca catechu 9. Vateria indica 10.Careya arborea 11. Lannea

coromandelica 12.Xanthophyllum flavescens 13.Ma/lotus tetracoccus

14.Dendrophthoe falcata 15. Tinospora cordifolia 16. Type 1 17. Type 6

18. Type 14 19. Type 1 7.

Honey samle 30: (Fig.47)

l .01eadioica2. iry~~e1 3.Type6 4.Type7.

Pollen load 30

1. Olea dioica 2. Syzygium cumini 3.Xanthophyllum flavescens 4. Lannea

coromandel~ca 5.Abutik~n indicum 6.Aporosa lindeliyana 7.Elaeocarpus serratus

8.Erythrina variegata 9.Terminalia paniculata 1O.Sachleichera oleosa

1 1. Holigarna arnottiana 12. Mallotus tetracoccus 13. Melastoma malabathricum

14. Type 1 15. Type 25.

Fig .43 Pollen Specbum - HS 24

mJ 944 Pollen Spectrum - HS 25

Flg.45 Pollen Spectrum - HS 26

.Bank ceiba

.Apolrraa I W i a n a

Pmnbekirn poly s k h y an

.TermineBa ~~ Other mlna gralns

I


1 .Pennisetum polystachyon 2. Bombax ceiba 3. Dillenia pentagyna

4.Aporosa lindeliyana 5. Mallotus tetracoccus 6. Schleichera oleosa 7. Olea

dioica 8.Areca catecliu 9. Terminalia paniculata 10. Lannea coromandelica

1 1 .Phyllanthus emblica 12. Mimosa pudica 13, Bombax insigne 14. Vateria

indica 15.Abutilon indicum 16.Dendrophthoe falcata 17.Type 1 18.Type 3

19.Type 5 20. Type 6. 21. Type 7.


1 . Vateria indicsl 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Cocos nucifera 4. Pennisetum

polystachyon 5.Lannea coromandelica 6.Areca catechu 7.Syzygium cumini

8. Passiflora foetida 9. Careya arborea 10. Mimosa pudica 1 1. Holigarna

arnottiana 12.Ceiba pentandra 13. Type 1 14.Type 3.


1 . Vateria indica 2.Mimosa pudica 3.Areca catechu 4 Cocos nucifera

5. Careya arborea 6. Pennisetum polystachyon 7. Passiflora foetida 8. Type 1

Pollen load 43

1 . Vateria indica 2. Careya arborea 3. Mimosa pudica 4.Pennisetum

polystachyon 5.Areca catechu 6.Ceiba pentandra 7,Lannea coromandelica

8. Cocos nucifera 9.Pas.siflora foetida 10. Dillenia pentagyna 11. Syzygium

cumini 12. Type 1 l : 3 . Type 4 14. Type 6 15. Type 1'7.


1 . Cocos nucifera 2. Bombax ceiba 3,Phyllanthus emblica

4. Dendrophthoe falcafa 5. Holigarna arnottiana 6.Areca catechu 7. Vateria

indica 8. Syzygium c4uniini 9. Terminalia paniculata 10. Careya arborea

n9.47 Pollen Spectrum - HS 30

1 OY-

R9.48 Pollen Spectrum - HS 33

Pmiseium polystxhyon 1 I Bombax mba

10% W Dlllenia pen%lgy m I / \ g o r o ~ % IbKte8ym .TY P 1 Iolherrnimrgsaim

Fig .49 Pollen Spectrum - HS 42 IVateria indica

B Penniaebrn p l y stachy on , - b

I mwmpglta94rniil

Olher minor grahm

Fi.50 Pollen Spectrum - HS 43

Mimosa pudia 1 I

mcaC40 wba

. T m f

Other minor graina

-- m I -*

rn

17.Delonix regia ?2.ilophopetalum wightianum 13. Type 1 14.Type 3

15,Type 15 16.Type 1 7 .

Polen load 55

1 .Cocos nucifera 2.Areca catechu 3.Vateria indica 4.Careya arborea

5.Syzygium cumini 6.Phyllanthus ernblica 7.Aporosa lindeliyana

8. Dendrophthoe falciita 9. Mallotus tetracoccus 10. Lagerstroemia speciosa

11. Madhuca lafifoliii~ 12,Bornbax ceiba 13. Ceiba pentandra 14.Lannea

corornandelica 15.Hc1ligarna arnottiana 16.Peltophorum pterocarpum

17Terrninalia paniculata 18. Type 1 19.Type 4 20.Type 15 21 .Type 17.


1 .Phyllanfhus emblica 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Mimosa pudica

4. Lannea coromandel/ca 5. Elaeocarpus serratus 6,Pennisetum polysfachyon

7. Dendrophthoe falcata 8. Bombax ceiba 9.Xanthophyllum flavescens

10. Vateria indica 1f.Syzygium cumini 12. Mallotus tetracoccus 13. Melastoma

malabathricurn 14.Areca cafechu Id Bombax insignae 16.Schleichera

oleosa 17.Adenanthera pavonina 18.Ageratum conyzoides 19.Mirnosa invisa

20. Terminalia paniculata 21. Type 1 22.Type 5 23.Type 6 24.Type 7

25. Type 14.

Pollen load 59

1.Bornbax ceiba 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3.Lannea coromandelica

4.Xanfhophyllurn flavescens 5.Bambusa arundinacea 6.Areca catechu

7.Entada rheedii 8.Adenanthera pavonina 9.Syzygium cumini 1O.Dillenia

pentagyna 11.Type '1 12.Type 3 13.Type 6 14.Type 7.


1 . Lannea corornandelica 2. Bombax ceiba 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Tinospora cordifolii3 5. Phyllanthus emblica 6.Areca catechu 7. Mimosa

pudica 8.Elaeocarpus serratus 9.Syzygium cumini 10.Dillenia pentagyna

I 1. Mallotus tetracoccus 12. Entada rheedii 13. Terminalia paniculata

14. Schleichera oleosa 15. Cocos nucifera 16. Dendrophthoe falcata

17. Hopea ponga 18.Abutilon indicum 19.Bombax insignae 20. Mimosa invisa

21.Holigarna arnottiana 22.Erythrina variegata 23.Type 1 24.Type 4

25.Type 5 26.Type 6 27.Type 7 28.Type 22.

Pollen load 60

1 . Phyllanthus ernblica 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Lannea coromandelica

4.Cocos nucifera 5.Hombax ceiba 6.Aporosa lindeliyana 7.Syzygium cumini

8. Mimosa pudica 9.Mallotus tetracoccus 1O.Adenanthera pavonina 11. Type

1 12.Type 6 13.Type 7 14.Type 23.


1 . Pennisetum polystachyon 2. Mimosa pudica 3.Aporosa lindeliyana

4. Elaeocarpus serratus 5. Dillenia pentagyna 6. Mallofus tetracoccus

7.Lannea corornandelica 8.Areca catechu 9.Xanthophyllum flavescens

1O.Abutilon indicum 1l.Syzygium cumini 12.Careya arborea 13.Tinospora

cordifolia 14. Melastoma rnalabathricum 15.Bombax insignae 16. Terminalia

paniculata 1 7. Schleichera oleosa 18. Dendrophthoe falcata 19. Hopea ponga

20. Phyllanthus ernblica 21. Bombax ceiba 22.Adenanthera pavonina

23.Cocos nucifera i14.'Type 1 25.Type 4 26.Type 5 27.Type 6 28.Type

7 29.Type 17 30.T'ype 24.

Fig.52 Pdlen Spectrum - HS 59


Fig.54 Pollen Speetrum - HS 61

WBombax ceiba W Phy llanthus mblka l Sy zy gium cumin1 Term ina l i a p&J& 'Type 5 '"

Ifher minor grains

Phy llanthus emblica

Mrnpsnlagyna Mimosa pudicu W Lannea cmandelica

Uaeocarpus a m b s Sy zy gim curniri

O t t e r minw grains

Pennisehm poly stachy UAporosa lindsliana

Elaeocarpus serrak~~ Dllleni pentagy na . Malobs letrecoccus

L a m a comanddica .@her minor grains

Pollen load 61

1.Pennisetum polystachyon 2.Mallotus tetracoccus 3.01ea dioica

4.Aporosa lindeliyana 5.Bombax ceiba 6.Holigarna arnottiana 7.Syzygium

cumini 8.Abutilon indicum 9. Bombax insignae 10. Cocos nucifera 11. Mimosa

pudica 12. Hopea ponga 13.Dillenia pentagyna 14.Type 1 15.Type 4

16.Type 5 17 Type 7 18.Type 15.


1.Pennisetum polystachyon 2.Mimosa pudica 3.Aporosa lindeliyana

4. Elaeocarpus senatus 5.Dillenia pentagyna 6. Mallotus tetracoccus

7.Lannea coromandelica 8.Areca catechu 9.Abutilon indicum 10.Syzygium

cumini 1 1. Careya arborea 12. Melastoma malabathricum 13. Bombax

insignae 14. Terminalia paniculata 15. Schleichera oleosa 16,Dendrophthoe

falcata 17.Phyilanthus ernblica 18.Bombax ceiba 19.Cocos nucifera

20.Erythrina indica 21.Holigarna arnoffiana 22.Vateria indica 23.Type 1

24.Type 3 25.Type 4 26.Type 5 27.Type 6 28.Type 7 .

Pollen load 62

1.Lannea coromandelica 2.Hopea ponga 3.Cocos nucifera 4.Areca

catechu 5.Syzygium cumunii 6.Mallotus tetracoccus 7.Bombax ceiba

8.Lannea coromandelica 9.Type 1 1O.Type 5 11 .Type 6 12.Type 7.

Honey sample 63: (F'ig.56)

1 .Pennisetum polystachyon 2.Mimosa pudica 3.Aporosa lindeliyana

4. Elaeocarpus serratus 5.Dillenia pentagyna 6. Mallotus tetracoccus

7.Lannea corornarudelica 8.Areca catechu 9.Abutilon indicum 10.Syzygium

cumini 1 1. Tinospora cordifolia 12.Bombax insignae 13. Terminalia paniculata

14,Schleichera oleosa IS. Hopea ponga 16. Phyllanthus emblica 17. Bombax

ceiba 18.Cocos nucifera 19.Vateria indica 20.Type 1 21 .Type 5 22.Type

6 23.Type 7 24.Type '14.

Pollen load 63

1 . Penniseturn polystachyon 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Mallotus tetracoccus

4. Bombax ceiba 5. COCO:~ nucifera 6. Vateria indica 7. Holigarna arnoftiana

8.Type 1 9.Type 5 10.Type 7 11 .Type 19.


1 . Penniseturn polystachyon 2. Mimosa pudica 3. Dillenia pentagyna

4. Mallotus tetracoccus 5. Lannea coromandelica 6.Areca catechu 7.Abutilon

indicurn 8. Syzygrurn cumini 9. Bombax insignae 1 0. Schleichera oleosa

11. Hopea ponga 12. Phyllanthus emblica 13. Bombax ceiba 14. Cocos

nucifera 15. Vateria indica 16. Melastoma malabathricum 17. Ceiba pentandra

18.Xanthophyllurn flavescens 19.Type 6 20.Type 7 21 .Type 17

22.Type 20.

Pollen load 64

1 . Penniseturn polystachyon 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Mallotus

tetracoccus 4.Abutilon indicurn 5.Syzygium curnini 6.Terminalia paniculata

7. Phyllanthus ernblica 8. Cocos nucifera 9. Melastoma malabathricum

10.Type 5 11 .Type 6 I;!.Type 7

Honey sample 73: (Fig 3 8 )

1. Penniseturn po1,ystachyon 2. Mimosa pudica 3.Aporosa lindeliyana

4.Dillenia pentagyna 5i.Lannea corornandelica 6.Areca catechu 7.Syzygium

cumini 8. Phyllanthus emblica 9. Bombax ceiba 10. Cocos nucifera

>& Fig.55 W Pennlsetum pdysgchym Pollen Spectrum - HS 62 W Aporosa IlndeHyana I

'

' r

7'Y 12% . Elaeocarpus swabs

.#llen~a penttbgyna ? H Mallotus t m . Phy llanha emMia

H Lannea comandelica

Ofher minor grains

Fig.56 Pollen Spectrum - HS 63 w Penn~seturn po~y slachy on

6% 5% WAporosa l~ndel~yana

5Y I Ebeocarpus serratus

B Dillenia pentagy na

lum cumlnl .SPY g'

Lama c o r o m w c a

W O h i minor gains

Fig.57 Pollen Spectrum - HS 64 Pennismrn pdyshhyan

W Mimosa pudiia 10% 6% Mallolus b m s

Rlkma psnegy na

D S y zygiun cumin1 W Lannea womandeiica

Schlslcheradeosa .OUrermimrgmins

Fig .58 Pollen Spectrum - HS 73 B PenniseBon p l y sfachy on

Mimosa pudca

694 8% 3% bApoma Ilndellyana 15%

r r l r 5K A - h r n ~ p e n l a g y ~ @ ? n e a c a r o t n ~ c a

I

I r--

I J p z y l i m cumin1

dType2

47% A

. Olhat minor grains

r

1 1. Vateria indica 1 :!.tfoligarna arnottiana 13. Dendrophthoe falcata

14. Entada rheedii 15.Csreya arborea 16.Type 1 17.Type 15 18.Type 20.


1.Penniseturn polystachyon 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3.Dillenia

pentagyna 4. Mallotus tetracoccus 5. Lannea coromandelica 6.Areca catechu

7. Terminalia paniculata 8. Vateria indica 9. Holigarna arnottiana 10. Helicterus

isora 11. Careya arborea 12. Entada rheedii 13.Cocos nucifera 14. Type7.

Pollen load 79

1 . Penniseturn polystachyon 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Dillenia

pentagyna 4. Mallotus tetracoccus 5. Lannea coromandelica 6.Areca

catechu 7.Bombax insignae 8.Terminalia paniculata 9.Schleichera oleosa

10. Phyllanthus emblica 1 1. Vateria indica 12. Holigarna arnottiana

13. Dendrophthoe falcate 14.Phyllanthus emblica 15. Helicterus isora

16.Careya arborea 17.Type 4 18.Type 6 19.Type 7 20. Type 20.


1.Pennisetum polystachyon 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3.Areca catechu

4.Phyllanthus emblica 5.Vateria indica 6.Melastoma malabathricum

7. Mimosa pudica 8. Tridax procumbens 9. Helixanthera wallichiana 10. Hyptis

suaveolens 1 1. Peltoplhorum pterocarpum 12. Cocos nucifera 13. Type 1.

Pollen load 81

1.Pennisetum polystachyon 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3.Areca catechu

4. Mimosa pudica 5. Hyptis suaveolens 6. Cocos nucifera 7. Hopea ponga

8. Tridax procumben:? 9. Lantana camara 10. Caesalpinia bonduc

1 1. Syzygiurn cumini 12.Abutilon indicum 13. Dendrophthoe falcata

14. Terminalia panici~lata 15. Stachetarpheta indica 16. Dillenia pentagyna

17,Adenanthera pavonina 18.Ceiba pentandra 19,Helixanthera wallichiana

20.01ea dioica 21.1-ype 1 21 .Type 3 22.Type 14 23.Type 17

24.Type 24.


1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2. Pennisetum polystachyon 3. Bombax ceiba

4.Bombax insignae 5.Careya arborea 6.Areca catechu 7.Cocos nucifera

8. Mallotus tetrac~c~cus 9. Dendrophthoe falcata 1O.Abutilon persicum

1 I. Dillenia penyag,yna 12. Vateria indica 13. Lannea coromandelica

14. Helicterus isora 15. Terminalia paniculata 16. Holigarna arnottiana 1 7.Type

6 18.Type14.

Honey sample 84: (179.62)

1 .Mimosa pudica 2.Aporosa lindeliyana 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Careya arborea 5. Areca catechu. 6.Cocos nucifera7. Mallotus tetracoccus

8.Dendrophthoe falcata 9. Dillenia pentagyna 10.Syzygium cumini 11. Vateria

indica 12.Hyptis suaveolens 13. Phyllanthus emblica 14.Holigarna arnottiana

15. Passiflora foetida 16.Helicterus isora 17. Schleichera oleosa 18.Type 1

19.Type 6 20.Type 26 21 .Type 24.


1.Aporosa lindeliyana 2.Pennisetum polystachyon 3.Bombax ceiba

4. Bombax insignae 5. Careya arborea 6. Cocos nucifera 7. Mallotus

tetracoccus 8. Dendrophthoe falcata 9.Abutilon persicum 10. Dillenia

pentagyna I 1. Ceiba pentandra 12. Vateria indica 13. Lannea coromandelica

14.Type 1 15.Type 4 16.Type 7 17.Type 17.

Rg.59 P d h Spectrum - HS 79

44% w Lamma camma- J .VaBMhm

Wltw r n b gains


Mimosa @ice

1 1 5 2 % W T y p 1

O t h e r minor grabs



Mimosa pudiea

U&ma M i a n a H Pends&rn pdyskfyon

001er minar grains

Pollen load 87

1.Aporosa lindel~yana 2,Pennisetum polystachyon 3.Bombax ceiba

4. Bornbax insignae !i. C:areya arborea 6. Mallotus tetracoccus 7. Entada

rheedii 8.Abutilon persicurn 9.Dillenia pentagyna 1O.Syzygium cumini

11. Vateria indica 12. Lannea coromandelica 13.Lophopetalum wightianum

14.Type 1 15.Type 4 '16.Type 6 17.Type 7 18.Type 22 19.Type 26.


1 . Dillenia pentagyna 2.Penniseturn polystachyon 3. Vateria indica

4.Mallotus tetracoccirs 5.Type 1 6.Type 4 7.Type 6 8.Type 7 .

Pollen load 88

1.Dillenia pentagyna 2.Syzygiurn cumini 3,Dendrophthoe falcata

4. Pennisetum polystachyon 5.Bornbax ceiba 6.Bombax insignae 7.Ceiba

pentandra 8.Areca catechu 9. Cocos nucifera 10. Vateria indica 1 1. Mallotus

tetracoccus 12.Type 1 13.Type 4 14.Type 6 15.Type 7 .

Pollen load 89

1 . Aporosa lirtdeliyana 2. Syzygiurn cumini 3. Penniseturn polystachyon

4. Bornbax ceiba 5. Bombax insignae 6. Ceiba pentandra 7. Careya arborea

8.Areca catechu 9. Cocos nucifera 10. Olea dioica 1 1. Mallotus tetracoccus

12. Dendrophthoe falcata 13. Entada rheedii 14.Abutilon indicurn

15. Peltophorum pterocarpurn 16. Melastoma malabathricum 17.Type 1

18.Type 4 19.Type 6 2O.Type 7.

Pollen load 90

1 .Aporosa lincleliyana 2.Syzygiurn cumini 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4.Bornbax ceiba !?.Bombax insignae 6. Ceiba pentandra 7. Careya arborea

8.Areca catechu. 9. Cocos nucifera 10.01ea dioica 1 1. Mallotus tetracoccus

12. Dendrophthoe falcata 13. Entada rheedii 14.Abutilon indicurn

15.Caesalpinia bonduc 16.Type 1 17.Type 6 18.Type 7

Pollen load 95

1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2.Dillenia pentagyna 3.Lannea coromandelica

4.Helicterus isora 5.Penniseturn polystachyon 6. Bombax ceiba 7. Bombax

insignae 8. Ceiba pentandra 9. Careya arborea 1O.Phyllanthus ernblica

1 1. Olea dioica 12. Vateria indica 13. Tridax procumbens 14. Tinospora

cordifolia 15. Mallotus tetracoccus 16. Terrninalia paniculata 17.Dendrophthoe

falcata 18. Schleichera oleosa 19. Terminalia paniculata 20.Elythrina

variegata 21. Type 'I 22.Type 3 23.Type 7

Pollen load 96

1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Lannea coromandelica

4.Bornbax ceiba 5.Hombax insignae 6.Phyllanthus emblica 7.01ea dioica

8. Vateria indica 9. Type 15.


1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2. Dillenia pentagyna 3. Lannea coromandelica

4.Helicterus /sofa 5.Syzygium cumini 6.Dendrophthoe falcata 7.Penniseturn

polystachyon 8. Bombax ceiba 9. Bornbax insignae 10. Peltophorum

pterocarpum 1 1. Ceiba pentandra 12. Careya arborea 13.Areca catechu

14.Passiflora foeticia 15. Cocos nucifera 16.Hopea ponga 1 7. Type 1

18.Type 6 19.Type 7 .

Pollen load 97

1 .Aporosa lindeliyana 2,Dillenia pentagyna 3. Lannea corornandelica

4.Syzygium cumini 5.Vateria indica 6.Schleichera oleosa 7.01ea dioica

8. Phyllanthus emblica 9. Iype 1 10.Type 15.


1 . Lannea coromarvdelica 2. Bombax ceiba 3. Pennisetum polystachyon

4. Tinospora cordifolia 5. Phyllanthus emblica 6.Aporosa lindeliyana

7. Dillenia pentagyna 8. Careya arborea 9. Vateria indica 10. Helicterus isora

??.Type 7 12.Type 15 13.Type 20

Analysis of pollen grains in honey and pollen loads indicated the

presence of 58 different identified species, of which 26 of them were

frequent in the samples; and about 26 species in chance occurrence with one

or two grains in each sample. Graphical representations of the frequency

distribution of the incidence of 26 major species in the honey samples are

given in Fig.67. Species having distribution in more than 10 samples are

taken for this graphical representation.

The Apis dorsata bees preferred 20 different species, Apis cerana in

apiary condition 31 species, in wild habitat 34 species, in market samples 24

species, Apis florea 15 species and Trigona irridipennis 52 species. This

shows the wide range of diversification in diet preference of Trigona

irridipennis.

The dominant species in each sample were identified with reference

slides and the details of dominance of individual species in samples are


Pemisehm polysbcttym . WUlenla perrtagy lta

Bombax cdba . Lannea c-

.TY Pe 4 Ogrer minor gralns

n9-64 Pollen Spectrum - HS 88 hnisdum poly sbchy on . Diknk pentagy na

11% . V W Mica

3% . MalloCls letracoaxcs

J 9% ::; c o m m a ~ m

/ BTvm 7

m.65 Pollen Spectrum - HS 97 UAporosa Ihddyana

I Dilenia penw na

H Lannea cwomanddlca

.Type 1

Wer minor grains

Fig .66 Wlen Spectrum - HS 98 . Ptporosa l Wi ana . OiPlenia pentagy na . Lannea cumanddim . Bombax ceiba

Other m i m grains

summarized in table 6. This showed the dominance of 22 different species

in the samples. The species were listed in the order of dominance as Dl, D2

and D3. This indicates the fact that these species can offer better resources

for the honeybees and can contribute to the honey production of the district.

lV.2.3.3. Resources for honey production

The frequency distribution of the incidence of different species in the

honey samples showed that out of the 58 identified and 26 chance species,

26 of them were frequent in the samples (Fig. 67), each with distribution in

10 - 70 samples. At th~e same time the dominance of species in individual

samples (Table 6) showed 22 species as dominant ones in honey samples.

A critical analysis of the data shows that 17 species share the

dominance and frequency (Fig.68) and contribute the major resources for

the apiculture industry. Table 7 summarizes the dominant and frequent

species and contribution of the resource as nectar, pollen or both.

The difference in data in frequency distribution and dominance of

individual species shows the importance of all these 3ldifferent species in

the apiculture industry in this part of the state. Even it can be concluded that

17 species recorded both as frequent in the samples and dominant in

individual samples be regarded as the key resources for beekeeping.

Table.6. Dominant species in honey samples

Dillenia pentagyna Aporosa lindeliyana Dillenia pentagyna

I-Mirnosa pudica 1 Terminalia paniculata -1 Mimosa pudica Terminalia paniculata

-- Cocas nucifera b*

Aporosa lindeliyana Elaeocarpus serratus

1 6 / Schlerchera oleosa / Dillenia pentagyna I

1 - I I

I I ( Dillenia pentagyna 1 Cocos nucifera

-- - -- I

speciosa -sa pudca Cocos nucifera

~- ~ p ~ p ~ ~

lindeliyans'

I Dilienia pentagyna 7 Mimosa pudica

I I

Mimosa pudica 1

14 / Mimosapudica I Elaeocarpus serratus i I -

_t - --__ 112 1 hilennia pentagyna

I

- q u ~ a ~ p & ~ - Bombax ceiba I

Dillenia pentagyna

I Helictenrs isora

17 1 Bombax ceiba 1 Aporosa lindeliyana 1 Mallotus tetracoccus I

-

. -~ ~ -- 1 IS 1 Brrnbax ceiba 1 I

Mimosa pudica Dillenia pentagyna

Cocos nucifera

1 20 1 Mimosa pudica I Mallotus tetracoccus 1 - I I Syzrgrum cunlini I - I - I

.- - PT/ Bombax ceiba Aporosa lindeliyana - F T ~ BGbax cerba Aporosa lindeliyana

/ 26 1 Bombax ceiba I Pennisetum polystachyon

~ * ; G ~ ~ T " G G I I I Bombax ceiba

( 28 1 Cocos nucifera I I

- -~ - -- - Melastoma malabathricum i Elaeocarpus serratus

t-

D~llen~a pentagyna

1 37 1 Cocos nucifera / Mimosa pudica I

. - --__i

~ ~ 1 a e o c a r p u . s serratus I Schle~chera oleosa

1 4 1 I - 1 Syzygium cumin; I

Vateria indica ( Lannea coromandelica

Vateria indica

Pennisefum polystachyon

Aporosa lindeliyana

Pennisetum polystachyon

Dillenia pentagyna I

Dillenia pentagyna I

Cocos nucifera !===I

~

Cocas nucifera

~ 1 1 Mimosa pudica

Mimosa pudica

1 55 Cocos nucifera 1 - v ~ s a pudica

I

1 Lannea coromandelica

. - - -- - - bornba bar ceiba +sa hdeliyana Cocos nucifera

t - 5 ~ ~ ~ a n i h G G ~ ~ a I I

Dillenia pentagyna ( Lannea coromandelica

1 60 1 Lannea coromandelica / Bombax ceiba 1 .

_i I 62 , Elaeocarpus serrafus t l Lannea coromandelica

1 63 / Pennisetum polystachyon I Aporosa lindeliyana I Elaeocarpus serratus

~ ~ ~ ~ s n n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t a c h y o n 1 Mallotus letracoccus Schleichera oleosa

speciosa Mimosa pudica Cocos nucifera - -L ~-

Mimosa pudica 1- p ] O i e a d ~ o i c a --- Lagerstroemia speciosa

I

Cocos nuofera

-

~ ~ b+porosa hdeliysna -1- : Mimosa pudica

h-t;;;imosa ~ d r - ! Vateria indica ( Cocos nucifera

R-T- ~ - ~ - ~

Mimosa pudica Elaeocarpus serratus -I----+

Lannea coromandelica


Mallotus tetracoccus

/ 85 ( Cocos nuofera 1 Mimosa pudica I - ~

Dillenia pentagyr~a Mimosa pudica

I 1 Lannea coromandelica

~~ I"' i - i

1 91 / Schle~chera oleosa 1 Lannea coromandelica / Dillenia pentagyna I

1 ~ 3 i i e ~ ~ p ~ ~ a I 1 ~ o c o s nucifera \------I

I


- - -- - 7 lermmnalfa panfculata

1 98 I Aporosa lfndeliyans 1 Dillenia pentagyna 1 Lannea coromandelica I 1 100 / Vernonia arborea ( Syzygium cumini I - I

Dillenia pentagyna

I

Pennisetum polystachyon

Peltophorum pterocarpum

Table 7. Critical Resources for Beekeeping

I; 1 species 1 Frequent I Dominant 1 Nectar / Pollen /

Melastorna rnalabatltricum

Mallotus tetracoccu5;

15 I Phyllanthus embljca 1 + / + + +

-.

Lannea coroman~~elica

--

+ + -

Pennisetum polystachyon + + .-

DiNenia pentagyna + + Aporosa lindeliyana + +

- Elaeocarpus serratus + + Mimosa pudica + +

- Cocos nucifera + +

16 Terminalia paniculata + + 17 Lagerstroemia speciosa + +

Schleichera oleosa + + .- -

19 Helicterus isora + +

1 23 1 Dendrophthoe 1'alc:ata 1 + I I + I I Careya arborea

26 Areca catechu

27 Cefba pentandra + +

/ 29 1 Hopea ponga 1 + I I + I + 1 l$""ligarna arnoftiana + +

+ Adenanthera pavonfna - - - ---

+

I J

I

Plate 30. a. A p m m IMeIiyma; b. Area wtdu; c. Bombax eelibe; d. Camya anborea; e. Cocas ncachkm f. De&b@thoe hlca& i

W=4U=w w '4 !mm w '3 :=4w-J am- 'P

I ~~*UnP*B')~~il~@~lpuq*l*e'l[~~d

Plate 12. a. Lagestroemia spedosa; b. Melastoma malabathricum; c. Mimosa pudita; d. PeItopbrum ptemcarpum;

e. Syzygium cumlni; f. Tectona grandis

IV.2.4. Species diversity and relationships in honey samples -

A Cluster Analysis

A comparative analysis of the honey samples with respect to the

frequency of occurrence of pollen grains of 58 different species revealed

inter relationships, irrespective of the honeybee species and nature of the

honey samples.

For the elucidation of the relationship and resource sharing between

honeybee species, 9Ei different honey samples of 4 different honeybee

species namely A. c. iindica, A. dorsata, A. florea and Trigona irridipennis,

where sufficient pollen representation was found were selected. The species

representation in honey samples were selected on the basis of light

microscopic analysis, their frequency distribution and relative dominance.

The cluster analysis using NTSYS-pc grouped the 95 honey samples

into 11 base clusters with 12 sub clusters having 6 individual samples

showing close affinity and 1 complex group with unique grouping of its own

with 15 samples (Fig.69).

The species preference of different honeybees in different

geographical zones grouped the samples in distinct clusters. The analysis

by three different methods namely single link, complete link and unweighted

pair group method showed distinct clustering among the samples and this

imply the inter relation between the samples and hence the resource sharing

among different honeybees.

I / P', k.-: I

Fig. 69. Unweighted pair group methad analysis (UPGMA) I . ' .

The characteristic:^ of each cluster are outlined with emphasis on the

species preference, lioneybee species and morphological nature of the

flowers visited by the different honeybee species.

Cluster 1 : (Fig. 70)

This cluster grouped 4 different wild samples of Trigona irridipennis

and one wild Apis cerana indica honey sample collected from three different

floristic locations of the study area. Clustering was between S1, S24, S82,

S33 and S26 and the sharing of nectar resources between A. c. indica and

Trigona were seen in Bombax, Lannea, Aporosa, Dillenia, Phyllanthus,

Schleichera and Dentlrophthoe. The dissimilarity coefficients ranged

between 5.701 and 8.293, maximum similarity was between S24 and S82

with a percent similar~ty of 94.299.

Cluster 2:(Fig. 70)

This is a small cluster of three A. c. indica honey samples having

dissimilarity coefficients between 4.531 and 5.909. The samples of this

cluster viz, S2 and S74 were wild collections and S92 was an apiary

collection. The resource sharing in these samples in wild and apiary habitat

were that of Mimosa, Cocos, Syzigium, Areca, Dillenia, Aporosa and Vateria.

This occurred because of two different factors. The S2 sample collected from

the forest was near to a cultivated zone of mixed crops and the apiary from

where the S92 was c:ollected was near to a forest zone in two different study

locations.

Cluster 3:(Fig. 70j

This is a complex cluster with 16 honey samples of A. c. indica bees

with 4 sub clusters. The dissimilarity coefficients ranged between 0.000 and

4.262. The grouping inc;luded 12 apiary samples, 2 market samples and 2

wild samples. This indicates the similarities in the resource preference in

apiary habitat and the possible origin of market samples from the apiaries of

the district. The grouping of 2 samples from the natural habitat indicates the

nearness of the forest to a cultivated zone. The pollen concentrations of all

these samples were meager and that showed the origin of the honey from

the extra floral nectarines of Rubber.

Sub cluster 1: This includes S3 a wild sample and S39 an apiary sample.

The species shared were Cocos, Mimosa and Terminalia. The dissimilarity

coefficients ranged between 3.576 and 4.075.

Sub cluster 2: This sub cluster includes two apiary samples S65 and S68

and a sample collected from natural wild habitat, S9. The coefficient of

dissimilarity ranged between 1.995 and 3.665. The resource sharing was

observed in Cocos, Fdirnosa and Lagerstroemia.

Sub cluster 3: This sub cluster grouped two market samples of A. cerana

indica S22 and S41 with three apiary samples viz; S47, S50 and S58. In

these cluster two-apialy samples, 550 and S58 from two different collection

localities showed 100% similarity indicating the resource specificity of A.

cerana indica. The coefficient of dissimilarity ranged between 0.000 and

3.315. The clustering of market samples along with the apiary samples

indicate the possible origin of the market honey from the apiaries where the

pollen concentration was very meager and there is dependence on extra

floral nectaries. The significant resource is the extra floral nectar from

Hevea brasiliensis and other species shared were Mimosa and Syzygium.

Sub cluster 4: This grouped 6 samples of apiary honey with dissimilarity

coefficients ranging between 0.000 and 4.262. In this sub cluster also 4

samples showed 100% similarity in species preference viz; S37 and S67,

and S52 and S53. S36 and S99 grouped in this cluster with dissimilarity

coefficients 2.521 and 4.262 respectively. All the samples showed the

preference of Cocos and Mimosa with Lannea in S36 and Syzygium in S99.

Cluster 4: (Fig. 70)

This is a small interesting cluster, which grouped one wild honey

sample of Trigona irridipennis viz; S30 and one sample of Apis dorsata, viz;

S70. The presence of (?lea dioica grains in both the samples is the reason

for grouping these in one cluster with a dissimilarity coefficient of 2.538. This

cluster indicates the preference of A, dorsata and Trigona to one and the

same resource irrespective of the nature of the honeybee species.


This includes two samples of A. cerana indica honey collected from

the apiaries of the study area, with a dissimilarity coefficient of 2.089. S34

and S72 showed the presence of Mimosa, Cocos and Olea.


This is also a major cluster, which grouped 16 samples of which 11

are A.c.indica apiary honey, 2 are A.c.indica wild, one A.c.indica marketed,

one Trigona wild sarnple and one A. dorsata sample. The coefficient of

dissimilarity ranged between 0.000 and 6.898, and the cluster include two

sub clusters and two individual samples showing similarity to these sub

clusters. These individual samples were S66 a wild A. c. indica honey and

the other S69 a wild A. dorsata sample. The preference for Cocos nucifera

is the basic reason for grouping of these samples in this cluster.

Sub cluster 1: This sub cluster includes 10 A.c.indica apiary honey samples

and one wild sample of the same honeybee. The coefficient of dissimilarity

ranged between 0.000 and 5.703. S28 and S48 showed 100% similarity

showing preference for Cocos nucifera, Syzygium cumini, Mimosa pudica,

Pennisetum polystachy12n and Hopea ponga. The wild sample that has

been collected from a transient zone between wild and cultivated species

grouped in this cluster, because of the preference of the species for Cocos

and Mimosa along with Ceiba and Aporosa. In general the apiary samples

in the cluster showed relatively less frequency of pollen grains and

dependence on species like Cocos and Mimosa.

Sub cluster 2: This sub cluster grouped two samples of A. c. indica, one

marketed viz; S16 and the other apiary honey viz; S35 and a wild Trigona

honey sample. 588. 'The dissimilarity coefficients ranged between 4.906 and

6.068.

Cluster 7 : (Fig. 70)

This includes 4 samples of A. c. indica samples, two wild S31 and

S101, and two from the apiaries, S86 and S54. These apiary samples from

Kulathupuzha and Kottur showed wide preference in resources, as there is

sufficient availability of' these species. Because of this range in resource

preference, these apiary samples got clustered along with wild samples.

The species shared among them are Erythrina, Syzygium, Pennisetum,

Dillenia, Vateria and Holigarna. The dissimilarity coefficients ranged between

5.189 and 7.476


This cluster grouped 11 samples in 4 sub clusters and one sample

showing close similarity to these sub clusters. The dissimilarity coefficients

ranged between 4.563 and 8.838. The individual sample, which grouped in

this cluster, was an /I\. c. indica wild sample S56, with preference for Dillenia,

Careya, Terminalia, Phyllanthus, Cocos and Mimosa.

Sub cluster 1: This group includes two A. c. indica honey samples,

marketed S76 and wilcl 578, and one Trigona sample S6. The dissimilarity

coefficient ranged between 4.563 and 7.577. Resource sharing between

Trigona and A. c. iridica was observed in Dillenia, Terminalia, Helicterus,

Schleichera, Holigarna, Aporosa, Careya, Elaeocarpus, Lannea and

Syzygium.

Sub cluster 2: This sub cluster grouped S91 an A. dorsata sample along

with S98 a Trigona honey. They showed a similarity index of 94.135%.

Sharing of resources in these two different honeybees is seen in Lannea,

Dillenia, Vateria, Careya and Tinospora.

Sub cluster 3: This includes two A. c. indica honey samples, viz; S14 an

apiary collection and S93 a wild one. The clustering of a typical tribal

collection with an apiary one indicate the nearness of the apiary to a forest

zone where resource availability was more or less similar to the forest zone

from where the wild sample has been collected. Resource preferences in

these geographical zones include Terminalia, Syzygium, Dillenia,

Schleichera, Cocos, Aporosa, Phyllanthus emblica and Olea. The presence

of Cocos pollen in wild sample indicates the strong preference of A. c. indica

to this species.

Sub cluster 4: Here the clustering was between two Trigona samples S42

and S43 and one A. c. indica wild sample S19 and dissimilarity coefficients

ranged between 5.:255 and 8.365. Cocos, Mimosa, Areca, Dillenia,

Syzygium. Passiflora, ,Pennisetum and Vateria were the common species

found in these samples.

Cluster 9: (Fig. 71 )

This cluster includes 13 different honey samples, of which 9 are

Trigona honey, 3 are A. c. indica honey and one A. dorsata honey. In this

cluster, 8 Trigona honey samples clustered as a distinct sub cluster and the

second sub cluster is formed by one A. c. indica wild sample and a Trigona

sample. Along with this, two A. c. indica samples viz; S20 and S94, and one

A. dorsata sample S32 showed similarity to this cluster with a dissimilarity

coefficient of 9.575. 'These samples were grouped in this cluster because of

the sharing of resources like Dillenia, Lannea, Syzygium, Elaeocarpus,

Holigarna and Pennisetum.

Sub cluster 1: This is a compact sub cluster, which grouped 8 samples of

Trigona irridipennis. This cluster reveals the specificity of Trigona bees in

their resource preference in different localities. The coefficient of

dissimilarity ranged between 5.451 and 8.777. The species preferred were

Aporosa, Dillenia, VBteria, Pennisetum, Holigarna, Mallotus, Careya,

Syzygium, etc. An important observation was the diversity of resource

preference of Jrigorna irridipennis and each honey sample was a

combinatton of nectar resources from 13 to 16 different species and almost

all the honey samples were multi floral in origin.

Sub cluster 2: This sub cluster include one A. c. indica honey S5 and a

Jrigona sample S84. They show a dissimilarity coefficient of 9.265.


This is also a compact cluster of 6 Jrigona honey samples, with a

range in dissimilarity coefficients from 6.779 to 10.528. An important

observation is the clustering together of 5 different samples from different

locations of the same collection locality viz; Ponmudi. This confirms the

utilization of pollen analytical data to find the geographical origin of honey

samples. The specie!; preferences in all these samples were more or less

similar.


This is a small cluster with two, marketed A. c. indica samples S21

and S40 with a similarity coefficient of 89.784 (dissimilarity coefficient =

10.216). The pollen c:oncentration in both these samples were meager and

the species recorded were Syzygium, Dillenia, Jerminalia, Caesalpinia

bonduc, M~rnosa pudicca and Pennisetum polystachyon. The presence of

typical deciduous elernents like Jerminalia, Dillenia etc. and relatively low

frequency of grains indicate the chance of mixing up of honey collected from

apiaries and that from forest zones.

Unique samples: (Fig. 71)

Of the total !samples studied, 15 of them stand separately in the

clustering analysis because of the unique plant preferences of their own. The

wide range of variability was shown by S100, the A. florea honey with a

variability coefficient of 19.636. It showed a unique preference in resources,

mainly Vernonia art)orea, Leptonychia moacurroides and Bambusa

arundinacea along with 13 other species, which has been shared among

other honeybee species.

Other samples that showed wide variability in decreasing order were

S4, S23, S7, S59, S55, S81 (all Trigona samples), S46 (A. c. indica), S97,

S17 (Trigona sample), S57, S15 (A. c. indica), S12 (Trigona sample), S38

(A. c. indica) and S25 (Trigona honey). The dissimilarity coefficients ranged

between 8.881 and 118.082.

IV. 3.Dietary preference ofApis cerana indica F .

Pollen grains provide the proteins needed for the larval growth and

development among the bees. Even though the pollen forage covers a wide

spectrum of plants, only a few species are of significance, in terms of

preference by the bees. Honeybee pollinators come across a vast

assemblage of plants to provide them food security, which include nectar

and pollen, each with it.s own value.

Despite this czornbined requirement and the concurrent production of

pollen and nectar by many plant species, bees do not often collect pollen

and nectar simultaneously. In brood-rearing insects, pollen collection for the

brood is generally more significant than nectar collection and in collecting

pollen, bees visit more different plant species than that visited for nectar

collection. The pollen constituents of pollen loads are often limited to a few

species because of species-specific nutritional benefits as known from

varying chemical cornposition of the pollen (Stanley & Linskens 1974).

Even though, bees can collect pollen from many plant species, the

pollen constituents of the pollen loads often found limited to a few species.

Such pollen preference is advantageous because bee larva could derive

essential components from certain pollen grains. Maximization of foraging

efficiency by a pollen-c:ollecting bee could result in preferences for particular

plant species by two non-exclusive reasons. First, bees may be able to

harvest pollen with less effort from a particular species, so that pollen

collection from that species is less costly. Foraging gains increases through

specialization because! individuals do not have to pay the learning costs

associated with switching between plant species (Laverty, 1994). Secondly

bees may consistently collect pollen from a particular plant because its

pollen provides some specific benefit such as the concentration of adequate

nutrients for growth.

It is therefore! imperative that natural field knowledge on foraging is

essential for the management of native bee species of any one floral unit

with potentiality in commercial apiculture. In Kerala Apis cerana indica is the

commercially exploitecl species in bee keeping. However the studies on

pollen foraging and food sources in this area is lacking and hence the

present investigation.

While laying standards for the present investigation, the critical

resource-limiting period has been chosen, since this period marks the brood

rearing season in the bee management cycle of the area under investigation.

Also the key pollen sources were identified which can help in the sustenance

of future generation. Further the dietary importance of these species was

assessed using percent composition and pollen volume in the corbicular

pollen loads.

IV.3.1. Species representation in pollen load samples

Plant species differ considerably in many pollen

characteristics and that may influence the selective behavior of pollen

collecting bees. Because of such diversity in size and morphology of grains,

they differ in the harvest ability and easy handling. Pollen grain size affect

pollen value, because bees use only the protoplasmic nutrients in pollen and

discard the pollen wall. So in calculating dietary preference of bees, pollen

grain volume is important (Buchmann, et a/, 1991).

Location based experiments are essential for the elucidation of forage

preference at a specific: location and for the enhancement of apiculture in a

particular area. Bees; have a definite capacity of perception of form, size,

colour, number, pattern, taste and smell, blended together in the form of a

definite composite memory which conditions their responses and behaviour

towards specific floral types for collection of nectar, pollen or both, with the

result that the foraging worker bees get almost exclusively confined to the

flowers of the same species or even to the same varieties.

Many pollen loads captured at the hive entrance are found to contain

few grains of 'foreign' pollen. These may have been brought to the flower by

the flies or other insects that visit flowers indiscriminately, or they may have

been scraped up frorn the alighting board in the act of capturing the pollen.

Mixed pollen loads are of two kinds, namely segregated (S) and mixed (M)

type. In the 'S' mixture, the two kinds of pollen are distinct, the bee having

started collecting frorn one plant and then changing over to another,

resulting in a load with partition coloured bands of pollen. Sometimes one

part of the segregated load consists of pure pollen of one type, while the

other is a mixture of lwo types, or a load appears differentially coloured

because, one type preponderates in one part and the second in the other. In

an 'M' type, the two kinds of pollen are mingled and the load is all of one

colour and can only be identified as mixture under the microscope. The most

potent cause of mixtures is propinquity (nearness). In a small number of

cases the constituent plants of a mixture may have been growing at a

distance apart, but in a majority they are found to have been growing

intermingled.

The number of species utilized significantly lower than the species in

flower suggesting that only some species are important (Fig 72). Average

pollen types of each hive was about 5.5 with a range from 4 to 7 the bees

used only 8 species of' the 110 flowering species available at the site, and

this confirms the selectivity of A.cerana indica for pollen resource. Most of

the foragers (84%) utilized only one floral source on each trip, thus exhibited

unifloral constancies. More than 50% of the workers transported unifloral

0 -

5 - w

I 4 . ~ C 0

8 3 - C I

ii 2 - Ib 0

P 1 -

0. A A I I v I i

* 8 % 8 8 8 R r .r

Local ap. in bloom

A Sp.in pollen bread

P

- Linear (Sp.in pollen -1

47 - 'Y w g .

4-

I

Fig. 72. floral diversity and incidence of pollen

I

pollen loads of Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae) followed by Mimosa pudica L.

(18%- Mimosaceae) Terminalia paniculata L. (Lamiaceae - 7%).

Among the multifloral corbicular loads two types of grains were often

found (61 .I 1 %), three types in 27.77% loads and rarely four types (1 1 .I 1%).

The grains in mixed loads showed conspicuous difference in pollen

combinations. The results in table 8 show the forager's pollen on a single trip

from plants of different families with morphologically distinct flowers, and

inflorescence. Thus the analysis showed that the bees preferred

actinomorphic flowers with less complexity in morphology (75%) and the

grains, which are mostly psilate and having least ornamentation patterns.

An assessment on dietary importance in the critical resource limiting

period was made by analyzing the pollen volumes of species preferred,

correlated with pollen frequencies (table 9) Using mean individual grain

volume (n = 10) for each taxon, total pollen volume was calculated by

multiplying it with the concentration of each grain in total multi floral loads.

This was found to vary from 1.872 X cm3 to 89.79 X 10.~ cm3.

Percentage representation by slide count was significantly different from

percentages of total pollen volume by six species preferred in the multi floral

loads (fig 73).

Even though, Mimosa pudica L (Mimosaceae) represented by 57.74%

in the slide count, it c:or~tributes only 2.54% of the total pollen volume. On the

other hand the largest Cocos nucifera L. counts to 4.84% in the slide but the

species contributes the maximum pollen volume of 39.28%. The percent

pollen volume contribution in the unifloral pollen loads was more for Cocos

70 - 60-

50 -

20

10

u .

Species

m Side Count

m Pollen volume

Fig. 73. Floral diversity and lncid&nceof pollen I > - . - -

Table 8. Multiple preference in corbicular pollen loads

I I Boneria sp.

4

7 , Commelina diffusa t

l ~ + l ~ I l l l l l l I I I I I I I I

t

5

6

+ + + +

+ Aporosa lindeliyana

Terminalia paniculata

+

t t +

-

t

...

+ t +

Table 9. Percent volume contribution in multi floral loads

I SI.

/ No.

Species name

i i i i I ~ ~ I I I I I (x 10 "cm3) volume

i i I I c- ~- . + . . . - .. _c.-_ .. ... ..I _ . . . I . . ~ ~ ~7 i

Mean long Mean eq. Mean ind.

Axis (P) / Axis (e) , gr. vol.(xl0' cm3)

I

1 1 / Cocos nucifera / 74.625 i 49.075 1 96660 / 4.84 1 89797 ! I

%

I

Total % ~ o n t r . I Frequency

I I I I I I

Volume I to total I . I 39.28

2

I 3

4

5

!

6

7

Mimosa pudica

Borreria sp.

Hyptis suaveolens

Aporosa lindeliyana

!

Teninalia paniculata

Commelina diffusa

10.0

47.375

38.25

20.0

I !

18.0

40.625

10.0

47.375

34.75

17.0

16.0

22.5

0.523

55.644

24.172

3.025

!

2.41 1

10.763

57.74

I 6.094

11.92

12.69

!

5.80

0.916

5.797

i 65.826

55.281

7.353

!

,676

1.872

I 2.54

28.80

24.18

3.22

!

1.17

0.81

nucifera, followed by Hyptis suaveolens, Terminalia paniculata and finally

Mimosa pudica. As per the criterion established by Ramalho et a1 (1985), the

main sources exploited by bees are types with frequencies equal to or higher

than 10% and it was found that Cocos nucifera L., Mimosa pudica L., Hyptis

suaveolens L. and Tt?rminalia paniculata were the major sources utilized by

A. indica bees.

Though the immediate vicinity of the hive at the deciduous forest was

having an abundant flowering of Helicterus isora, Butea pamiflora and

Terminalia paniculata, the grains of Terminalia paniculata occurred very

rarely, the pollen of the other two species on the other were not collected at

all. The relative preferences to native and introduced vegetation observation

in the transient zone hive presented the results of strict avoidance of

introduced exotic pollen and instead showed a preference to native ones.

W.4. Status, prospects and pattern of Folk Apiculture

Indigenous people with a historical continuity of resource use often

posses a broad knowledge system of the behaviour of complex ecological

systems in their own localities (Gadgil, 1993). Kanikkars were nomadic

agriculturists practicing shifting cultivation and had considerable dependence

on hunting and gathering in their immediate neighborhoods. But now they

practice settled agriculture, which enables them to live in one place and

accumulate the necessities of life (Sashi, 1994). In the past 'Kanis' were

having a total forest based livelihood. Their economy was based on shifting

cultivation, collectiori of NWFPs, hunting and fishing. Because of the

restrictions rendered by Governmental policies, now they are forced to

practice permanent cultivation. Hunting and fishing are also gathering less

importance in the ecorlornic status of the Kanikkars.

Honey forms one of the major non-wood forest product, which they

depend on for their daily livelihood. The fanatic craving for honey sends men

on long gathering trip!; to collect this flavorful substance. These people are

having a tremendous knowledge on honey, honeybees, their behaviour and

uses of different h~ve based products.

IV.4.1. Honey Hunting

Kanikkars go in groups to gather honey, with each man taking his own

trail. When a honeycomb is noticed, the honey gatherer whistles twice as a

call to his companions to join him. In order to reach the place housing the

honey comb, a zigzag ladder is prepared by piecing together bamboo strips

fitted into each other, by means of sharpening one end of each strip to fit into

the successive top piece, and of tying up the nodal region of the bamboos to

the tree. In fact, after climbing up the ladder, they crawl for some distance to

reach the actual hive location.

While extracting honey from Apis dorsata (rock bees) the gatherers

climb up the tree at night, with their bodies smeared with a paste of tubers of

"Chenthikizhangu" (Zingiber zerumbet), which acts as an insect repellent to

avoid bee bite. A torch with the leaves of same plant is made for smoking

the comb, following which the honey comb is cut out, lowered to ground in a

bamboo basket tied to a rope, and the whole operation is completed with the

squeezing and collection of honey in the hollow bamboo internodes

('thencombu').

141

Honeys gather~ng from A. c. indica colonies also follow the same

procedure but are done during daytime, and further, the honey-containing

comb cells alone are cut. Collection of honey from Trigona irridipennis does

not require any smoking, as these bees are sting less.

IV.4.2. Identification and classification

The Kanikars are having a sound knowledge on honey, honeybees,

their behaviour and uses of different comb based products. They can

identify the genus Apis, as 'theneecha' by the size and comb architecture of

different species, presence of honey, banding pattern and behaviour of

different honeybees. Based on the above traits, they identify four different

bee groups and the respective honeys, namely A. dorsata (producing the

honey 'thookkuthen'), from A. cerana ('thoduthen'), A. florea ('cothen') and

from Trigona as ('cher~~then').

I. Thookkuthen (A, dorsata honey)

This honey is obtained from the colonies of A. dorsata. The combs of

these bees are see11 on parallel branches of large trees like Bombax ceiba

and Arfocarpus hirsutus. These are light loving species and are having an

attacking nature. These occur widely in natural forests. The tribes distinguish

3 distinct zones in the hive. Hive cells near to the parallel host branches

have pollen cells, middle portion is occupied by the egg and larvae and the

lower portion by honey cells. Most of the combs are having a semi lunar

shape.

2. Thoduthen (A. cerana honey)

This type of honey is produced by thodutheneecha. These people

also call these bees 'Njodiyil'. These are photophobic species and Kanikkars

identify them by their hives in the crevices of tree trunks. Here also they

distinguish honey zone, pollen zone and brood zone.

3. Cothen (A. jlorea honey)

The tribes distinguish this as the rarest species in their locality. The

hives are so small and are light loving and make the hives in the branches of

small bushy plants. They denote this honey as the king of all the honey

samples. They believe that this honey is so powerful that if one drop of this

fell into honey from other species, the same may become watery. Bees wax

from this species is utilized while preparing golden ornaments.

According to them, this honey is the most tasty one and medicinally

important. But the quantity of honey obtainable from a single hive is very

less. Moreover, very rarely these bee colonies are found in the forests.

When they locate a comb of this species they blow away the little bees and

consume the honey containing comb cells. They do not collect this honey for

marketing.

4.Cheruthen (Trigona :honey)

Cheruthen is obtair~ed from the sting less bees of the genus Trigona

irridipennis. On the basis of differences in hive architecture and honey

complexion these people distinguish two different types in this category;

1. Cheruthen: In this bee colony honey, pollen and larva are stored in

separate regions. The globular honey cells are widely separated from the

143

pollen stores. Hence low pollen content is a characteristic feature of this

honey.

2. Arakkuthen: This honey is stickier in nature. Here the pollen load and

honey are seen in intermixed cells. There is no gap between honey region

and pollen region. This honey is more dense and rich in pollen content. This

is because of the chances of squeezing out of pollen stores in intermixed

cells.

IV.4.3. Introduction of Bee keeping in tribal settlements

Many governmental and non-governmental agencies made some

initiatives for the ir~troduction of hive bee keeping in Kani settlements.

Selected members from most of the settlements were given IS1 type hives

and honey extractors for the up-liftment of these tribal community. Many of

the houses were found to have these beehives, but without proper

management. They were ignorant of the management practices for

honeybees.

In some of the settlements they were not given the extractor and

hence they squeeze the honey samples. Many people says that the hive

bees will not stay for a long time in the artificial hives and they easily migrate

to the nearby forests as most of the settlements are either nearer to the

forests or within the forests. According to them bee keeping by artificial hives

is a failure and thus implies the lack of hive management practices among

these indigenous people.

IV.4.4. Folk Apiculture of Kanikkars

Trigona irridipennis

Kanikkars are having inherent potential for the sustainable utilization

of honey. This has been signified by their traditional practices of bee

management. When they locate a natural hive of Trigona irridipennis in the

crevices of tree trunks they widen the mouth of the hive entrance by an axe.

They squeeze out honey only from the honey containing cells. They transfer

the larvae and cells; containing pollen stores into a Bamboo internode or

Areca stem, cut into two halves.

They make an entrance for the bees and the two lengthwise halves

were tied together after keeping larvae and pollen loads. They keep this

structure near to the natural hive for one or two days so that the bees get

settled down in a new host structure viz., Bamboo internode or Areca trunk.

This structure is transferred to the neighborhoods of their hut in order to

extract honey seasonally. They also keep these bees in earthen pots struck

to the mud cliffs.

Apis cerana indica .E

Kanikkars keep these bees also in wooden boxes in order to extract

honey in the next honey flow season. Here they extract honey from the

natural hive and transfer the queen bee along with few workers into the

wooden box. Before transference of queen bee, they keep some portion of

the hive cells containing larvae in the box in order to avoid the queen bee

from escaping out of the wooden box. They keep this box near to the host

tree for one or two days and then transfer it to the nearby areas of their hut.

145

IV.4.5. Honey Adulteration

Kanikkars adulterate the honey by adding the juice from the

inflorescence of 'Channakoova' (Costus speciosus). The extracted juice

from the flowering twig is added to honey and is slightly heated. Heating is

done to prevent the detection of adulteration by Costus speciosus. Honey is

also adulterated by the addition of a reddish brown resin of 'Venga'

(Pterocarpus marsupiilrn) produced from the bark, which increases the

colour concentration of honey.

IV.4.6. Use of antidotes

The leaf extracl from Dioscorea tomentosa (Dioscoreaceae),

traditionally called as "Nooli" because of the mucilaginous exudates in the

tuber, is used as an antidote against bee sting. They make a paste of this

leaf and 'Kookirithettam', the soil plowed by the earthworms, and apply it to

the affected sting area. In addition they use the extract of Zingiber

zerumbet, traditionally called as 'Chenthikizhangu', which are used as a

repellent to avoid bee sting.

IV.4.7. Traditional Uses of hive products

I. Pollen load: The poller~ loads of the hive they call 'poovu' are eaten raw

and is a delicious item far them.

2. Bees wax: The wax obtained from the comb cells of A. florea is utilized

during the preparation of golden ornaments. The wax obtained from A.

dorsata and A. cerana indica are used for the preparation of traditional

candles and also for sealing holes of utensils and mouth of bottles.

146

Kanikkars from settlements near Agastyamala use the wax obtained from

Trigona bees, during the blowing of heavy wind. During this period, they

make a fire heap and put this wax into the fire. Heavy dense fumes having a

particular smell generated from this rises up and the strength of wind get

diminished and finally ceases. They practice this regularly and found very

effective during heavy winds of January.

3. Bee larva: These tribes prepare delicious curry preparations using bee

larvae from A. cerana indica.

4. Puli: In Trigona bees the eggs are laid in globular cells. After hatching

these egg cells transform into a sour tasting substance named as puli. They

assign high medicinal value for the same and they use this against cough.

5. Honey: Kanikkars use honey for different ailments. 'Cheruthen' (Trigona

honey) is used for cough in young children. Most of them use honey as a

delicious food. Honey is used against burns also.

IV.5. Sustainable Utilization and Management of honey as a non- wood forest produc~t

Kerala is one of the smallest states in India, but produces the

maximum amount of honey. Dependency on monoculture plantations like

Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) has reduced the quality of honey in the export

market even though it was possible to exploit the higher production

potential. In this con'text, an investigation has been made on natural forest

honey, resources with higher production potential, its potentiality as a non-

wood forest product and its role in the economy of the tribal people.

For the elucidaticln of the traditional management practices and

sustainable utilization of this NWFP, a case study has been formulated among

the indigenous tribal cornrnunity, the Kanikkars at the extreme end of Southern

Western Ghats.

IV.5.1. Honey - A unique NWFP

Out of hundreds; of non-wood forest products occurring in the whole

world, honey is unique in its origin as an intermediate interaction product of

insect-plant relation. Most NWFPs are having either floral or faunal origin. In

contrast to other NWFPs, in normal conditions, its production and extraction do

not adversely affect the species composition, population structure and

regeneration of forest ecosystems and is one of the significant aspect in which

honey extraction differs markedly from the impact of extraction of other NWFPs.

Honey being a plant-animal interaction product, the term 'sustainable extraction'

cannot be used in the same sense as to other NWFPs. Here sustainable

extraction holds a narrow meaning and extraction can be effected in such a

way, it does not destroy the host individual (honey bee) and also do not deplete

the product. Here the scientifically managed extraction itself leads to

sustainability of the product. Moreover, import of cheaper and superior

substitutes for some fi~rest products will lower the local value of the forest

product. But in the case of honey no cheaper substitutes are possible, and

hence there is no depreciation of its local value.

In most of the PdWFPs the increasing commercialization leads to

depletion of the produl:t, which may promote domestication or deforestation.

But increase in honey commercialization may lead to increased rate of

domestication, but it does not affect forest structure or its regeneration.

The vast untapped potential in this product for production is another

unique feature of honey. Here continued extraction without causing harm to the

individual colony, give chances of more production and it make the bees store

more honey. Hence it is evident that, in contrast to other NWFPs strategies for

production extraction and sustainable management of honey should be viewed

in a different context with emphasis on generation of expertise in such aspects

among forest dependent people.

IV.5.2. Marketing Channel

In Kerala, the collection of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) is

organized through 35tlifferent tribal co-operative societies and marketing is

done through the Kerala State Federation of Schedule Caste and Schedule

Tribes development co-operatives. The co-operative societies issue passes for

collection of NWFPs to individuals of tribal community and they have to sell the

collected materials only to the Tribal Development Societies. NWFPs collected

by the tribal societies are sold at public auctions. The Federation takes 5% of

the sale value as overhead charges and gives interest free advance to the

societies to meet collec:tion charges.

The honey, that has been collected by the individuals are generally sold

through two different channels, one through the Tribal Development Societies

and the other by direct marketing. Even though they prefer to sell the product

directly to the consumers, because of greater income they receive than

marketing through TDs, they have to stick to this marketing channel because of

the restrictions they impose on collection passes and marketing.

IV.5.3. Honey extraction

All the five settle~nents were situated within the deciduous zone of the

forested areas. It was found that all the people in these settlements were found

to be involved in one of the three jobs; viz. Agriculture, (AGR) daily wage (DW)

and NWFP collection. Even though agriculture is less productive, in most

settlements, more man-days are utilized for this occupation. The percentage

income derived from each occupation showed that, with respect to man-day

utilization, the income derived from agriculture is very less but for honey

collection it is more. I11c13me /man-day showed a greater index for honey

extraction against all other occupations. The amount of honey collected per

annum showed a greater variation between the settlements ranging from 21Kg

to 1460Kg.

Here honey is produced by 4 different bee species, viz. Apis dorsata, A.

cerana indica, A. florea and Trigona irridipennis. Honey collected from A.

dorsata and A. cerana intlica are marketed together. Details of extraction are

shown in table 10.

Pollen is not utilized in any of the settlements and wax has been collected

from A. dorsata colonic!; and has been sold in only one of the settlements ie.51

Kg. Honey from Trigona irridipennis is not marketed through the society, instead

they market it directly.

Critical analysis of the present status (Table1 I), it can be found that there

is maximum exploitatior~ olf honey in one of the settlements (Potomov). This is

because, here more individuals are dependent on Non-Wood forest products

and there is limited man-day utilization on less productive agriculture. The

people in this settlement clearly distinguish the productive seasons and extract

honey only during the season. They are aware of the expected income and

there is a well-established direct marketing facility in this settlement (TDs).

But in other settlements, increased literacy level leads to options for

other jobs like daily wage and this in turn created a distraction of younger

generation from forests. Most people utilize more man-days in less productive

agriculture and they lack confidence and are ignorant of available resources

and expected income. Inadequate marketing facility was the most important

factor that was found to guide their utilization of honey resource in these areas.

IV.5.3.1. Extraction Procedure

Generally, the hives of A. cerana indica and Trigona irridipennis are seen

in crevices on tree trunks. In contrast, the hives of A. dorsata hangs on

branches of huge trees like Bombax ceiba and that of A. florea on branches of

small shrubs.

Once the hives have! been located within the forest, they generally smoke

out the bees with fumes or they chew the rhizomes of Zingiber zerurnbet and

blow air into the hive. This forces the bees for a withdrawal due to the insect

repellent property of the volatile oils in the rhizomes. At times they cover the

body with juice of Zingiber rhizomes, in order to escape from the insect bite.

Then they cut honey-clontaining portion of hive and squeeze the honey and

sieves it and seal the bottle with bees wax.

IV.5.4 Indigenous Management practices

The societies with colnsiderable dependence on hunting and gathering in

their immediate neighborhoods are most likely to have accumulated long series

of historical obsewatio~ns; of relevance to sustainable resource use and

conservation of diversity. Self-regulatory mechanisms tend to evolve in such

societies, when they are faced with resource limitations. Hence in the present

extraction level itself, these people are having their own indigenous

management practices for the sustainable extraction of honey.

In an annual coloriial bee life cycle, there are three distinct stages with a

dormant period extending from June to August coinciding with the monsoon

season; brood-rearing period extends from September-November and a honey

flow season from December- May. Kanikkars clearly distinguish this seasonal

variation within the hives and there is seasonal distinction of the extractive

reserves. They extract honey only in the honey flow season. Then, while

extraction, mostly they squeeze only the honey containing cells and keep the

egg and larvae intact. This is commonly applied while extracting honey from

Trigona irridipennis. In this matter, they utilize the traditional knowledge of

distinguishing three different regions in the bee hive viz. the honey zone

(Thenada), pollen zone ~(Poovada) and the brood zone (Kunjada).

While extracting honey from Apis cerana indica colonies they practice a

traditional technique called method of placing "cherup". Here they remove the

honey containing cells for extraction of honey from the colonies in crevices on

tree trunks. After this they cover the mouth of the crevice with a stone, so that

the colony does not get migrated. By this method, they are able to extract

honey from the same hive in the next honey flow season.

After extraction of honey from natural colonies of Trigona irridipennis in

tree trunks, these tribes generally transfer the brood and pollen loads into

Bamboo internodes. They keep this for at least one day near the tree from

where the honey has been extracted. By doing this the bee colony get settled in

the new Bamboo internode, and they transfer this structure and keep near their

huts for frequent extraction of honey. That is, even without any advanced apiary

techniques, they already domesticated the Trigona and A. c. indica colonies by

transferring them from the forests for seasonal extraction of honey. This

indicates their inherent pc~tential for the acquisition of modem methods of

apiculture.

Table 10. Extraction Details of honey

Settlements A .dorsata A. florea T. irridipennis

- - -I*,..7-

MottamoodiI - 1 1 - -

Chemmankaia 21 Kg 5 Kg -

Table I I. T h e present status of honey extraction in tribal sett lements

I ! I Income I collection Income Derived I Average Settlement Literacy % Utilization % income honey1

I +-- .. ~. --- ---- Society Direct

manday I Iannum 1 individual

Agr. 26.9 11.6 1 0.43 ,no,, ,.- I 1:

Polomav ! i Dw 38.7 47.4 1.22 1 I L O U ny 1460 kg (- -"'

181 142 I 46'77 i NWFP 25.5 16 1 I 0.63 -

50 63.66 I

)d j 7666 1 1 PIF - 150140 i

! ,KS. 3u1 Q kg (RS 90! 1 8,43 kg ; PIF - 173, ~ ~~ 1 Rs. 16200 '

! I 1 Honey 8.7 24.7 i 2.82 I I !

Ks. 64.000 !

Agr. 21.6 2.8 0.12

0.40 kg Chernmankala

PIF - 5211 1

Chonampara

I 83 kg (XS. 30) 60 ~n IU 8.- hy I / Elangiurn I 68.36 1 Dw 36.7

51'04 1 1.38 1 93 kg 1 kg - 1896 (Rs, 55) I jRs, 1503 1 n -7- #.- PlF - 129130

, PIF - 3613

35

NWFP 30.1 10.57

47.22 ,

Agr. 56.2 38.31 Dw 37.5 40.12 NWFP - Honey 8.7 21.5 Agr. 71.2 35.84

I Honey 11.4 35.58

Aqr. 50 36.33

0.35

Dw 12.3 43.26 , NWFP 6.4 10.46

Honey 9.2 10.43

0.68 1.06

3.44 0.50

u . 1 I 3 ny

3.1 1

3.33 . 1.66

1.12

21 kg

21 kg (Rs. 80) Rs. 1280

(Rs. 150) Rs. 750

0.72 1 I I

23 kg, 1265 Rs

41 kg .

Rs. 1500

35 kg (Rs. 50) , Rs. 2800 ,

6 kg (Rs. 150) 1 1 ,13 kg Rs. 900

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