Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

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Energy for Sustainable Development

Hydroelectric potential and environmental effects of multidam hydropower projectsin Turkey

Mehmet BerkunKaradeniz Technical University Department of Civil Engineering 61080 Trabzon, Turkey

E-mail addresses: berkun@ktu.edu.tr, mehmetberku

0973-0826/$ – see front matter © 2010 International Edoi:10.1016/j.esd.2010.09.003

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 18 September 2009Revised 22 September 2010Accepted 22 September 2010

Keywords:Coruh RiverEuphrates RiverTigris RiverSoutheastern Anatolia ProjectGAPHydroelectric

In this study, the installation objectives and impacts of Turkey's two major multidam transboundaryhydropower projects, Southeastern Anatolia (Euprathes and Tigris Rivers) and Northeastern Anatolia (CoruhRiver) Projects, are discussed. Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) having 22 dams and 19 hydropower plantsis the large-scale water management program aiming to increase the domestic electricity production anddevelop vast irrigation schemes for agriculture. Coruh River is the longest river in the east Black Sea region,having high economic importance to Turkey because of its largely undeveloped but economically exploitablehydropower potential. Coruh multiple dams project consists of 27 planned dams and hydroelectric powerplants. Besides numerous expected benefits from these projects, also a multitude of substantial social,economic, and environmental impact potentials exist.In spite of numerous social and economic benefits experienced in the area in social and economic spheres dueto the project, there is also a multitude of adverse impacts observed in the environment. In social andeconomic spheres, the land acquisition and resettlement of people are important issues. Large-scale irrigationcauses salinization and leads to soil erosion; huge water reservoirs affect local climate and are a source ofconsiderable amounts of pollution, including greenhouse gases. Changes in land use pattern carry potential todeprive plants and animals of their natural habitat. Moreover, urbanization and industrialization, followingsocial and economical development, bring about increased pollution levels, degrading air and water quality.

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Introduction

Turkey has a total gross hydropower potential of 433 GWh/year,but only 125 GWh/year of the total hydroelectric potential of Turkeycan be economically used (Demirbas, 2002). By the commissioning ofnew hydropower plants, which are under construction, 36% of theeconomically usable potential of the country would be tapped.

Annual electricity consumption per capita in Turkey has reached2100 kWh in 2005, which is still below the world average of2500 kWh. Thirty-one percent of energy generation in Turkeydepends on hydroelectric power and the remaining 69%, on thermalpower (natural gas, lignite, coal, fuel oil, etc., which are fossil fuels). Aspecial emphasis has recently been placed on alternative energysources such as wind and geothermal power, and there have beensome steps taken towards introducing the use of nuclear power aswell.

Turkey is a country with considerable water resources. In total,average annual run-off is approximately 186 billion cubic meters(BCM) of which 112 BCM could be exploited at reasonable cost.Surface water contributes 98 BCM and groundwater 14 BCM. TheEuphrates and Tigris Rivers alone account for 28.5% (Table 1). At

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present, Turkey is utilizing 39.3 BCM of its overall capacity. Countriesregarded as rich in water resources have 8000–10,000 m3 of water percapita per year. In other words, the available water per capita inTurkey is about one-fifth of the water-rich countries. The impressionthat Turkey has excess water derives from the fact that it is not atpresent in a position to fully utilize its water resources. Today Turkeyutilizes only 25.9 BCM of its available capacity of 110 BCM. Theremaining portion of 84.1 BCM is not surplus to Turkey's require-ments but an amount that cannot yet be allocated to its needs. Invarious international publications, the available water per capita peryear in Iraq and Syria is given as 5192 and 2362 m3, respectively.Hydroelectric schemes already contribute about a third of nationalgenerating capacity and provide a large degree of energy security for acountry that is becoming increasingly dependent on gas imports. Overthe past 50 years, Turkey has been at the center of controversysurrounding the rivers because it has moved forward with significantriver basin development projects. With less than 50% of GAP yetdeveloped, it is clear that Turkey's hydro-generating capacity will riseover the coming decade. With or without foreign support, Turkey hasplenty of untapped hydro to develop. As Turkey needs more powercapacity and still has significant hydropower potential, it is clear thatmuch of this will be taken up as the country seeks EUmembership andsupports calls for deep cuts in carbon emissions. HEPP projects arelack of fish passages in Turkey.

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Table 1Water potential of Turkey's transboundary river basins (Kibaroglu et al., 2005).

Transboundaryriver basin

Catchment areain Turkey (km2)

Mean annual flowgenerated in Turkey(BCM)

Share of totalusable potential

Euphrates (Fırat) 127,304 31.61 17.0Tigris 57,614 21.33 11.5Coruh 19,872 6.30 3.4Kura-Aras 27,548 4.63 2.5Meric 14,560 1.33 0.7Asi 7798 1.17 0.6Total usable water: 112 BCM (billion m3)Surface water: 98 BCMWater: 14 BCM

Table 3Euphrates River information in brief.

Basin area: 444,000 km2; mean annual discharge: 32 billion m3

Riparian position Basin area (percentageof total)

Main water uses

Contribution to annualdischarge

Turkey upstream 146,520 km2 (33%) Irrigation, hydropower, watersupply, flood control28.922 BCM (90%)

Syria downstream 84,360 km2 (19%) Irrigation, water supply, hydropower3.213 BCM (10.0%)

Iraq downstream 204,240 km2 (46%) Irrigation, water supply, inhabitantsof marshes0.0 BCM (–)

Main meetings and agreementsTurkey –Syria 1987—Interim protocol, water quantity to be released at

Turkish–Syrian borderNegotiations held between 19 and 20 January 1993Meeting of 17–20 May 1993 between Turkey and Syria2001—Joint Communique plus 2003 Implementation protocol:exchange of expertise, training, joint projects; joint technicalcommittee

Turkey–Iraq Meeting held with Iraq on 21 June 1993Syria–Iraq 1990—Water sharing between Syria and Iraq

Unsettled issuesQuantity Main dispute issue without agreement and common approach;

applied land irrigation methods and water overuse at both sidesGroundwater Overuse on both sidesWater quality andtreatment

Worsening and exists as potential threat for the future,inadequate treatment

Protection/restoration

Mesopotamian marshlands; disputable reliability of EIAreports; land salinity problems

321M. Berkun / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

From the 1950s to date, Turkey has made considerable progress indeveloping its water resources for multiple uses (Table 2). Althoughthere are many benefits arising from hydropower, they cause negativeimpacts as well. Slowing down the river's velocity causes changes insediment transport, storing huge amounts of water in reservoirchanges significantly the water's quality and influences the micro-climate of the area. Irrigation itself is a great intervention in a naturalsystem, introducing additional surface water, which throughoutcomplex physical and chemical processes can lead to seriousproblems encountered nowadays in agriculture, such as soil erosionand salinization (Saysel, 1999).

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey,flow south through Syria and Iraq, and drain through the Shatt Al-Arab waterway into the Persian Gulf. Average annual runoff in thesetwo rivers exceeds 80,000 million cubic meters, of which about33,000 million are generated in the Euphrates and 47,000 in the Tigris(Tables 3 and 4). Flows in both rivers are extremely variable.Southeastern Anatolia Project GAP is located in southeastern Turkey,close to the borders with Syria and Iraq. There are 9 provincesincluded into the project: Adıyaman, Batman, Diyarbakır, Gaziantep,Kilis, Mardin, Siirt, Şanlıurfa, and Şırnak (Figs. 1 and 2), altogethercomprising of about 10% of Turkey's surface area and also 10% of totalpopulation (Table 5). The region is located in the basins of Euphratesand Tigris Rivers, which together represent over 28% of nation's watersupply by rivers and constitute 40% of the total hydroelectric energypotential of the Turkey. The economically irrigable areas in the regionmake up 20% of those for the whole country (Unver, 1997). GAP hasbeen an example of good water resources management. Thecomponents of the project have being realized by implementingmodern concepts of water management, environmental conservation,and women participation. This is sincerely appreciated by variousgovernment and UN-related organizations.

CoruhRiver originates in thewesternpart of theMescitmountains ata height of over 3000 m and lies to the north–west of the Erzurum-Kars

Table 2Multi-purpose water infrastructure in Turkey (January 2005).

Infrastructure type In operation Under construction p

By DSIa Other organizations

Dams (quantity) 544 11Hydroelectric power plants (quantity) 53 82Installed cap. (MW) 10,215 2416Generation (GWh/year) 36,481 8844Small dams (quantity) 47 617b

Irrigation (million ha) 2.77 2.12Water supply (BCM) 2.50 0.46Flood control (million ha) 1.0 –

a State Hydraulic Works.b Small dams constructed by General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS).

Plateau. Near Batumi, the capital city of the Georgian semi-autonomousprovince Ajaria, the river empties into the Black Sea through a delta thatis largely composed of the accumulated alluvium. Because of climaticconditions, the river carries plenty of water in all seasons albeit withremarkable seasonal variations. Turkey's average annual rainfall is642 mm, whereas the Coruh basin receives 475 mm rain in an averageyear. According to the long-term observations measured at the flowmonitoring station in Muratli, the average flow rate is 202 m³/s. Themediumannualflowrate determined through long-yearmeasurementsis 6.3 BCM/year, which corresponds to the 3.4% of the total waterpotential in Turkey (Table 6). Apart from the comparatively high andvariable flow rates, the river carries high levels of sediment and deposits(estimated at 5 BCM/year), which stem from erosion in the Turkishmountain regions. Despite the rather small drainage basin area, the riverhas high hydropower production potential due to the topographicconditions and, in particular, the sharp fall of the river from highmountains to the sea level. At present, urban waste waters and solidwastes are the sources of pollution because of insufficient waste water

rogram

Total By DSI Other organizations Total

555 209 1 210135 53 17 70

12,631 8982 465 944745,325 29,581 1725 31,306

664 1 43b 444.89 0.8 – 0.82.96 1.09 – 1.091.0 0.5 – 0.5

Table 4Tigris river information in brief.

Basin area: 387,000 km2; mean annual discharge: 52 BCM (billion m3)

Riparian position Basin area (% of total) Main water uses

Contribution to annual discharge

Turkey upstream 57,600 km2 (14.9%) Irrigation, hydropower20.840 BCM (40%)

Syria—border withTurkey/Iraq

1000 km2 (0.3%)–

Iraq downstream 292,000 km2 (75.3%) Irrigation (diverts waterthrough Thartar Canal toEuphrates), hydropower

26.571 BCM (51%)

Iran—upstream onone tributary

–

4.689 BCM (9%)

Main meetings and agreementsNone

Disputed issuesEuphrates–Tigris as one single watercourse system formation Ilisu Dam Dispute

322 M. Berkun / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

treatment and solid waste disposal facilities. In addition, industrialpollution limited to specific sitesplays a certain role (e.g., discharge fromthe coppermining industry). In contrast, pollution from agriculture is ofminor importance because of the small-scale farming. Currently, only aminor share of the Coruh River water is used for economic or socialpurposes. The most relevant water uses are water supply withdrawals(groundwater is, however, an easy accessible substitute in severalregions) and instream activities such as kayaking and boating. Today,themost important pressures on freshwater ecosystems come from thedevelopment of hydropower generation installations.

Fig. 1. GAP project region provinc

In this paper, hydropower potential of twomain transboundary riverbasins in Turkey (Southeast Anatolia and Coruh Basins) are discussedwith the present and potential social, economic, and environmentalissues.

Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP)

Hydropower potential

The GAP region has a 22% share of the country's total hydroelectricpotential, with plans for 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants.Upon the completion of the project, 1.7 million ha of land will bebrought under irrigation, energy production in the region will reach27 billion kWh, per capita income will rise by 209%, and about3.8 million people will be provided employment opportunities (Kapuret al., 2006) (Figs. 2 and 3).

Social issues

Transboundary waters share certain characteristics that make theirmanagementespecially complicated,mostnotable ofwhich is that thesebasins require a more complete appreciation of the political, cultural,and social aspects of water. Numerous social and environmental issueshave been recognized (salinization and soil erosion, climatic changes,pollution, changes in land use patterns, urbanization and industrializa-tion following social and economical development, degrading air andwater quality) since the project entered the construction phase(Owczarek, 2008). Land acquisition and resettlement of people aretwo important issues of GAP. GAP reservoirs such as Ataturk andKarakaya have so far displaced about 100,000 persons. The AtaturkDamreservoir affected 143 villages. Approximately 45,000 were influencedby the project in some way according to the registration, population

es and major dam locations.

Fig. 2. Existing dams locations on the Tigris and Euprates rivers.

Table 6Coruh basin river information in brief.

Basin area: 21,100 km2; mean annual discharge: 6.3 BCM (billion m3)

Riparian position Basin area (% of total) Main water uses

Turkey upstream 19,200 km2 (90%) Irrigation, hydropower, watersupply recreation/tourism

Georgia downstream 900 km2 (10%) Small-scale agriculture, recreation,fishery

Main agreements and covered issuesTurkey–Georgia 1993–2006 meetings and signed protocols on border issues,

river bank protection, coastal protection, water allocation,compensation requirements, joint commission, technicalcooperation, river bed changes

Disputed issuesWater quality andtreatment

Insufficient data and research on theupstreamanddownstreamwaters related to the dam constructions

Sediment Coastal zone erosion, negative impacts of Turkish dams onthe sediment regime on coastal zones in the environs ofBatumi

Biodiversity Disputable reliability of EIA reports; comprehensive approachto the protection of freshwater ecosystems is lacking

Water quantity Discussible issue; no signed agreements

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documents. Ataturk Dam expropriation was carried out by the GeneralDirectorate of State Hydraulics works (DSI) between 1983 and 1996. Intotal the expropriation compensation of 25,700 parcel (43,400 ha) witha value of ~494 Trillion TL were paid to the owners (1$=1350TL in2004). Also ~163 Trillion TL compensation payments were given to thepeople as a result of suedunderestimatedprices, also in 2004unit prices.One thousand one hundred thirty-one families preferred governmentalresettlement due to Ataturk Dam at the end of 2002 except for the onesbeing compensated in cash. One hundred sixty-nine families have gotrural resettlement, and 315 families have got urban resettlement, 416

Table 5General features of GAP region.

Parameters GAP region Turkey Ratio

Total area (km2) 75,000 780,000 10%Population (×106) 6.6 67.8 10%Water budget (billion m3) 52.9 186.1 28%Irrigable land (×106 hectare) 1.82 8.5 20%Hydropower potential (TWh=billion kWh) 27.5 122 23%

families have got lands to construct new houses, and the remaining 231families have got their houses after the tender and constructionprocesses. The accommodation of people who have not resettled isorganized and their rents are paid by the government. Most of thefamilies were resettled in Adiyaman Province, which is nearby theirprevious livelihood. However, a considerable number of families wereresettled in provinces in the west of Turkey.

The latest stage in GAP is the 1200 MW Ilisu project, which involvesthe construction of a 135-m high dam on the Tigris River, just 45 kmfrom the Syrian border by 2014–2015. The Ilisu reservoir will flood52 villages and 15 small towns affecting 15,000–20,000 including thecity of Hasankeyf with a population of 5500, which is the only townin Anatolia surviving since the middle ages and including Assyrian,Christian, Abassidian-Islamic, andOttomanhistory in Turkey.Hasankeyfwas awarded complete archeological protection by the TurkishDepartment of Culture on April 14, 1978. It must thus be protectedagainst all negative impacts. However, a ‘principal decision’ (Res. No.717 on October 4, 2006) taken by the Turkish Ministry for Culture andTourism lifted theprotection of cultural heritage, as thedamprojectwasconsidered indispensable. Numerous cultural experts and activists inTurkey have appealed to the national authorities and the foreigncompanies to save Hasankeyf by changing the design of Ilisu. Beforethe reservoir area isflooded, only15%of all cultural relics couldbe saved.

Environmental issues

The GAP Project launched by the government of Turkey, seeking toincrease the GNP by 445 percent, the Per Capita Income by 209percent together with job prospects to be created for 3.5 millionpeople, is a good example of a strategy for the sustainable productionof energy and food. Moreover, reports have revealed that the 9%added value of agriculture to the Turkish economy over the region hasincreased to 12% in the year 2000. This means that a 2% increase in percapita incomewas attained from 1985 to 2000. However, the GAP areaas much of the Mediterranean presents a unique suite of soils that haseffects on the quality of food (Tekinel, 2001; Kapur et al., 2006).

While the GAP has been criticized for environmental problemsinvolved in its construction, the reduction in carbon emissions that willbe achieved by constructing hydro rather than thermal power-generating capacity has been officially put forward. For instance, it is

Fig. 3. Multiple dams on GAP project.

324 M. Berkun / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

estimated that the Ilisu project will save 3 million tons per year in GHGemissions, which may have helped European export credit agencies tothrow their support behind it.

Among the main environmental problems discovered in GAP areaare agricultural practices (salinization, pollution due to excessive use ofchemicals, soil erosion, rural emigration), flooding of dam reservoirs(loss of endemic species, loss of fertile land), operational phase of dam(climate change, epidemics, loss of fertility downstream, effects onaquatic species), and urban development (urban pollution, loss of land,immigration).

In southeastern Turkey, salinization took place even beforeapplying large-scale agricultural improvements within GAP. Thereare numerous consequences of salinity, e.g., reduction of waterquality, soil erosion, and detrimental effect on plant growth and finalyield (Darama et al., 2004). Agricultural activities (improper irriga-tion, overuse of pesticides and fertilizers; deforestation; overexploi-tation; overgrazing; industrialization; degradation due to water andwind erosion; chemical deterioration due to the exhaustion ofnutrients; salinization and acidification) are the diagnosed soildegradation reasons in the GAP region (Unver, 1997). The researchesrevealed, however, that the process was recently intensified byirrigation (Owczarek, 2008). Infiltration of excessive water amount incombination with insufficient drainage system led to the rise ofgroundwater level. Analysis of samples from the drainage channels atŞanlıurfa-Harran plain showed that the yearly averaged sedimentwashed by the excessive amount of irrigation water from the soilsurface of Şanlıurfa-Harran Plain and transported to Syria was about240 tons/day in 2005, but over 880 tons/day in 2002 and over 670tons/day in 2004 (Darama et al., 2004). A total of 5.5 Mha (out of7.4 Mha of GAP region) is affected by moderate to very intensivewater erosion. As a result, increased bedrock exposure has become aproblem within an area of 4 million ha. This is intensified byinsufficient forest and other vegetation cover and 72.3% of the regionis facing intensive soil erosion (Sahan et al., 2001). The annualsediment load of the Tigris to be 15–30 million m3 is expected to befilled up 10–20% of the reservoir's normal operating capacity within50 years.

The statistical analysis proved that large artificial water bodies,irrigated areas, and urbanization are the causes of considerablechanges in extreme temperature values of GAP area. However, Tonkazand Cetin (2007) mention also global warming as another potentialfactor for recorded changes.

Solid waste andwastewaters of themajor cities' such as Diyarbakir(population, 1 million), Batman, and Siirt will be dumped into theTigris until the planned treatment plants are constructed.

Researches on three main dams on Euphrates River—Keban,Karakaya, Ataturk—revealed that some problems referring to geologyoccur in GAP area (Ertunc, 1999).

The report on biodiversity of GAP states that the dry steppe grassland,the oak shrubland, and woodland of the Mardin mountains arecharacteristic for GAP region, form a habitat for many species andcommunitiesunique inTurkey, andareof great conservation importance,such as striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and, presumably, Caspian tiger(Panthera tigris virgata). Within the GAP biodiversity project, 30 priorityareas of the highest species richness were indicated (Welch, 2004). Athreat for the variety of fauna and flora in GAP comes not only fromflooding of vast areas but also from the changes in agricultural patterns.

It should be obviously realized that environmental issues must beintroduced as an important aspect of the GAP for introducing asustainable development in the region. The GAP Master Plan has beenissued those items since 1988. In respect of the importance given toenvironmental studies, DSİ is studying salinization problems in theirrigated part of the GAP region and some environmental projectswere conducted by GAP Administration (Akyurek, 2005).

Cross boundary issues

Water has come to the forefront as a problem in relations betweenthe riparian countries in the recent years. At present, Turkey, with itsunequally developed irrigated agriculture in the three states, is thegreatest user of water (Tables 3 and 4). A major threat to waterresources, and to the riparian's relations, is the envisaged enlargementof areas to be irrigated with water withdrawn from the Euphrates andthe Tigris in all three countries: about 1.7 million ha in Turkey as part ofthe Southeastern Anatolia Project; 640,000 ha in Syria; and 500,000 hain Iraq. Variation in the flow of both rivers ranged from conditions ofsevere drought to destructive flooding before upstream reservoirs arebuilt in Turkey that are capable of smoothing out such variances andproviding a dependable year-round flow downstream. However, sincethe 1960s, Turkey, Syria, and Iraq have invested in large-scale waterdevelopment projects, the largest of which is Turkey's SoutheasternAnatolia Project. A series of dams were built, first in Iraq, then in Syriaand Turkey to provide irrigation water and to generate hydropower.Rapidly increasing populations in these countries and the importance offood production have given further impetus for the utilization of therivers. As a result of developments, the water demands of the ripariansexceed the actual amount ofwater that canbe suppliedby theEuphratesand Tigris Rivers. If all irrigation projects envisaged are realized, by thecompletion date for all projects in 2040, total demandwould far exceedsupply. Iraq and Syria consider the Euphrates an international river and

325M. Berkun / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

insist on an immediate sharing agreement under which its waterswould be shared on the basis of each country's stated water needs. Onthe other hand, Turkey regards the Euphrates and Tigris as forming asingle transboundary river basin where the waters should be allocatedaccording to the identified needs. And, more importantly, there are alsouncertainties and inadequacies relating to the data on water and landresources.Water dispute in the region clearly stems fromuncoordinatedwater development projects. The Turkish three-stage plan may, ifextended, be a starting point, which would enable the parties to designsolutions on a sound, data reliant basis.

Coruh Basin Project

Hydropower potential

Because of favorable topographical conditions, the Coruh has thepotential to provide some 13% of the usable hydroelectric power in thecountry, which to date remains largely untapped. Coruh multiple damsproject consists of 27 planned dams and hydroelectric power plants(Fig. 4). Damson themain branch of the river are given in Fig. 5 (head to

Fig. 4. Dams and hydroelectric power plants

toe). When all of the projects (8260 GWh) in the Coruh River MasterPlan are completed, this chain of projects will exploit 6.4% of Turkey'soverall hydroelectric potential. The Deriner and the Yusufeli dams rankamong the most important dams in Turkey in terms of size andhydropower potential. Borcka and Muratli dams were completed, andthe construction of theDeriner dam is still ongoing. Themain purposeofthe Deriner is hydroelectric power production and additionally floodcontrol. It will have a 670 MWpower and will produce 2117 GWh/yearenergy. TheDerinerDam,when complete,will be a 249-m-high, 720-m-long double-curved arch dam. It will have a base width of 60 m and acrest width at the top cantilever of 1 m. The reservoir being the dam hasa catchment area of 18,389 km2, capacity of 1970 million m3, andregulating volume of 960 million m3. The estimated construction cost ofthe Deriner dam is ~$2 billion.

The Yusufeli dam will be the second largest dam within the largerCoruh River Development Plan, which will have 33-km2 surface area,60-km total length (including tributaries), and an average width of550 m. The Yusufeli dam would take 7 to 8 years to construct and willproduce 1705 GWh/year energy with a generating capacity of 540 MW.The estimated construction costs of Yusufeli dam vary between

(HEPP) on the Coruh River basin project.

Fig. 5. Multiple dams on the Coruh River basin project.

326 M. Berkun / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

$700 million and $838 million. The Turkish authorities consider theCoruh basin development plan and associated dam constructions asvehicles to support economic development in northeastern Turkey.Although the program predominantly focuses on hydropower genera-tion and the supply of electricity, an irrigation (agriculture develop-ment) component also runs inparallel.With the constructionof thedamcascade, 30,000 ha of land are planned for irrigation, mainly along theupper and middle streams of the river. This rather modest objective foragricultural development is due to thebasin's topographical limits. A fullrealization of the planned development of irrigation agriculture could,however, significantly increase agricultural water use and changesettlement patterns in the area.

Social issues

Yusufeli dam resettlement costs are estimated as $750 million. Inaddition, a minimum of $1.5 billion is estimated to be required forrebuilding the roads that will be flooded by the dam. Serious concernshave been raised over the dams' environmental, human rights, andcultural heritage impacts. The Yusufeli project would directly affect15,000 people. Up to 15,000 more people could also be indirectlyaffected. People will move their livelihoods and ways of life, accordingto a resettlement plan. Eighteen towns and villages, including thetown of Yusufeli, would be completely or partially submerged by thedam. Much cultural heritage would also be affected.

Environmental issues

Although the program predominantly focuses on hydropowergeneration and the supply of electricity, an irrigation (agriculturedevelopment) component also runs in parallel. Yusufeli dam projectmay save ~1.5 million tons per year in GHG emissions whencompared with the Ilisu project energy capacity as specified. An

Table 7Calculated external impact costs of Yusufeli dam (Emiroglu, 2009).

External factors External costs ($/MWh)

Emissions 0.0837Costdisp. 30.145CostLossLife 0.25CostLandLoss 117.37CostAgricult Prod. 1.12Total 148.97

analysis of the environmental impact cost of Yusufeli dam includingdisplacement, land losses, emissions, life and agricultural productionlosses showed a total cost of 148.98 $/MWh (Table 7) (Emiroglu,2009).

Among the main environmental problems discussed in Coruh areaare flooding of dam reservoirs (loss of endemic species), operationalphase of dam (climate change, epidemics, loss of fertility downstream,effects on aquatic species), agricultural practices (salinization, pollu-tion due to excessive use of chemicals, soil erosion, rural emigration),urban development (urban pollution, loss of land, immigration) andthe sediment retention, interferences with the Black Sea cyclonicgyres.

Coruh River shows high value in terms of biological diversity andhosts plenty of important species and habitats. The river's valley isknown for its rich flora with high endemism. According to availablesources, some 2500 species of vascular plants can be found in thisarea, including 160 endemic ones. Large mammals are well repre-sented in the region are the important amphibians and reptiles.

A review of data from Environmental impact assessment (EIA) andresearches related to Yusufeli dam indicate that the construction of thisdamcarries seriousbiological impactspotentials affecting21 threatenedplant species, 12 threatened mammal species, and 2 fish threatenedspecies and loss of 1460 ha (or 6%) of 23,200 ha of the Coruh valleywildlife protection area and the further fragmentation of this protectedhabitat (ENCON, 2006). Yusufeli dam may have significant biologicalimpacts including (Lambourne, 2006) the following:

– Adversely affecting 21 nationally listed threatened plant species, ofwhich all except one are endemic to Turkey. Of these threatenedspecies, 2 taxa are limited to Yusufeli and its surroundings; 8 arelimited to the Coruh valley; and 6, to the Artvin-Erzurum area.Turkish red book for plants shows that 7 species are criticallyendangered, 5 are endangered, and 9 are vulnerable (Ekim et al.,2000).

– Adversely affecting 12 nationally listed threatened mammalspecies including the Wild Goat (Capra aegagrus), Chamois(Rupicapra rupicapra), Persian Squirrel (Sciurus anomalus), ForestDormouse (Dryomys nitedula), Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), EurasianBadger (Meles meles), Gray Wolf (Canis lupus), MediterraneanHorseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus euryale), Lesser Horseshoe Bat(Rhinolophus hipposideros), Greater Mouse-Eared Bat (Myotismyotis), Schreiber's Bat (Miniopterus schreibersi), and PipistrelleBat (Pipistrellus pipistrellus). Of these species, the Mediterranean

327M. Berkun / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

Bat and Wild Goat are internationally listed on IUCN red list ofthreatened species (IUCN, 2006).

– Adversely affecting 2 nationally threatened fish species, the BlackSea Salmon (Salmo trutta labrax) and Brown Trout (Salmo truttamacrostigma). The Black Sea Salmon's migration will be blockedbecause of this and the other planned and built dams. Existingpopulations of fish will be adversely affected by the construction ofthe dam and another 6 species populations may not recover due tothe reduction of creek and river habitat needed for breeding.

– Potentially adversely affecting 5 butterfly and 1 dragonfly regionallyrare species (Polyommatus poseidon, Pseudophilotes vicrama, Pyrguscirsii, Scolitantides orion, Thymelicus acteon, and Onychogomphusassimilis) of which 2 are listed in the IUCN red list Pyrgus cirsii andOnychogomphus assimilis (Eken et al., 2006).

The circulation of the Black Sea is characterized by two centralcyclonic gyres in the eastern and in the western part of the centralbasin. These gyres are linked to at least eight smaller anti-cycloniceddies in the coastal areas. One of them is the regional circulationsystem at the easternmost sea area between Trabzon, Batumi, andSukhumi (Oguz et al., 1993). The morphology of a river mouth isdetermined by a range of factors such as incoming sediment load andcomposition, tidal amplitude, stratification, andmixing at the boundaryof fresh and seawater, coastal currents, wave action, and prevailingwinds (Mangelsdorf et al., 1990). Turbidity plumes indicating intensivesediment influxes are visible at the Coruh delta as well as at themouthsof some coastal and Caucasian rivers. Generally, the temporal pattern ofsedimentflux depends on the seasonal flowdistribution. Themaximumsediment yield of the Coruh River occurs in May (Algan et al., 1997).

Two main consequences for the coastal and marine environmentof sediment retention by the Coruh cascade can be identified (ENCON,2006):

– Reduced fluvial sediment supply will increase the erosive capacityof the northern directed current. Inshore sediment deposits andshoreline structures will be eroded.

– Sediment retention includes the retention of biogenous opal andthus it can alter the geochemical attributes of the receiving coastalwater body (i.e., silica/nitrogen relation), followed by shifts inphytoplankton composition and productivity. Subsequent mod-ifications in economically relevant segments of the marine foodweb (fisheries) cannot be excluded.

Both mechanisms are already known from the western part of theBlack Sea due to the Iron gate dams at Danube River in Romania(Reschke, 1999). Regarding the latter point, it needs to be considered,however, that the sedimentation rates in most parts of the Black Searegion have increased during the last 2000 years due to clear-cutting ofnatural forests and rising agriculture in the watersheds of the maintributaries. These human activities enhanced soil erosion and the fluvialtransport of particularmatter to the Black Sea. Sediment retention in thefluvial systems could be seen as partial reset of this adverse humanimpact. However, local land use practices, fisheries, settlements, andecosystems are adapted to the present conditions and will undergochanges with the implementation of the Coruh cascade.

For cascading reservoirs, every single reservoir will receive thefraction of sediments passing through the next upper reservoir plusthe unimpacted sediment yield from the catchment area in-between.This incoming sediment yield will be retainedmore or less; its passingfraction forms one component of the incoming sediment yield for thenext downstream reservoir. Sediment retention in the reservoirs willincrease the potential erosion in the downstream section of thecascade. Sparse alluvial sediment deposits in the steeper reaches willbe eroded up to the complete armoring of the channel bottom. Furtherdownstream, the river channel will incise into the alluvial sedimentdeposits forming the coastal plain, getting wider and deeper. Further,the river will regressively erode the sediment cone of the Coruh delta.

About 88% of the suspended sediment load (6.6 million tons/year) ofthe Coruh reaching the river mouth at the Black Sea on the GeorgianCoast originates from Turkish territory. The remainder of thesediment amount (12% or 0.87 million tons/year) being transportedby the Coruh River to the delta originates from the area downstreamof the Muratli Dam and from the two tributaries of the Coruh onGeorgian territory (Acara and Macahela).

Cross boundary issues

The Coruh River contributes about 10% to the total sedimentsupply of the Black Sea and about 32% to the supply of the eastern gyreregion, respectively. Sediment material from Coruh River is a maincomponent of the littoral cell of the Adjarian coastline of the Black Sea(Bilashvili et al., 2005; Berkun et al., 2010). The total sedimentdeficiency close to the Coruh delta will be between 83% and 89%depending on the approach used for estimation. On the Georgianterritory, approximately 55.1% of the suspended sediments reachingthe Coruh River mouth originate from the Yusufeli reservoircatchment area. This does not represent the actual sediment retentionimpact of Yusufeli to the downstream as Yusufeli is not a singular damon the Coruh River but part of the Coruh Cascade. Even if Yusufeli wasnot built, the lower Coruh dams act as sediment traps. Based on thekey characteristics of the Coruh Cascade, the sediment retentionincluding the share of Yusufeli Project was investigated by DSI. Thesediment retention is mainly determined by the lower reservoirsDeriner, Borcka, and Muratli: their sediment retention efficiency is94.3%, 87.1%, and 47.9% (Brune's method) or 100% (Churchill'smethod) (ENCON, 2006). Deriner is planned to go into operation in2007 and acts as themain sediment trap. Even if no further damswerebuilt upstream from Deriner, the sediments originating from theirrespective catchments would in any case be held back by Deriner.Thus, considerations like sediment flushing at Artvin or Yusufeli damscould not significantly enhance the sediment supply for the Coruhdelta.

Georgia does not use water from the Coruh River for its domesticwater supply or its industrial demands, and, as agricultural irrigationdoes not play any significant role either, fishing has assumed moreimportance. Since the planned dams will predominantly be used forhydropower generation, the impact of the infrastructure on annualwater flows from Turkey to Georgia is rather limited. Transboundarywater quantity questions are therefore not at the center of politicaldebate. Furthermore, Georgia is not dependent on the Coruh River forenergy andwater, and this clearly reduces thepotential for conflicts. Themost serious transboundary impact of the dams will be the expectedradical change of sediment regimeof the river. In this context, it isworthmentioning the erosion problemalong theGeorgianBlack Sea coast. Themost serious of the anticipated effects of the dams upstream in Turkeycould possibly be increased coastal erosion thatmight not only threatenecosystems and beaches in the vicinity of the river's delta but alsofisheries, and urban areas in the agglomeration of Batumi. Clearly, it isnot only the river Coruh that is posing problems for the coastalprotection in the region of Batumi, dams built on the Georgian riversEnguri and Rioni have had the same effect in allowing erosion by theBlack Sea to outpace the natural replenishment provided by the rivers(Kibaroglu et al., 2005).

Discussion and conclusions

Based on International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) andthe World Bank, ten categories of environmental impacts have beenestablished. These are the impacts on the natural environment (flora,fauna, and aquatic fauna), social/economic/cultural aspects (resettle-ment), land, dam construction activities, sedimentation of reservoirs,downstream hydrology, water quality, tidal barrages, climate, humanhealth (WCD, 2000).

328 M. Berkun / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 320–329

Artificial reservoirs are also a source of significant quantities ofpollution, especially greenhouse gases (methane and CO2), but thesehave not been studied in Turkey. They are also of serious politicalconcern especially in semi-arid environs, causing decreased rivervelocities and increased sediment loads, bringing about significantchanges in downstream areas. Due to growing population numbers andhigher standards of life, additional pressure upon social infrastructureand its encroachment upon the physical resource base are encountered.Choices between costs and benefits are unavoidable where economy,demography, politics, and environment meet as encountered in thesoutheastern Anatolia.

In the later stages of GAP, increased land irrigation will change theused quantity and quality of water, as water from the fields returns tothe river. Turkey is well aware of the risks involved and will be evenmore vigilant than it already is in curbing pollution. Various methodsexist of doing this. One is to dilute water used to irrigate the plains ofSanlıurfa with 30% of fresh water afterwards. This has the advantageof saving water and using natural resources optimally.

The total GAP region is 7.4 million ha; 5.5 million ha of these isaffected by moderate to very intensive water erosion. This area isvolcanic, and steep and erosion has been significant enough to exposeunderlying subsoils and rock structures. An area of 4 million ha nowhas a problem with this increased bedrock exposure.

Due to having long implementation period of the GAP project, theassessment of positive and negative impacts of the project is verydifficult, but the rapid transformation of the region after theintroduction of the features of GAP shows that the objectives of GAPare achieved in some circumstances even though the project is notcompleted at all. The rapid development requirements of the regioncaused radical changes economically, socially, and environmentally.Also the strong desire for development in the region resultedunplanned and uncontrolled use of the project outputs as in thecase of irrigation. Used excess water in this dry agriculture areasuddenly caused a large amount of agricultural output but with thearising salinity problem in the region. This caused water and landlosses to become significant issues in a very short period. Moreover,due to changing environmental figures, the extinction of many itemsin the specific flora and fauna of the region may become a criticalresult for future generations. The issues of education, health, andwoman participation are positively but not sufficiently affected by theGAP. These items should have improved in short time at least at theaverage level of Turkey. The populationmovements are decreased dueto the new economical activities in the region. Some examples ofancient civilizations of this area are under the water since theplanning studies were conducted without a clear consideration ofhistorical values in the region.

The development and the forming of the Black Sea coastal zone inAjara (Georgia)dependon thequantity andquality characteristics of thealluvial deposit brought into the sea by the Coruh (Chorokhi) River. It isestimated that the Coruh carries 4.92 million m3 solid sediment to theriver mouth, whereby 2.31 million m3 contributes to the formation ofthe coastal zone and the underground slope, and 2.61 million m3 formssea sediments. In spite of the huge volume of the coastal sediments, thecoastal zone near the river mouth has been experiencing a “washingaway” problem. This problem may become worse due to the expecteddecreasing amount of sediment transport linked to the construction ofthe dams on the Coruh Basin.

TheEIA report on theYusufeli damandHEPPpredicts that trappingof83% of the suspended sediments in the cascade of dams would createchanges in the river mouth. Due to a reduced amount of sedimentsarriving at themouth, morphological changes would occur and, with alllikelihood, the mouth of the Coruh may gradually become estuaryshaped. There is no comprehensive bilateral agreement on themanagement of the Coruh River between Turkey and Georgia. Theecological state of the Coruh River and the related coastal ecosystemsshould be subject to supplementary scientific studies and analyses.

Based on careful assessment of the sediment management issues,various technical cooperation measures could be designed and imple-mented in order to reduce negative downstream and upstream effects.Coruh River is the longest river of the east Black Sea region and is of higheconomic importance to Turkey because of it is largely undeveloped buthas economically exploitable hydropower potential. However, theplanned dams could also cause serious environmental damage inupstream Turkey and downstream Georgia. Although a debatable EIAreport was prepared for the Yusufeli dam, cumulative environmentaleffects of the Coruh multiple dam project have not been investigated. Ingeneral, it is not easy to foresee the direct effects of the planned Turkishinfrastructure because coastal erosion is a multi-faced problem with avariety of causes and effects generated by a variety of humaninterventions. Thus, even within Georgia, there is enormous variationin expense estimates required for additional coastal protection.

Although prepared EIA report depreciates the environmental effectsof Yusufeli dam, other EIA report and related research indicates thepotential basinwide serious impacts. This shows the uppermostimportance of the preparation and application rules and procedures ofEIA and CEA reports. The cumulative impacts of the projects on theaquatic and terrestrial ecosystem should be taken into account usingbasin approach having interaction of the various effects. Dams andhydroelectric power plants are part of bigger schemes of hydropowerprojects and irrigation cannot be separated from the whole picture.Three things are needed to keep hydropower among valued energysources. These are research and development, education, and stream-lined regulation.

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