A

TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

ON

“HYDROGEN VEHICLE”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

(Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad)

Submitted by

B. SANTHOSH KUMAR (08791A0484)

Under The Esteemed Guidance Of

J. SRIDHAR Asst. Prof

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AIZZA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)

Mulkalla, Mancherial, Adilabad - 504 209

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

(AIZZA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY)

MULKALLA, MANCHERIAL, ADILABAD-504209

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the technical seminar report on “HYDROGEN VEHICLE” Submitted by

B. SANTHOSH KUMAR (08791A0484) in the partial fulfillment for the requirement of the

degree of Bachelor of Technology. JNTUH, Hyderabad. This is a technical seminar report in the

academic session 2011-2012.

INTERNAL GUIDE H.O.D

E.C.E E.C.E

PRINCIPAL

AZCET

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would express our sincere gratitude to all those who have guided us in successfully

accomplishing my technical seminar report.

I would specially thank my internal guide J. SRIDHAR Asst. Prof. He explained the

main aim of the technical seminar report. I’m grateful to his for having shared his knowledge and

for putting forth his encouragement, support and valuable guidelines in the course of our

technical seminar report.

I extend heartiest thanks to our Head of the Department of Electronics and

Communication Engineering Mr. P.PRABHAKAR Assoc. Prof. who had been a constant source

of inspiration to us for his motivations in making this technical seminar report.

I profusely thank our PRINCIPAL Dr. M. THIRUPATHI REDDY for his

encouragement and support. More over I sincerely thankful for giving me an opportunity to

present this technical seminar report.

Lastly we express heart full thanks to all our faculty and friends for their constant

support, encouragement and valuable contribution in completion of the technical seminar report.

B. SANTHOSH KUMAR

(08791A0484)

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Internal combustion vehicle

3. Design and how it works

4. Specifications for the system

5. Hydrogen storage and safety

6. Fuel cell

7. Hydrogen

7.1 Production

7.2 Storage

7.3 Infrastructure

7.4 Codes and standards

8. Criticism

9 . Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle

9.1 Plug-in hybrids

9.2 Natural gas

9.3 Battery electric vehicles

10. Hydrogen economy

10.1 Fuel cell cost and durability

10.2 Hydrogen production and delivery

10.3 Public acceptance

11. Applications

12. Advantages

13. Disadvantages

14. Future scope

15. References

1. INTRODUCTION:

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power.

Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles and other

transportation vehicles. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy of

hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, or

by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of

hydrogen for fueling transportation is a key element of a proposed hydrogen economy.

Hydrogen fuel does not occur naturally on Earth and thus is not an energy source, but is

an energy carrier. Currently it is most frequently made from methane or other fossil fuels.

However, it can be produced from a wide range of sources (such as wind, solar, or nuclear) that

are intermittent, too diffuse or too cumbersome to directly propel vehicles. Integrated wind-to-

hydrogen plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low

enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources.[1]

Many companies are working to develop technologies that might efficiently exploit the

potential of hydrogen energy for mobile uses. The attraction of using hydrogen as an energy

currency is that, if hydrogen is prepared without using fossil fuel inputs, vehicle propulsion

would not contribute to carbon dioxide emissions. The drawbacks of hydrogen use are low

energy content per unit volume, high tankage weights, very high storage vessel pressures, the

storage, transportation and filling of gaseous or liquid hydrogen in vehicles, the large investment

in infrastructure that would be required to fuel vehicles, and the inefficiency of production

processes.

2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION VEHICLE:

Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The

hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline

internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that

gasoline engines do.

Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed in 1807 the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion

engine. Paul Dieges patented in 1970 a modification to internal combustion engines which

allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen US 3844262.

Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen. The advantage of using ICE

(internal combustion engine) like Wankel and piston engines is the cost of retooling for

production I much lower. Existing-technology ICE can still be applied for solving those

problems where fuel cells are not a viable solution insofar, for example in cold-weather

applications.

3. DESIGN AND HOW IT WORKS:

Final Concept Design

This section gives an overview of some of the technologies

incorporated in the design of

the Station, and provides a basis for the understanding of the components’

operation.

Specific equipment used in the Station is also identified.

The Station operates as follows:

• Electricity is produced by the diesel generator and distributed to the

Stations equipment through the Service Entrance Panel.

• Water is held in the onboard water supply tank, and is gravity-fed to the

hydrogen generator.

• The hydrogen generator uses the electricity and water to produce

hydrogen via electrolysis.

• The chiller pumps coolant to cool the compressor.

• High-pressure hydrogen is pumped from the compressor to storage tanks

where it is ready to be dispensed when needed.

The Station

The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy of hydrogen to

mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, or by reacting

hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for

fueling transportation is a key element of a proposed hydrogen economy.

3.1 Infrastructure

The hydrogen infrastructure consists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and

hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway. Hydrogen stations

which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline can obtain supply via hydrogen tanks,

compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.

Hydrogen use would require the alteration of industry and transport on a scale never seen

before in history. For example, according to GM, 70% of the U.S. population lives near a

hydrogen-generating facility but has little access to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for

commercial use.[60] The distribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles throughout the U.S. would

require new hydrogen stations costing, by some estimates, 20 billion dollars. [61] and 4.6 billion in

the EU.[62] Other estimates place the cost as high as half trillion dollars in the United States alone.

4. SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE SYSTEM:

4.1 Electrical Power Source

When most people think of electrical power use they relate to their

home electric utility bill. Energy consumption, measured in kilowatt-hours

(kWh), is charged at a given rate to determine the total. In order to

determine an average demand (kW), the total consumption can be divided

by the number of hours in the billing period. For example, an average home

may consume 720 kWh in a 30 day period.

720 kWh / (30 days *24 hrs / day) = 1kW

Further, knowing that Amps = Watts/Volts, the service requirements can be

found by simply dividing by the supply voltage, typically 240 V for residential

service.

1000 W / 240 V = 4.2 A

Yet most homes have a 200 A service from their utility supplier. The

discrepancy lies in the definition of average power consumption. The

average power consumption is the integration of the instantaneous energy

demand over a given time period. The instantaneous consumption may often

be near zero, such as a mild spring day when no one is home and the only

thing using electricity is the digital clock on the night stand. Contrast this to

a cold winter night when the electric water heater has both of its 4000 W

elements energized to heat the tank after the dishwasher has run, the

electric clothes dryer is operating along with the 15 kW of strip heat in the

heat pump, and nearly every light is on in the house. This condition may only

occur for a few minutes each year but the electrical system must be robust

enough to handle power demanded during this time.

The Station faces a similar situation with the added complexity of the

ability to start

motor loads without voltage sags which may cause components to cycle off

and on. Motors can draw several times their rated name plate values for

short durations which could potentially cause severe voltage sags if the

system is not designed properly.

Therefore, when selecting the power source for the Station, it was vital

to select a diesel powered generator capable of providing sufficient

electricity.

It was determined that the total run load of the components would be

about 33 kVA.

Adding the total startup loads if all equipment in the Station was started

simultaneously would significantly increase the total load. However, it is

assumed that not all equipment would be started up at the same time, as

the water purifier would be started first, followed by the electrolyzer, the

compressor, and then the chiller. It was calculated that a 50 kW diesel

generator will provide sufficient power to operate all the components.

The 50 kW Generac Model SD050 diesel generator was selected for the

Station. The

generator is shown in Figure 2.4 At maximum power for continuous use it

supplies 40 kW. It generates 120/240 Volts at a frequency of 60 Hertz, and

during continuous use supplies more than enough power to run all

components simultaneously. The dimensions of the generator are 93 x 40 x

55 inches, and it weighs 2900 pounds.

Figure 2: General 50 kW Diesel Generator5

4.2 Electrical Interface

When dealing with electricity, the most important issue is safety. To

control electrical flow and prevent overloading, Load Panels are used. These

panels are commonly known as breaker panels, switch boxes, or fuse boxes.

They act as a type of traffic controller for an electrical application.

The Station will employ a panel similar to that used for commercial

applications, rather than residential, in that the panel will be a 3-phase

240/120 panel. Rather than receiving electricity from utility lines, however, it

will receive electricity from the Station’s diesel generator. From the panel,

electricity will be routed to each of the Station’s components. If the Station is

used in locations where utility service is available, it will be possible to

supply electricity from the grid. A service pole can be installed, and wired

into the Stations panel, bringing electricity to the Station similar to the way it

would be supplied to a residence.

4.3Water Supply

The Station will require a constant supply of water for the operation of

the hydrogen generator. The Station is designed to be used in remote

locations, so an onboard water storage tank will be used. The tank will be

fabricated onto an interior wall of the Station’s container. Its dimensions and

construction are discussed in the Installation and Specification section.

The electrolyzer, which receives water from the purifier, requires 5.6

gallons/day to operate. The 144 gallon water tank will provide sufficient

water to operate the Station for approximately 25 days at full load without

refilling the tank.

4.4 Water Purifier:

The operation of the hydrogen electrolysis generator requires ASTM

Type II de-ionized (DI) water. That is, water having greater than 1 megohm-

cm resistivity. Water is deionized by removing ions, such as cations from

sodium, calcium, iron, copper and anions such as chloride and bromide. The

process removes all ions except H3O+ and OH−, but it may still contain other

non-ionic types of impurities such as organic compounds that will also need

to be filtered.

4.5 Hydrogen Generator

The Hogen RE 40 hydrogen generator was selected for use in the

Station. It produces

hydrogen from water and electricity by means of Proton Exchange

Membrane (PEM) electrolysis, which is just the reverse of a PEM fuel cell

process. The Hogen generator produces 99.999+% pure hydrogen gas on

demand.

Deionized water is introduced into the system where water is split into

oxygen, protons,

and electrons on one electrode (anode) by applying a DC voltage higher than

a thermoneutral voltage (1.482 V).

4.6 Hydrogen Compressor

In order to move hydrogen from the electrolyzer into the vehicle being

fueled, a pressure difference must exist. The electrolyzer produces hydrogen

at approximately 200 psi, and hydrogen-fueled vehicles will require a

pressure of around 5000 psi to fill their tanks. Therefore, the hydrogen must

be compressed prior to the fueling process.

The Station uses a high pressure storage process to produce sufficient

volume and pressure. After hydrogen is generated by the electrolyzer, it is

stored at 200 psi in a low pressure accumulator tank. It is then fed to the

compressor where it is compressed to a greater pressure than that required

for fueling, and is discharged to the high pressure storage tanks. Figure 7

shows a diagram of the process. Note that this diagram also shows an

optional accumulator tank. This tank may be used in applications where the

compressor requires greater flow rate than the hydrogen generator can

produce.

Figure 8:

4.7 Chiller

Inefficiencies in the operation of the compressor require that the

excess heat be removed

from this device. For equipment in the size range considered for the Station,

chilled water systems are often chosen over chilled air devices.

The chiller consists of a refrigeration unit and a closed coolant loop.

The chiller’s refrigeration unit is a closed-loop system that compresses its

refrigerant gas, which is then passed through the condenser where it is

cooled and condensed into liquid. The liquefied refrigerant is then passed

through a throttling device that lowers the pressure.

4.8 External Hydrogen Storage and Supply

One of the challenges faced when producing hydrogen is storage.

Whether the application is hydrogen-fueled vehicles or large scale hydrogen

production, it is vital to have safe, reliable storage capabilities that will not

fail prematurely over time.

Hydrogen is produced for the Station by a Hogen RE 40 electrolyzer at

200 psig and a

rate of 44 SCFH.14 However, a vehicle being refueled would require pressure

of approximately 5000 psig in order to approach its maximum capacity.

Further, a flow rate of 40 SCFH would create a very slow refilling process.

4.9 Uninterruptible Power Supply

The Station’s safety system incorporates an uninterruptible power

supply (UPS) to maintain operation of vital safety equipment during a

generator power failure. The power failure may be a result of generator

failure or emergency shutdown. When an emergency stop or hydrogen

sensor is triggered, the circuit disables the Hogen, the chiller, and the

compressor. The UPS will maintain power to the emergency lights,

ventilation fan, and safety shutdown system, including hydrogen sensors and

emergency power stops.

5. HYDROGEN FUEL STORAGE SAFETY

Hydrogen has a reputation for being explosive and therefore raises concerns about the

safety of carrying a substantial quantity of H2 in a vehicle fuel tank. However, because H2 is the

lightest gas, it has a tendency to diffuse away quickly in case its container is breached and

consequently may represent less of a hazard than gasoline.

The simplest way to carry hydrogen fuel in a car or other vehicle is as a high-pressure gas

3-10 kpsi (21-69 MPa) in metal or composite-reinforced (fiberglass, carbon fiber, Kevlar) tanks.

This is similar to the way compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles operate.

There is an interesting report on H2 for energy use [43] by the Norwegian environmental

organization Bellona with useful safety information in Chapter 5. These authors conclude

that .hydrogen is no more or less dangerous than any other energy carrier and furthermore that

hydrogen has properties that in certain areas make it safer than other energy carriers: it is not

poisonous, and has the ability to dissipate quickly into the atmosphere because of its light weight

compared to air.

6. FUEL CELL:

While fuel cells themselves are potentially highly energy efficient, and working

prototypes were made by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959[32] and Roger E. Billings in the 1960s,

at least four technical obstacles and other political considerations exist regarding the

development and use of a fuel cell-powered hydrogen car: the cost, reliability and durability of

the fuel cells; storage of hydrogen for use in fuel cells; production of hydrogen; and delivery of

hydrogen to vehicles.[33]

6.1 Fuel cell cost:

Currently, hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce and some are fragile.

As of October 2009, Fortune magazine estimated the cost of producing the Honda Clarity at

$300,000 per car.[34] Also, many designs require rare substances such as platinum as a catalyst in

order to work properly. Occasionally, a catalyst can become contaminated by impurities in the

hydrogen supply, rendering the fuel cell inoperable. In 2010, research and design advances

developed a new nickel-tin nanometal catalyst which lowers the cost of cells.[35]

Fuel cells are generally priced in USD/kW. The U.S. Department of Energy estimated

that the cost of a fuel cell for an automobile in 2002 was approximately $275/kw, which

translated into each vehicle costing more than 1 million dollars. However, by 2010, the

Department of Energy estimated that the cost had fallen 80% and that such fuel cells

could be manufactured for $51/kW, assuming high-volume manufacturing cost savings.[36]

Ballard Power Systems also published similar data. Their 2005 figure was $73 USD/kW (based

on high volume manufacturing estimates), which they said was on track to achieve the U.S.

Department of Energy's 2012 goal of $30 USD/kW. This would achieve closer parity with

internal combustion engines for automotive applications, allowing a 100 kW fuel cell to be

produced for $3000. 100 kW is about 134 hp.[37]

6.2 Freezing conditions:

Temperatures below freezing are a concern with fuel cells operations. Operational fuel

cells have an internal vaporous water environment that could solidify if the fuel cell and contents

are not kept above 0° Celsius (32°F). Most fuel cell designs are not as yet robust enough to

survive in below-freezing environments. Frozen solid, especially before start up, they would not

be able to begin working. Once running though, heat is a byproduct of the fuel cell process,

which would keep the fuel cell at an adequate operational temperature to function correctly. This

makes startup of the fuel cell a concern in cold weather operation. Places such as Alaska where

temperatures can reach −40 °C (−40 °F) at startup would not be able to use early model fuel

cells. Ballard announced in 2006 that it had already hit the U.S. DoE's 2010 target for cold

weather starting which was 50% power achieved in 30 seconds at -20 °C. [38]Fuel cells have

startup and long term reliability problems.

6.3 Service life:

Although service life is coupled to cost, fuel cells have to be compared to existing

machines with a service life in excess of 5000 hours[40] for stationary and light-duty. Marine

PEM fuel cells reached the target in 2004.[41] Curre y like in the bus trials which are targeted up

to a service life of 30,000 hours.

7. HYDROGEN:

Hydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels, but is first

produced and then stored as a carrier, much like a battery. Hydrogen for vehicle uses needs to be

produced using either renewable or non-renewable energy sources. A suggested benefit of large-

scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse

gases and ozone precursors.[43]

According to the United States Department of Energy "Producing hydrogen from natural

gas does result in some greenhouse gas emissions. When compared to ICE vehicles using

gasoline, however, fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen produced from natural gas reduce

greenhouse gas emissions by 60%.[44] While methods of hydrogen production that do not use

fossil fuel would be more sustainable,[45] currently renewable energy represents only a small

percentage of energy generated, and power produced from renewable sources can be used in

electric vehicles and for non-vehicle applications.[46]

7.1 Production:

The molecular hydrogen needed as an on-board fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be

obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known

as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called

thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen

production. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas,[50] and 85% of hydrogen produced is

used to remove sulfur from gasoline. Hydrogen can also be produced from water by electrolysis

or by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum.[51] Current technologies for

manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the

higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the

hydrogen by pipeline or truck.[52]

7.2 Storage:

Compressed hydrogen storage mark

Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal to about

one-third that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored as liquid hydrogen in a cryogenic tank or

in a compressed hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energy density (megajoules per liter) is

small relative to that of gasoline. Hydrogen has a three times higher energy density by mass

compared to gasoline (143 MJ/kg versus 46.9 MJ/kg). Some research has been done into using

special crystalline materials to store hydrogen at greater densities and at lower pressures.

7.3 Infrastructure:

Hydrogen car fueling

The hydrogen infrastructure consists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and

hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway. Hydrogen stations

which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline can obtain supply via hydrogen tanks,

compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.

Hydrogen use would require the alteration of industry and transport on a scale never seen

before in history. For example, according to GM, 70% of the U.S. population lives near a

hydrogen-generating facility but has little access to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for

commercial use.[60] The distribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles throughout the U.S. would

require new hydrogen stations costing, by some estimates, 20 billion dollars. [61] and 4.6 billion in

the EU.[62] Other estimates place the cost as high as half trillion dollars in the United States alone.[63]

7.4 Codes and standards:

Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen

safety and the storage of hydrogen, have been identified as an institutional barrier to deploying

hydrogen technologies and developing a hydrogen economy. To enable the commercialization of

hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by

federal, state and local governments.

8. CRITICISM:

Critics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to

implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen vehicles is likely to last for at least several decades,

and hydrogen vehicles may never become broadly available.[46][68] They claim that the focus on

the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to

reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles.[69] In May 2008, Wired News reported that "experts

say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline

consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells

are diverting resources from more immediate solutions.

The Washington Post asked in November 2009, "But why would you want to store

energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor,

when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored

in auto batteries"? The paper concluded that commercializing hydrogen cars is "stupendously

difficult and probably pointless. That's why, for the foreseeable future, the hydrogen car will

remain a tailpipe dream".[50]

9. COMPARISON WITH OTHER TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL VEHICLE :

Hydrogen vehicles are one of a number of proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel

powered vehicle infrastructure.

Plug-in hybrids

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles that can be plugged into

the electric grid and contain an electric motor and also an ICE or other engine. The Chevrolet

Volt, the first commercially-manufactured PHEV, became commercially available in some U.S.

states in 2010 and in more locations in 2011.

The PHEV concept augments standard hybrid electric vehicles with the ability to

recharge their batteries from an external source while parked, enabling increased use of the

vehicle's electric motors while reducing their reliance on internal combustion engines. The

infrastructure required to charge PHEVs is already in place,[81] and transmission of power from

grid to car is about 93% efficient.[82] The battery needs to be cooled; the GM Volt's battery has 4

coolers and two radiators.[85] As of 2009, "the total well-to-wheels efficiency with which a

hydrogen fuel cell vehicle might utilize renewable electricity is roughly 20% (although that

number could rise to 25% or a little higher with the kind of multiple technology breakthroughs

required to enable a hydrogen economy).

The well-to-wheels efficiency of charging an onboard battery and then discharging it to

run an electric motor in a PHEV or EV, however, is 80% (and could be higher in the future)—

four times more efficient than current hydrogen fuel cell vehicle pathways." [49] A 2006 article in

Scientific American argued that PHEVs, rather than hydrogen vehicles, would become standard

in the automobile industry.[86][87] A December 2009 study at UC Davis found that, over their

lifetimes, PHEVs will emit less carbon than current vehicles, while hydrogen cars will emit more

carbon than gasoline vehicles.[76]

Natural gas

ICE-based CNG or LNG vehicles (Natural gas vehicles or NGVs) use Natural gas or

Biogas as a fuel source. Natural gas has a higher energy density than hydrogen gas. Natural gas

powered vehicles have a lower carbon dioxide footprint than ICE vehicles. When using Biogas,

NGVs become carbon neutral vehicles that run on animal waste.[88] CNG vehicles have been

available for several years, and there is sufficient infrastructure to provide both commercial and

home refueling stations. In 2008, the ACEEE rated the Honda Civic GX, which uses compressed

natural gas, as the greenest vehicle available.

10. HYDROGEN ECONOMY:

The hydrogen economy describes a new system in which our energy

needs will be predominantly met by hydrogen, rather than carbon-based

fossil fuels. According to the United States Department of Energy (DOE),

their Hydrogen Program is dedicated to working with industry, academia,

national laboratories, and federal and international agencies to:

• “Overcome technical barriers through research and development of

hydrogen production, delivery, and storage technologies, as well as fuel cell

technologies for transportation, distributed stationary power, and portable

power applications,”

• “Address safety concerns and develop model codes and standards,”

• “Validate and demonstrate hydrogen and fuel cell technologies in real-

world conditions, and”

Cooperation between national and international organizations will be

vital to making the transition to this new economy. Each segment of this

network will bring perspectives unique to their target applications. In this

way, component technologies can be developed independently, and then

integrated with other technologies to form the complete infrastructure of the

hydrogen economy.

10.1.1Fuel Cell Cost and Durability:

- Information and statistical data for concept and developmental fuel

cell vehicles is often limited and proprietary. Validation is required for vehicle

drivability, operation, and survivability in extreme climates, and emissions

from hydrogen internal combustion engines (ICE). Although

various components have been tested and validated independently,

validation of

integrated systems is necessary for system development.

Hydrogen Storage

– Current technology does not meet the requirements for large scale

transportation or stationary applications. Capital cost, long-term durability,

fast-fill dispensing efficiency, and structural integrity of hydrogen storage

system must be addressed before the technology can be commercially

available to a wide market. Research and development is needed to address

performance, failure, and operating cycle life in real-world applications.

10.2 Hydrogen Production and Delivery

– Currently the cost of hydrogen production is high, the availability of

hydrogen production systems is low, and production and delivery

technologies are still in their early stages of development. Data is limited for

integrated coal-to-hydrogen/power plants with sequestration options, the

high-temperature production of hydrogen from nuclear power, and

renewable

hydrogen production systems. Delivery options must be developed, tested,

and alidated for every potential production technology.

10.3 Public Acceptance:

– In order to foster acceptance of the hydrogen economy, the public

will need to be educated, personnel will need to be trained to operate and

maintain the infrastructure, and codes and standards will need to be

developed and adopted The design of the Station is a step toward making

available a real world application of portable hydrogen production and

refueling technologies. This project and projects like it help to demonstrate

that the technical and safety barriers that currently stand in the way of

widespread commercial acceptance of these technologies can be overcome.

11. APPLICATIONS:

11.1 Automobiles:

Ford Edge hydrogen-electric plug-in hybrid concept

Many companies are currently researching the feasibility of building hydrogen cars, and

some automobile manufacturers have begun developing hydrogen cars (see list of fuel cell

vehicles). Funding has come from both private and government sources. However, the Ford

Motor Company has dropped its plans to develop hydrogen cars, stating that "The next major

step in Ford’s plan is to increase over time the volume of electrified vehicles".[4]

11.2 Buses:

Fuel cell buses (as opposed to hydrogen fueled buses) are being trialed by several

manufacturers in different locations. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global fuel cell bus testing

collaboration. Hydrogen was first stored in roof mounted tanks, although models are now

incorporating onboard tanks. Some double deck models use between floor tanks.

11.3 Bicycles:

Pearl Hydrogen Power Sources of Shanghai, China, unveiled a hydrogen bicycle at the

9th China International Exhibition on Gas Technology, Equipment and Applications in 2007.

11.4 Motorcycles and scooters:

ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the

Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters. [19]

Finally, hydrogen fuel cell-electric hybrid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman

Fuel cell scooter and the FHybrid.

11.5 Airplanes:

.

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell

Companies such as Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center pursue

hydrogen as fuel for manned and unmanned airplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a manned

flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Unmanned hydrogen planes have also

been tested.[24]

11.6 Fork trucks:

A truck is a hydrogen fueled, internal combustion engine powered industrial forklift truck

used for lifting and transporting materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the

Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0

litre, 43 kW diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use

of a compressor and direct injection.[27][28] The hydrogen tank is filled with 26 liters of hydrogen

at 350 bar pressure.

11.7 Rockets:

Many large rockets use liquified cryogenic hydrogen as a propellant. In addition they use

liquified cryogenic oxygen, and liquified cryogenic hydrogen in the space shuttle, to charge the

fuel cells that power the electrical systems.[citation needed] The biproduct of the fuel cell is water, and

is used for drinking, and any other application that requires water in space. The oxygen is also

used to provide the rocket engines with oxygen for better thrust in space, due to the lack of

oxygen in space.[citation needed] Just prior to a launch, the rocket fuel tanks are filled and chilled.

12. ADVANTAGES:

1. Vehicle propulsion would not contribute to carbon dioxide emissions.

13. DISADVANTAGES:

The drawbacks of hydrogen use are low energy content per unit volume, high tankage

weights, very high storage vessel pressures, the storage, transportation and filling of gaseous or

liquid hydrogen in vehicles, the large investment in infrastructure that would be required to fuel

vehicles, and the inefficiency of production processes.

14. FUTURE SCOPE:

Carbon Nanotube and Related Storage Technologies

The status of hydrogen storage in advanced carbon materials is still unclear. In this subsection,

we review briefly the status of carbon nanotube storage, both single-walled and double-walled,

and graphite nanofiber stack storage. Other carbon-based storage technologies that have been

proposed include alkali-doped graphite, fullerenes, and activated carbon.

High surface area and abundant pore volume in the nanostructured materials make these

especially attractive as potential absorption storage materials. Some early work gave tantalizing

results for hydrogen storage in carbon nanotubes. Ogden reported various conflicting, some

excessively optimistic, results [1]. A query by this subcommittee to Prof. Mildred Dresselhaus of

MIT about the achievable wt% (6.5 wt% has been suggested) brought this response [33]:

1. It is hard to say what is a reliable estimate of the hydrogen uptake number because of the

differences in the reported levels by different groups, presumably doing similar measurements.

The reasons for the different results between groups are not understood.

2. The 6.5% value is not yet achievable in my opinion.

3. The problem seems to be hard to me, arguing from a theoretical standpoint.

However I would not discount the possibility of a breakthrough that might change the situation

dramatically. So far it doesn’t seem to me that there is yet much available carefully controlled

work.

16. CONCLUSION:

The only proven system for hydrogen storage today that is practical for fuel cell vehicles

is compressed gas high pressure tank storage. While this technology has the disadvantages of

limited energy density and possibly high weight for the tank, it has been shown to workable with

up to 70 GPa (10,000 psi) on-board storage tanks. Of the other hydrogen storage systems,

advanced carbon materials have been especially intriguing possibilities. However, very mixed

experimental results have left us to conclude that these materials are far from proven to have

adequate storage capacity.

Further research is ongoing, but a breakthrough is needed to provide a foundation for

confidence that carbon nano tubes or related materials will be able to satisfy storage

requirements. Finally, new ideas in hydridation of metal-N-H systems are sufficiently interesting

that they are being pursued and may lead to the development of practical storage systems.

REFERENCES:

^ "Wind-to-Hydrogen Project". Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research. Golden, CO:

National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. September 2009. Retrieved

7 January 2010.

^ Thames & Kosmos kit, Other educational materials, and many more demonstration car kits.

^ "New Hydrogen-Powered Land Speed Record from Ford". Motorsportsjournal.com.

Retrieved 2010-12-12.

^ "Ford Motor Company Business Plan", December 2, 2008

^ Dennis, Lyle. "Nissan Swears Off Hydrogen and Will Only Build Electric Cars", All Cars

Electric, February 26, 2009

Blanco, Sebastian. "GM CEO: electric cars require teamwork; hydrogen cars 10x more

expensive than Volt", green.autoblog.com, October 30, 2009

Whoriskey, Peter. "The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel Back", Washington Post, October 17,

2009

Honda Motor Company (16 June 2008). "Honda Announces First FCX Clarity Customers

and World’s First Fuel Cell Vehicle Dealership Network as Clarity Production Begins".

Retrieved 1 June 2009.

Bloomberg News (24 August 2009). "Hydrogen-powered vehicles on horizon". Washington

times. Retrieved 5 September 2009.

Abuelsamid, Sam. "Honda pulls out of Frankfurt to