HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES 4CS11 SESSION 2012-13

ALWAR INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY Alwar (Rajasthan)

Lab Manual HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

Program:B.Tech

Semester : IV semSession: 2012-2013Subject Code: 4CS11 Subject Name: HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE &ENGINEERING SCHEME AS PER RTU SYLLABUS

Subject Code

Name of Subject

Exam

Hrs.

L

T

P

M.M.

Sessional/

Mid term

M.M.

End

Term

Total

M.M.

4CS11Humanities & Social Sciences4--2302050

Assessment criteriaA. Internal Assessment:

30In continuous evaluation system of the university, a student is evaluated throughout semester. His/her performance in the lab, attendance, practical knowledge, problem solving skill, written work in practical file and behavior are main criteria to evaluate student performance. Apart from that a lab quiz will be organize to see program programming skill and knowledge about the proposed subject. B. External Assessment:

20At the end of the semester a lab examination will be scheduled to check overall programming skill, in which student will need to solve 2 programming problems in time span of 3 hours. C. Total Marks:

30+20=50FACULTY NAME: Mr. Nitish PatilLAB ASSISTANT NAME: Rinku Chaudhary

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

SYLLABUS AS PER RTU 4CS11. HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. Form of Government: Democracy, Dictatorship

2. India: Brief history of Indian Constitution, History of Indian National Movement, After

Independence, Socio-economic growth.

3. Society: Social groups-concept and types socialization: concept and types, theory social control :concept and types means. Social problem: concept and types.

4. The Fundamentals of Economics: The logic of economics fundamentals definitions of economics, basic terminology.

5. Micro Economics: Consumer's behavior, utility, demand, supply, elasticity of demand and supply. Theory of production, production function, factors of production.

6. Macro Economics: National income, business cycles, aggregate term, inflation, economic growth, international Trade, exchange rates.

7. Indian Economy: Basic features, infrastructure, occupation, natural and human resources,

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

LIST OF HSS ASSIGNMENTS:1. Form of Government in India: Democracy2. Indian Constitution3. Society4. Fundamentals of Economics5. Micro Economics

6. Macro Economics

7. Indian Economy

BEYOND CURRICULUM:1. Current affairs questions 2. Assignments on topics: SEBI,FDI, RBI.3. Reasoning questions.

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

INDEX

ASSIGN.NO.ASSIGNMENT NAMEPAGE NO.

1

Form of Government in India: Democracy

1-6

2

Indian Constitution

7-29

3

Society

30-34

4

Fundamentals of Economics35-37

5

Micro Economics

38-42

6

.

Macro Economics

42-43

7Indian Economy

44-56

Assignment No. 1: Form of Government: DemocracyObjectives

Introduce the form of Government :Democracy Dictatorship

1. Form of Government: The Government of India, officially known as the Union Government, and also known as the Central Government, was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of the union of 28 states and seven union territories, collectively called the Republic of India. It is seated in New Delhi, the capital of India.The government comprises three branches:

the executive,

the legislative and

the judiciary.

The head of the executive branch is the President, who is the Head of State and exercises his or her power directly or through officers subordinate to him/ her.The legislative branch or the Parliament consists of the lower house, the Lok Sabha, and the upper house, the Rajya Sabha, as well as the President.The judicial branch has the Supreme Court at its apex, 21 High Courts, and numerous civil, criminal and family courts at the district level. India is the largest democracy in the world.

The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as the Civil Procedure Code, the Indian Penal Code, and the Criminal Procedure Code. The union and individual state governments consist of executive, legislative and judicial branches. The legal system as applicable to the federal and individual state governments is based on the English Common and Statutory Law. India accepts International Court of Justice jurisdiction with several reservations. By the 73rd and 74th amendments to the constitution, the Panchayat Raj system has been institutionalized for local governance.

The legislature is the Parliament. It is bicameral, consisting of two houses:

the directly elected 545-member Lok Sabha ("House of the People"), the lower house, and

the 250-member indirectly elected and appointed Rajya Sabha ("Council of States"), the upper house.

The Parliament enjoys parliamentary supremacy. All the members of the Council of Ministers as well as the Prime Minister are members of Parliament. If they are not, they must be elected within a period of six months from the time they assume their respective office. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the Lok Sabha collectively.

Collective responsibilityThe Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are jointly accountable to the Lok Sabha. If there is a policy failure or lapse on the part of the government, all the members of the council are jointly responsible. If a vote of no confidence is passed against the government, then all the ministers headed by the Prime Minister have to resign.[citation needed]Executive branchThe executive branch of government is the part of government that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the republican idea of the separation of powers. The separation of powers system is designed to distribute authority away from the executive branch an attempt to preserve individual liberty in response to tyrannical leadership throughout history.

President

Rashtrapati Bhawan, the residence of the President of India

The executive power is vested on mainly the President of India by Article 53 (1) of the constitution. The President enjoys all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per the aforesaid Article 53(1).The President is to act in accordance with aid and advise tendered by the head of government (Prime Minister of India) and his or her Council of Ministers (the cabinet) as described in Article 74 (Constitution of India).

The Constitution vests in the President of India all the executive powers of the Central Government. The President appoints the Prime Minister, the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister.

The Council of Ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the President. However, In practice the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it commands the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha.

The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:

Governors of states

The Chief Justice, and other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.

The Attorney General The Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners.

The Central Vigilance Commissioner and the Vigilance Commissioners.

The President's Officer

The Comptroller and Auditor General

The Cabinet Secretary-whose position is equivalent to the Ministers in Central Government. His work is to facilitate smooth transaction of business in Ministries/ Departments of the Government.[2] The Secretariat held by Cabinet Secretary is termed as Cabinet Secretariat and assists in decision-making in Government by ensuring Inter-Ministerial coordination, ironing out differences amongst Ministries/ Departments and evolving consensus through the instrumentality of the standing/ adhoc Committees of Secretaries.

The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission

Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries.

The President is the de jure Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in cases involving punishment of death. The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the President exercises his or her executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Vice PresidentThe Vice-President of India is the second-highest ranking government official in the executive branch of the Government of India, following the President. The Vice-President also has the legislative function of acting as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

The Vice-President acts as President in the event of death, resignation, or removal of the President until a new President is chosen by the electoral college for maximum six months. During this period, the Vice President shall not perform the duties of the office of the Chairman of Rajya Sabha.

Cabinet, executive departments and agenciesThe Cabinet of India includes the Prime Minister and 35 Cabinet Ministers. Each Minister must be a member of one of the houses of India's Parliament. The Cabinet is headed by the Cabinet Secretary, who is also acting as the head of the Indian Administrative Service. Other Ministers are categorized as Union Cabinet Ministers, who are heads of the various Ministries; Ministers of State, who are junior members who report directly to one of the Cabinet Ministers, often overseeing a specific aspect of government; and Junior Ministers of State (Independent Charges), which do not report to a Cabinet Minister.

Judicial branch

Supreme Court of IndiaIndia's independent judicial system began under the British, and its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-Saxon countries. The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice and 30 associate justices, all appointed by the President on the advice of the Chief Justice of India. The jury trials were abolished in India in early 1960s, after the famous case KM Nanavati v State of Maharashtra, for reasons of being vulnerable to media and public pressure, as well as to being misled.

Unlike its US counterpart, the Indian justice system consists of a unitary system at both state and federal level. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of India, High Courts of India at the state level, and District Courts and Sessions Courts at the district level.

Supreme CourtThe Supreme Court of India has original jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction and advisory jurisdiction. Its exclusive original jurisdiction extends to any dispute between the Government of India and one or more states, or between the Government of India and any state or states on one side and one or more states on the other, or between two or more states, if and insofar as the dispute involves any question (whether of law or of fact) on which the existence or extent of a legal right depends.

In addition, Article 32 of the Indian Constitution gives an extensive original jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in regard to enforcement of fundamental rights. It is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari to enforce them. The Supreme Court has been conferred with power to direct transfer of any civil or criminal case from one State High Court to another State High Court, or from a court subordinate to another State High Court.

Democracy:

Democracy has been defined as the government of the people, for the people, by the people. In such a Government people are themselves the rulers of the ruled. Government is formed through elections. All the adult citizens cast votes and elect their representatives. Thus it is a people's government. It is run through their elected representatives. Dictatorship is that form of Government in which there is centralization of power. All power rests in the hands of one single individual. The people have no say in the matters of Government. In India, England and American, etc; there is democracy. In China, Egypt, etc, there is dictatorship.

The main advantages of democracy are three. First in this form of Government people enjoy a great deal of liberty. They get every freedom for self-expression. They can criticize the Government through the press and the platform. The Government can be dismissed at the will of the people. In such a Government, people are all powerful. It is they who make and dismiss it. In England, Sir Winston Churchill won the second World War and became the war-time hero. But after the war he and his government were dismissed.

Secondly, in democracy all the citizens are treated as equals. No distinctions is made on the basic of caste, creed or sex. All the citizens get equal opportunity. Even a sweeper can become a President. Thirdly, democracy is best suited for a country in peace times. Sound foundations of a nation are laid through it. Everything great is achieved through the co-operation of the people. Co-cooperation of the people is its basic principle.

There are some disadvantages also of democracy. It is very slow moving form of Government. For everything, first of all some legislation has to be passed. It takes a pretty long time before the Government comes to any decision. Moreover, it also lacks in secrecy. Its machinery is very complicated. It runs through a long chain of officers and their staffs. Thus, every order has to pass through so many hands before it can be executed. So it is said that it can never be successful in war times. Further, its success or failure depends on the voter. If the voters are educated and enlightened, then only will they vote to elect capable men. If they are ignorant they will vote for undesirable persons. Thus, democracy depends upon the voters.

Dictatorship:Dictatorship has its own advantages. In war-time, no other Government is so efficient as dictatorship. The dictator is the master of his own will. His orders are the final orders. No one can dare refuse to carry them out. when a nation is down trodden a dictator certainly helps it is rising high. Through heavy penalties and punishments, he frees the country of all corruption. Thus we find that all around dictators are coming into power. In Pakistan, Egypt, Burma, etc there were dictators.

But dictatorship cannot last long. It is very difficult to get a good successor to a dictator. Einstein, the famous scientist, one said, "dictators of genius are succeeded by scoundrels." Germany became a terror to the world in the days of Hitler. Turkey was revolutionized and modernized by Mustafa Kamal Pasha. But after them, their countries again fell in darkness. Further, as the danger of going on a wrong path. There is no check on his powers. People cannot critics him or change the Government through constitutional means. They cannot express their views freely or pass their life in the way they think best. They have no rights. They must obey the dictator blindly. Man is thus reduced to the level of a dumb animal. These are some of the greatest defects of the dictatorship.

Keeping all the above advantages and disadvantages of democracy and dictatorship in mind, we can say that democracy leads to the development of the individual as well as of society. It is in this form of Government that the individual liberties are rights are highly respected. People are not made to follow the Government like sheep and goats. That is why the present dictators take pleasure in calling their dictatorship people's democracies. In recent times there has been turmoil all over Eastern Europe with thousands and thousands of people demanding democratic reforms, and fair and free elections on the basic of a multiparty system. Dictatorships in many of these countries have been replaced by democracies. All progressive countries want to follow the path of democracy. It is the highest form of civilized Government.

Assignment No. 2 : Indian ConstitutionThe Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions, and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing 448 articles in 22 parts, 12 schedules and 97 amendments. Besides the English version, there is an official Hindi translation. Dr B.R. Ambedkar is widely regarded as the father of the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution was enacted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950. The date 26 January was chosen to commemorate the Purna Swaraj declaration of independence of 1930. With its adoption, the Union of India officially became the modern and contemporary Republic of India and it replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document. The Constitution declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity among them.The words "socialist" and "secular" were added to the definition in 1976 by constitutional amendment. India celebrates the adoption of the constitution on 26 January each year as Republic Day.Background:The major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British colonial rule from 1757 to 1947. The impact of economic, political and social exploitation during this period helped the gradual rise of the Indian independence movement to gain independence from foreign rule. The movement culminated in the formation of the Dominion of India on 15 August 1947, along with the Dominion of Pakistan. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. It contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would govern India after its independence from British rule. On the day the constitution came into effect, India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown. The Indian constitution is the world's longest constitution. At the time of commencement, the constitution had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. It consists of almost 80,000 words.It took 2 Years 11 Months and 18 days to build it, as well as the hard work of all those who had a noble vision for the future India.

In the United Kingdom the office of the Secretary of State for India was the authority through whom Parliament exercised its rule (along with the Council of India), and established the office of Viceroy of India (along with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the British Government). The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established provincial legislatures and increased the powers of the Legislative Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded participation of Indians in the government.

Parliamentary DemocracyThe President of India is elected by the Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies, and not directly by the people. The President is the head of state, and all the business of the Executive and Laws of the Parliament are in his/her name. However, these powers are only nominal, and the President must act only according to the advice of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.

The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers exercise their offices only as long as they enjoy a majority support in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament, which consists of members directly elected by the people. The ministers are answerable to both the houses of the Parliament. Also, the Ministers must themselves be elected members of either the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament. Thus, the Parliament exercises control over the Executive.

A similar structure is present in States, where the directly elected Legislative Assembly enjoys control over the Chief Minister and the State Council of Ministers. THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA ____________

CONTENTS__________

PREAMBLEPART ITHE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY

ARTICLES

1.Name and territory of the Union.

2.Admission or establishment of new States.

2A. [Repealed.]

3.Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States.

4.Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental,

incidental and consequential matters.

PART IICITIZENSHIP

5.Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.

6.Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan.

7.Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan.

8.Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India.

9.Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens.

10.Continuance of the rights of citizenship.

11.Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.

PART IIIFUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

General12.Definition.

13.Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights.

Right to Equality14. Equality before law.

15.Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

16.Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.

17.Abolition of Untouchability.

18.Abolition of titles.

Right to Freedom19.Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.

20.Protection in respect of conviction for offences.

21.Protection of life and personal liberty.

21A.Right to education.

22.Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

Right against Exploitation23.Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.

24.Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.

Right to Freedom of Religion25.Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.

26.Freedom to manage religious affairs.

27.Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.

28.Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.

Cultural and Educational Rights29.Protection of interests of minorities.

30.Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.

31.[Repealed.]

Saving of Certain Laws31A.Saving of Laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc.

31B.Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.

31C.Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles.

31D.[Repealed.]

Right to Constitutional Remedies 32.Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part.

32A. [Repealed.] 33.Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to Forces, etc.

34.Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in any area.

35.Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part.

PART IVDIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

36.Definition.

37.Application of the principles contained in this Part.

38.State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people.

39.Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State.

39A.Equal justice and free legal aid.

40.Organisation of village panchayats.

41.Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.

42.Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.

43.Living wage, etc., for workers.

43A.Participation of workers in management of industries.

44.Uniform civil code for the citizens.

45.Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.

46.Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections. 47.Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health.

48.Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry.

48A.Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life.

49.Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance.

50.Separation of judiciary from executive.

51.Promotion of international peace and security.

PART IVAFUNDAMENTAL DUTIES51A.Fundamental duties.

PART VTHE UNIONCHAPTER I.(THE EXECUTIVEThe President and Vice-President

52.The President of India.

53.Executive power of the Union.

54.Election of President.

55.Manner of election of President. 56.Term of office of President.

57.Eligibility for re-election.

58.Qualifications for election as President.

59.Conditions of Presidents office.

60.Oath or affirmation by the President.

61.Procedure for impeachment of the President.

62.Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of President and the term of office of person

elected to fill casual vacancy.

63.The Vice-President of India.

64.The Vice-President to be ex officio Chairman of the Council of States.

65.The Vice-President to act as President or to discharge his functions during casual vacancies in the office, or during the absence, of President.

66.Election of Vice-President.67.Term of office of Vice-President.68.Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of Vice-President and the term of office of person elected to fill casual vacancy.69.Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President.70.Discharge of Presidents functions in other contingencies.71.Matters relating to, or connected with, the election of a President or Vice-President.72.Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases.73.Extent of executive power of the Union.

Council of Ministers74.Council of Ministers to aid and advise President.75.Other provisions as to Ministers.

The Attorney-General for India76.Attorney-General for India.

Conduct of Government Business77.Conduct of business of the Government of India.78.Duties of Prime Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the President, etc.

CHAPTER II.(PARLIAMENTGeneral79.Constitution of Parliament.80.Composition of the Council of States.81.Composition of the House of the People.82.Readjustment after each census.83.Duration of Houses of Parliament.84.Qualification for membership of Parliament.85.Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution.86.Right of President to address and send messages to Houses.87.Special address by the President.88.Rights of Ministers and Attorney-General as respects Houses.

Officers of Parliament89.The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Council of States.90.Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the office of Deputy Chairman.91.Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman.92.The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.93.The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of the People .94.Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.95.Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker.96.The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.97.Salaries and allowances of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman and the Speaker and Deputy Speaker.98.Secretariat of Parliament.Conduct of Business 99.Oath or affirmation by members.100.Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.

Disqualifications of Members101.Vacation of seats.102.Disqualifications for membership.103.Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members. 104. Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirmation under article 99 or when not qualified or when disqualified.Powers, Privileges and Immunities of Parliament and its Members105.Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof.106.Salaries and allowances of members.Legislative Procedure107.Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.108.Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases.109.Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.110.Definition of Money Bills.111.Assent to Bills.

Procedure in Financial Matters112.Annual financial statement.113.Procedure in Parliament with respect to estimates.114.Appropriation Bills.115.Supplementary, additional or excess grants.116.Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.117.Special provisions as to financial Bills.Procedure Generally118.Rules of procedure.

119.Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in relation to financial business.120.Language to be used in Parliament.121.Restriction on discussion in Parliament.122.Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament.CHAPTER III.(LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT123.Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament.CHAPTER IV.( THE UNION JUDICIARY 124.Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court. 125.Salaries, etc., of Judges. 126.Appointment of acting Chief Justice. 127.Appointment of ad hoc judges. 128.Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the Supreme Court. 129.Supreme Court to be a court of record. 130.Seat of Supreme Court. 131.Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.131A.[Repealed.] 132.Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases. 133.Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in regard to Civil matters. 134.Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters.134A.Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court. 135.Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme Court. 136.Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court. 137.Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court. 138.Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. 139.Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs.139A.Transfer of certain cases. 140.Ancillary powers of Supreme Court. 141.Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts. 142.Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc. 143.Power of President to consult Supreme Court. 144.Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court.144A.[Repealed.] 145.Rules of Court, etc. 146.Officers and servants and the expenses of the Supreme Court. 147.Interpretation.CHAPTER V.( COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL OF INDIA 148.Comptroller and Auditor-General of India. 149.Duties and powers of the Comptroller and Auditor-General. 150.Form of accounts of the Union and of the States. 151.Audit reports.PART VITHE STATESCHAPTER I.( GENERAL 152.Definition.CHAPTER II.( THE EXECUTIVEThe Governor 153.Governors of States.

154.Executive power of State. 155.Appointment of Governor. 156.Term of office of Governor. 157.Qualifications for appointment as Governor. 158.Conditions of Governors office 159.Oath or affirmation by the Governor. 160.Discharge of the functions of the Governor in certain contingencies. 161.Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases. 162.Extent of executive power of State.

Council of Ministers 163.Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor.

164.Other provisions as to Ministers.

The Advocate-General for the State 165.Advocate-General for the State.

Conduct of Government Business 166.Conduct of business of the Government of a State. 167.Duties of Chief Minister as respects the furnishing of information to Governor, etc.CHAPTER III.(THE STATE LEGISLATUREGeneral

168.Constitution of Legislatures in States.169.Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States.170.Composition of the Legislative Assemblies.171.Composition of the Legislative Councils.172.Duration of State Legislatures.173.Qualification for membership of the State Legislature.174.Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation and dissolution.175.Right of Governor to address and send messages to the House or Houses.176.Special address by the Governor.177.Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as respects the Houses.Officers of the State Legislature178.The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly.179.Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.180.Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker.181.The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.182.The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council.183.Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Chairman and Deputy Chairman.184.Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman.185.The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.186.Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and Deputy Chairman.187.Secretariat of State Legislature.Conduct of Business188.Oath or affirmation by members.189.Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.Disqualifications of Members190.Vacation of seats.191.Disqualifications for membership.192.Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members.193.Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirmation under article 188 or when not qualified or when disqualified.Powers, privileges and immunities of State Legislatures and their Members194.Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Legislatures and of the members and committees thereof.195.Salaries and allowances of members.Legislative Procedure196.Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.197.Restriction on powers of Legislative Council as to Bills other than Money Bills.198.Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.199.Definition of Money Bills.200.Assent to Bills.201.Bills reserved for consideration.

Procedure in Financial Matters202.Annual financial statement.203.Procedure in Legislature with respect to estimates.204.Appropriation Bills.205.Supplementary, additional or excess grants.206.Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.207.Special provisions as to financial Bills.Procedure Generally208.Rules of procedure.209.Regulation by law of procedure in the Legislature of the State in relation to financial business.210.Language to be used in the Legislature.211.Restriction on discussion in the Legislature.212.Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the Legislature.CHAPTER IV.(- LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE GOVERNOR213.Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature.CHAPTER V.(-THE HIGH COURTS IN THE STATES214.High Courts for States.215.High Courts to be courts of record.216. Constitution of High Courts.217. Appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court.218. Application of certain provisions relating to Supreme Court to High Courts.219. Oath or affirmation by Judges of High Courts.220. Restriction on practice after being a permanent Judge.221. Salaries, etc., of Judges.222. Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another.223. Appointment of acting Chief Justice.224. A ppointment of additional and acting Judges.224A.Appointment of retired Judges at sittings of High Courts.225. Jurisdiction of existing High Courts.226.Power of High Courts to issue certain writs.226A.[Repealed..]227. Power of superintendence over all courts by the High Court.228.Transfer of certain cases to High Court.228A.[Repealed.]229. Officers and servants and the expenses of High Courts.230. Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to Union territories.231. Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States.

CHAPTER VI(SUBORDINATE COURTS233. Appointment of district judges.233A.Validation of appointments of, and judgments, etc., delivered by, certain district judges.234. Recruitment of persons other than district judges to the judicial service.235. Control over subordinate courts.236. Interpretation.237. Application of the provisions of this Chapter to certain class or classes of magistrates.PART VIITHE STATES IN PART B OF THE FIRST SCHEDULE238. [Repealed.]

PART VIIITHE UNION TERRITORIES239. Administration of Union territories.239A.Creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers or both for certain Union territories.239A.Special provisions with respect to Delhi.239AA.Provision in case of failure of constitutional machinery.239AB.Power of administrator to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature.240. Power of President to make regulations for certain Union territories.241. High Courts for Union territories.242 .[Repealed.]

PART IXTHE PANCHAYATS 243.Definitions. 243A.Gram Sabha. 243B.Constitution of Panchayats. 243C.Composition of Panchayats. 243D.Reservation of seats. 243E.Duration of Panchayats, etc. 243F.Disqualifications for membership. 243G.Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats. 243H.Powers to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Panchayats. 243-I.Constitution of Finance Commission to review financial position. 243J.Audit of accounts of Pachayats.243K.Elections to the Panchayats.243L.Application to Union territories.243M.Part not to apply to certain areas.243N.Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats.243-O .Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.PART IXATHE MUNICPALITIES243P.Definitions.243Q.Constitution of Municipalities.243R.Composition of Municipalities.243S.Constitution and composition of Wards Committees, etc.243T.Reservation of seats.243U.Duration of Municipalities, etc.243V.Disqualifications for membership.243W.Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.243X.Power to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Municipalities.243Y.Finance Commission.243Z.Audit of accounts of Municipalities.243ZA. Elections to the Municipalities.243ZB.Application to Union territories.243ZC.Part not to apply to certain areas.243ZD.Committee for district planning.243ZE.Committee for Metropolitan planning.243ZF.Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities.243ZG.Bar to interference by Courts in electoral matters. PART X THE SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS 244.Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.244A.Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tribal areas in Assam and creation of local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both therefor.PART XIRELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATESCHAPTER I.(LEGISLATIVE RELATIONSDistribution of Legislative Powers

245.Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States. 246.Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States. 247.Power of Parliament to provide for the establishment of certain additional courts. 248.Residuary powers of legislation. 249.Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national interest. 250.Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to any matter in the State List if a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation. 251.Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament under articles 249 and 250 and laws made by the Legislatures of States. 252.Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State. 253.Legislation for giving effect to international agreements.

254.Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States. 255.Requirements as to recommendations and previous sanctions to be regarded as matters of procedure only.CHAPTER II.( ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONSGeneral

256.Obligation of States and the Union. 257.Control of the Union over States in certain cases.257A.[Repealed.] 258.Power of the Union to confer powers, etc., on States in certain cases.258A.Power of the States to entrust functions to the Union.

259.[Repealed.]260.Jurisdiction of the Union in relation to territories outside India.261.Public acts, records and judicial proceedings.

Disputes relating to Waters262.Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-State rivers or river valleys.

Co-ordination between States263.Provisions with respect to an inter-State Council. PART XIIFINANCE, PROPERTY, CONTRACTS AND SUITSCHAPTER I.(FINANCEGeneral

264.Interpretation.265.Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law.266.Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India and of the States.267.Contingency Fund.Distribution of Revenues between the Union and the States268.Duties levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the State.268A.Service tax levied by Union and collected by the Union and the States.269.Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States.270.Taxes levied and distributed between the Union and the States. 271.Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for purposes of the Union.272.[Repealed.]273.Grants in lieu of export duty on jute and jute products.274.Prior recommendation of President required to Bills affecting taxation in which States are interested.275.Grants from the Union to certain States.276.Taxes on professions, trades, callings and employments.277.Savings.278.[Repealed.] 279. Calculation of net proceeds, etc. 280.Finance Commission. 281.Recommendations of the Finance Commission.

Miscellaneous financial provisions 282.Expenditure defrayable by the Union or a State out of its revenues. 283.Custody, etc., of Consolidated Funds, Contingency Funds and moneys credited to the public accounts. 284.Custody of suitors deposits and other moneys received by public servants and courts. 285.Exemption of property of the Union from State taxation. 286.Restrictions as to imposition of tax on the sale or purchase of goods. 287.Exemption from taxes on electricity. 288.Exemption from taxation by States in respect of water or electricity in certain cases. 289.Exemption of property and income of a State from Union taxation. 290.Adjustment in respect of certain expenses and pensions. 290A.Annual payment to certain Devaswom Funds. 291.[Repealed.]CHAPTER II.( BORROWING 292.Borrowing by the Government of India.293. Borrowing by States. CHAPTER III.( PROPERTY, CONTRACTS, RIGHTS, LIABILITIES, OBLIGATIONS AND SUITS

294.Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in certain cases. 295.Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in other cases. 296.Property accruing by escheat or laps or as bona vacantia. 297.Things of value within territorial waters or continental shelf and resources of the exclusive economic zone to vest in the Union. 298.Power to carry on trade, etc. 299.Contracts.

300.Suits and proceedings.CHAPTER IV.( RIGHT TO PROPERTY 300A.Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law.PART XIIITRADE, COMMERCE AND INTERCOURSE WITHINTHE TERRITORY OF INDIA 301.Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse. 302.Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse.

303.Restrictions on the legislative powers of the Union and of the States with regard to trade and commerce. 304.Restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse among States. 305.Saving of existing laws and laws providing for State monopolies. 306.[Repealed.] 307.Appointment of authority for carrying out the purposes of articles 301 to 304.PART XIVSERVICES UNDER THE UNION AND THE STATESCHAPTER I.( SERVICES 308.Interpretation. 309.Recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State. 310.Tenure of office of persons serving the Union or a State. 311.Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil capacities under the Union or a State. 312.All-India services.312A.Power of Parliament to vary or revoke conditions of service of officers of certain services. 313.Transitional provisions. 314.[Repeated.]CHAPTER II.PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONS 315.Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States. 316.Appointment and term of office of members. 317.Removal and suspension of a member of a Public Service Commission. 318.Power to make regulations as to conditions of service of members and staff of the Commission. 319.Prohibition as to the holding of offices by members of Commission on ceasing to be such members. 320.Functions of Public Service Commissions. 321.Power to extend functions of Public Service Commissions. 322.Expenses of Public Service Commissions. 323.Reports of Public Service Commissions. PART XIVATRIBUNALS

323A.Administrative tribunals.323B.Tribunals for other matters.

PART XV ELECTIONS

324.Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission. 325.No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in a special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex. 326.Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States to be on the basis of adult suffrage. 327.Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elections to Legislatures. 328.Power of Legislature of a State to make provision with respect to elections to such Legislature. 329.Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.329A.[Repealed.]PART XVISPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES

330.Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People. 331.Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the People. 332.Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States. 333.Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States. 334.Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after seventy years. 335.Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts. 336.Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services. 337.Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian Community. 338.National Commission for Scheduled Castes.338A.National Commission for Scheduled Tribes. 339.Control of the Union over the Administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes. 340.Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes. 341.Scheduled Castes. 342.Scheduled Tribes.PART XVIIOFFICIAL LANGUAGECHAPTER I.LANGUAGE OF THE UNION 343.Official language of the Union. 344.Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language.CHAPTER II.( REGIONAL LANGUAGES 345.Official language or languages of a State. 346.Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union. 347.Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State.

CHAPTER III.(LANGUAGE OF THE SUPREME COURT,HIGH COURTS, ETC. 348.Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc. 349.Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language.CHAPTER IV.(-SPECIAL DIRECTIVES 350.Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances. 350A. Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage.

350B.Special Officer for linguistic minorities. 351.Directive for development of the Hindi language.

PART XVIIIEMERGENCY PROVISIONS 352.Proclamation of Emergency. 353.Effect of Proclamation of Emergency. 354.Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation. 355.Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance.

356.Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States. 357.Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356. 358.Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies. 359.Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies.359A.[Repealed.] 360. Provisions as to financial emergency.

PART XIXMISCELLANEOUS 361.Protection of President and Governors and Rajpramukhs.361A.Protection of publication of proceedings of Parliament and State Legislatures.361B.Disqualification for appointment on remunerative political post. 362.[Repealed.] 363.Bar to interference by courts in disputes arising out of certain treaties, agreements, etc.363A.Recognition granted to Rulers of Indian States to cease and privy purses to be abolished. 364.Special provisions as to major ports and aerodromes. 365.Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect to, directions given by the Union. 366.Definitions. 367.Interpretation.

PART XXAMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION368. Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor. PART XXITEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 369.Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List. 370.Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir. 371.Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat. 371A.Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland.

371B .Special provision with respect to the State of Assam.

371C.Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur.

371D.Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh.

371E.Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh.

371F.Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim.

371G.Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.

371H.Special provision with respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh. 371-I.Special provision with respect to the State of Goa.

372.Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation.

372A.Power of the President to adapt laws.

373.Power of President to make order in respect of persons under preventive detention in certain cases.

374.Provisions as to Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending in the Federal Court or before His Majesty in Council.

375.Courts, authorities and officers to continue to function subject to the provisions of the Constitution. 376.Provisions as to Judges of High Courts. 377.Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India. 378.Provisions as to Public Service Commissions.378A.Special provision as to duration of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly. 379-391. [Repealed.] 392.Power of the President to remove difficulties. PART XXIISHORT TITLE, COMMENCEMENT, AUTHORITATIVE TEXTIN HINDI AND REPEALS 393.Short title. 394.Commencement.394A.Authoritative text in the Hindi language. 395.Repeals. ASSIGNMENT NO.-3 SOCIETY Social Groups: In the social sciences a social group has been defined as two or more humans who interact with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity. Other theorists, however, are a wary of definitions which stress the importance of interdependence or objective similarity. Instead, for researchers in the social identity tradition "a group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as members of the group".Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large social group.Types of groupsPrimary groups According to Charles Horton Cooley (18641929), a primary group is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. People joined in primary relationships spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide range of activities, and feel that they know one another well. In short, they show real concern for one another. In every society, the family is the most important primary group. Groups based on lasting friendships are also primary groups.

Secondary groups, in contrast to primary groups, are large groups involving formal and institutional relationships. Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. Most secondary groups are short term, beginning and ending without particular significance.They may last for years or may disband after a short time. The formation of primary groups happens within secondary groups.

Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. For example, attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group that you belong to. Likewise, some businesses care deeply about the well being of one another, while some immediate families have hostile relations within it.

Individuals almost universally have a bond toward what sociologists call reference groups. A reference group is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions.

Some examples of types of groups include the following:

Peer groupA peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social status, and interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with peers.

CliqueA group of people that have many of the same interests & commonly found in a High School/College setting; most of the time they have a name & rules for themselves.

ClubA club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs may be dedicated to particular activities: sporting clubs, for example.

HouseholdAll individuals who live in the same home. anglophone culture may include various models of household, including the family, blended families, share housing, and group homes.

CommunityA community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a complex net of overlapping commonalities, oftenbut not alwaysin proximity with one another with some degree of continuity over time.

FranchiseAn organization which runs several instances of a business in many locations.

GangA gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people that often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal.[16] They are usually known in many countries to cause social unrest and also have negative influence on the members and may be a target for the law enforcers in case of any social vices

MobA mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands. Mobs are usually groups which gather temporarily for a particular reason.

PosseA posse was originally found in English common law. It is generally obsolete, and survives only in America, where it is the law enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for military purposes. However, it can also refer to a street group.

SquadThis is usually a small group, of around 3 to 15 people, who work as a team to accomplish their goals.

DyadThis is a social group with two members. Social interaction in a dyad is typically more intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the other's attention with anyone else.

TriadThis is a social group with three members, which contains three relationships, each uniting two of the three people. A triad is more stable than a dyad because one member can act as a mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained.

Teamsimilar to a squad, though a team may contain many more members. A team works in a similar way to a squad.

In-groupIt is a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty.

It is a group that an individual identifies in positive direction. If a person is part of the in-group then they are collectively part of an inner circle of friends. An inner circle may contain sub-groups within the inner circle including the apex (best friends), core (very close friends), outer rim, etc. ASSIGNMENT NO.-4 FUNDAMENTAL OF ECONOMICSEconomics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from "house" + (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)". Political economy was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested "economics" as a shorter term for "economic science" that also avoided a narrow political-interest connotation and as similar in form to "mathematics", "ethics", and so forth.

A focus of the subject is how economic agents behave or interact and how economies work. Consistent with this, a primary textbook distinction is between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents (such as households and firms or as buyers and sellers) and markets, and their interactions. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment, inflation, economic growth, and monetary and fiscal policy.

Other broad distinctions include those between positive economics (describing "what is") and normative economics (advocating "what ought to be"); between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioral economics; and between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" and dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" and dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus").

Economic analysis may be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, and government, but also to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science. At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. An increasing number of economists have called for increased emphasis on environmental sustainability; this area of research is known as Ecological economics.

DefinitionsThere are a variety of modern definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists. The philosopher Adam Smith (1776) defined what was then called political economy as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as:

A branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [with the twofold objectives of providing] a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... [and] to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. J.-B. Say (1803), distinguishing the subject from its public-policy uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle (1849) coined "the dismal science" as an epithet for classical economics, in this context, commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of Malthus (1798). John Stuart Mill (1844) defines the subject in a social context as:

The science which traces the laws of such of the phenomena of society as arise from the combined operations of mankind for the production of wealth, in so far as those phenomena are not modified by the pursuit of any other object. Alfred Marshall provides a still widely-cited definition in his textbook Principles of Economics (1890) that extends analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level:

Economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. It enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. Lionel Robbins (1932) developed implications of what has been termed "perhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject":

Economics is a science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses. Robbins describes the definition as not classificatory in "pick[ing] out certain kinds of behaviour" but rather analytical in "focus[ing] attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity."

Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets. From the 1960s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behavior and rational-choice modeling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields. There are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment.

Gary Becker, a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, describes the approach he favors as "combining the assumptions of maximizing behavior, stable preferences, and market equilibrium, used relentlessly and uninchingly." One commentary characterizes the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the "choice process and the type of social interaction that [such] analysis involves." The same source reviews a range of definitions included in principles of economics textbooks and concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve. ASSIGNMENT NO.-5 MICRO ECONOMICSDefinition of 'Microeconomics'

The branch ofeconomics that analyzes the market behavior of individual consumers and firms in an attempt to understand the decision-makingprocess of firms and households. It is concerned with the interaction between individual buyers and sellers and the factors that influence the choices made by buyers and sellers. In particular, microeconomics focuses onpatterns of supply and demand and the determination of price and output in individual markets (e.g. coffee industry).Investopedia explains 'Microeconomics'

The field of economics is broken down into two distinct areas of study: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics looks at the smaller picture and focuses more on basic theories of supply and demand and how individual businesses decide how much of something to produce and how much to charge for it. People who have any desire to start their own business or who want to learn the rationale behind the pricing of particular products and services would be more interested in this area.

Macroeconomics, on the other hand, looks at the big picture (hence "macro"). Itfocuses on the national economy as a whole and provides a basic knowledge of how things work in the business world. For example, people who study this branch of economics would be able to interpret the latest Gross Domestic Product figures or explain why a 6% rate of unemployment is not necessarily a bad thing. Thus, for an overall perspective of how the entire economy works, you need to have an understanding of economics at both the micro and macro levels.

Microeconomics (from Greek prefix mikro- meaning "small" and economics) is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of individual households and firms in making decisions on the allocation of limited resources. Typically, it applies to markets where goods or services are bought and sold. Microeconomics examines how these decisions and behaviors affect the supply and demand for goods and services, which determines prices, and how prices, in turn, determine the quantity supplied and quantity demanded of goods and services.

This is in contrast to macroeconomics, which involves the "sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of growth, inflation, and unemployment." Microeconomics also deals with the effects of national economic policies (such as changing taxation levels) on the aforementioned aspects of the economy. Particularly in the wake of the Lucas critique, much of modern macroeconomic theory has been built upon 'microfoundations'i.e. based upon basic assumptions about micro-level behavior.

One of the goals of microeconomics is to analyze market mechanisms that establish relative prices amongst goods and services and allocation of limited resources amongst many alternative uses. Microeconomics analyzes market failure, where markets fail to produce efficient results, and describes the theoretical conditions needed for perfect competition. Significant fields of study in microeconomics include general equilibrium, markets under asymmetric information, choice under uncertainty and economic applications of game theory. Also considered is the elasticity of products within the market system.

Modes of operationIt is assumed that all firms are following rational decision-making, and will produce at the profit-maximizing output. Given this assumption, there are four categories in which a firm's profit may be considered to be.

A firm is said to be making an economic profit when its average total cost is less than the price of each additional product at the profit-maximizing output. The economic profit is equal to the quantity output multiplied by the difference between the average total cost and the price.

A firm is said to be making a normal profit when its economic profit equals zero. This occurs where average total cost equals price at the profit-maximizing output.

If the price is between average total cost and average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, then the firm is said to be in a loss-minimizing condition. The firm should still continue to produce, however, since its loss would be larger if it were to stop producing. By continuing production, the firm can offset its variable cost and at least part of its fixed cost, but by stopping completely it would lose the entirety of its fixed cost.

If the price is below average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, the firm should go into shutdown. Losses are minimized by not producing at all, since any production would not generate returns significant enough to offset any fixed cost and part of the variable cost. By not producing, the firm loses only its fixed cost. By losing this fixed cost the company faces a challenge. It must either exit the market or remain in the market and risk a complete loss.

Applied microeconomicsApplied microeconomics includes a range of specialized areas of study, many of which draw on methods from other fields. Industrial organization examines topics such as the entry and exit of firms, innovation, and the role of trademarks. Labor economics examines wages, employment, and labor market dynamics. Financial economics examines topics such as the structure of optimal portfolios, the rate of return to capital, econometric analysis of security returns, and corporate financial behavior. Public economics examines the design of government tax and expenditure policies and economic effects of these policies (e.g., social insurance programs). Political economy examines the role of political institutions in determining policy outcomes. Health economics examines the organization of health care systems, including the role of the health care workforce and health insurance programs. Urban economics, which examines the challenges faced by cities, such as sprawl, air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and poverty, draws on the fields of urban geography and sociology. Law and economics applies microeconomic principles to the selection and enforcement of competing legal regimes and their relative efficiencies. Economic history examines the evolution of the economy and economic institutions, using methods and techniques from the fields of economics, history, geography, sociology, psychology, and political science.DevelopmentThe modern field of microeconomics arose as an effort of neoclassical economics school of thought to put economic ideas into mathematical mode. An early attempt was made by Antoine Augustine Cournot Researches on the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth (1838) in describing a spring water duopoly that now bears his name. Latter William Stanley Jevons's Theory of Political Economy (1871), Carl Menger's Principles of Economics (1871), and Lon Walras's Elements of Pure Economics (18741877) gave way to what was called the Marginal Revolution. Some common ideas behind those works were models or arguments characterized by rational economic agents maximizing utility under a budget constrain. This arose as a necessity of arguing against the labour theory of value associated with classical economists such as Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx.

Walras also went as far as developing the concept of general equilibrium of an economy.

Alfred Marshall's textbook, Principles of Economics was published in 1890 and became the dominant textbook in England for a generation. His main point was that marginalists went too far in emphasizing utility as an attempt to explain prices over costs of production. To correct that he presented the idea that prices were determined by supply and demand curves. The demand curve could be derived by aggregating individual consumer demand curves, which were themselves based on the consumer problem of maximizing utility. The supply curve could be derived by aggregating individual producer supply curves, which depended first on constructing cost curves and then analyzing how much each producer was willing to sell his goods at a given price level. The cost curves depended on solving a producer problem of minimizing costs under a given production function. He also introduced the notion of different market periods: mainly short run and long run. This set of ideas gave way to what was latter called perfect competition.

A new impetus was given to field when around 1933. Joan Robinson and Edward H. Chamberlin, published respectively, The Economics of Imperfect Competition (1933) and The Theory of Monopolistic Competition (1933), introducing models of imperfect competition. Although Marshall himself had already considered both the monopoly case and Cournot had built his duopoly model, a whole new set of models grew out of this new literature. In particular the monopolistic competition model results in a non efficient equilibrium. Latter on some market models were built using game theory, particularly regarding oligopolies.

In 1937 The Nature of the Firm was published by Ronald Coase introducing the notion of transaction costs (the term itself was coined in the fifties), which explained why firms have an advantage over a group of independent contractors working with each other. The idea was that there were transaction costs in the use of the market: search and information costs, bargaining costs, etc. which give an advantage to a firm which can internalize the production process required to deliver a certain good to the market. A related result was published by Coase in his The Problem of Social Cost (1960) which deals with problem of externalities: the presence of transaction costs prevents agents from bargaining among themselves to arrive at mutually beneficial agreement. This then becomes relevant in context of regulations.

Around the seventies the study of market failures came again into focus with the study of information asymmetry. In particular three authors emerged from this period: George Akerlof, Michael Spence and Joseph Stiglitz. Akerlof considered the problem of bad quality cars driving good quality cars out of the market in his classic The Market for Lemons (1970) because of the presence of asymmetrical information between buyers and sellers. Spence explained that signaling was fundamental in the labour market, because since employers cant know beforehand which of the candidates are the most productive, a college degree becomes a signaling device which allows a firm to hire new personnel.

ASSIGNMENT NO.-6 MACRO ECONOMICSDefinition of 'Macroeconomics'

The field of economics that studies the behavior of the aggregate economy. Macroeconomicsexamines economy-wide phenomena such as changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, gross domestic product, inflation and price levels.Investopedia explains 'Macroeconomics'

Macroeconomics is focused on the movement and trends in the economy as a whole, while in microeconomics the focus is placed on factors that affect the decisions made by firms and individuals. The factors that are studied by macro and micro will often influence each other, such as the current level of unemployment in the economy as a whole will affect the supply of workers which an oil company can hire from, for example.Macroeconomics can be best understood in contrast to microeconomics which considers the decisions made at an individual or firm level. Macroeconomics considers the larger picture, or how all of these decisions sum together. An understanding of microeconomics is crucial to understand macroeconomics. To understand why a change in interest rates leads to changes in real GDP, we need to understand how lower interest rates influence decisions, such as the decision of how much to save, at the firm or household level. Once we understand how an individual, on average, will change their behavior we will then understand the large scale relationships in an economy. ASSIGNMENT NO.-7 INDIAN ECONOMYThe economy of India is the tenth-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the third largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). The country is one of the G-20 major economies and a member of BRICS. On a per capita income basis, India ranked 140th by nominal GDP and 129th by GDP (PPP) in 2011, according to the IMF. The independence-era Indian economy (from 1947 to 1991) was based on a mixed economy combining features of capitalism and socialism, resulting in an inward-looking, interventionist policies and import-substituting economy that failed to take advantage of the post-war expansion of trade. This model contributed to widespread inefficiencies and corruption, and the failings of this system were due largely to its poor implementation. In 1991, India adopted liberal and free-market oriented principles and liberalized its economy to international trade under the guidance of Manmohan Singh, who then was the Finance Minister of India under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao the then Prime Minister who eliminated License Raj a pre- and post-British Era mechanism of strict government control on setting up new industry. Following these strong economic reforms, and a strong focus on developing national infrastructure such as the Golden Quadrilateral project by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the then Prime Minister, the country's economic growth progressed at a rapid pace with very high rates of growth and large increases in the incomes of people. India recorded the highest growth rates in the mid-2000s, and is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. India has recorded a growth of over 200 times in per capita income in a period from 1947 (249 rupees 9 annas 2 paise) to 2011. The growth was led primarily due to a huge increase in the size of the middle class consumer, a large labour force, growth in the manufacturing sector due to rising education levels and engineering skills and considerable foreign investments. India is the nineteenth largest exporter and tenth largest importer in the world. Economic growth rate stood at around 6.5% for the 201112 fiscal year.

SectorsIndustry and services

India has one of the world's fastest growing automobile industries. Shown here is the Tata Nano, the world's cheapest car. Industry accounts for 28% of the GDP and employ 14% of the total workforce. In absolute terms, India is 12th in the world in terms of nominal factory output. The Indian industrial sector underwent significant changes as a result of the economic reforms of 1991, which removed import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to privatisation of certain public sector industries, liberalised the FDI regime, improved infrastructure and led to an expansion in the production of fast moving consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector was faced with increasing domestic as well as foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports. It has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, and relying on cheap labour and new technology. However, this has also reduced employment generation even by smaller manufacturers who earlier relied on relatively labour-intensive processes. TextileTextile manufacturing is the second largest source of employment after agriculture and accounts for 20% of manufacturing output, providing employment to over 20 million people. As stated in late January, by the then Minister of Textiles, India, Shankersinh Vaghela, the transformation of the textile industry from a declining to a rapidly developing one has become the biggest achievement of the central government. After freeing the industry in 20042005 from a number of limitations, primarily financial, the government gave a green light to massive investment inflows both domestic and foreign. During the period from 2004 to 2008, total investment amounted to 27billion dollars. By 2012, this figure will reach 38billion and are expected to create an additional 17 million jobs. However, demand for Indian textiles in world markets continues to fall. According to Union Minister for Commerce and Industries Kamal Nath, during the fiscal year 20082009 (which ends on 31 March), the textile and clothing industry will be forced to cut about 800,000 new jobs which will be redirected to the export-oriented sectors of Indian economy to soften the impact of the global crisis.[citation needed] Ludhiana produces 90% of woollens in India and is known as the Manchester of India. Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the leading source of hosiery, knitted garments, casual wear and sportswear. Considering the Rs 15,000,000,000 revenue from textile sales with an approximate of a nominal 20% net profit and with around 257,572 residents of the city, per capita income of Ichalkaranji is 1,16,472, among one of the highest per capita incomes in the country. Textile Development Cluster: To enhance and improve the infrastructure facilities of the city, the Municipal Council along with Ichalkaranji Co-operative Industrial Estate, Laxmi Co-operative Industrial Estate, Parvati Industrial Estate and DKTE Textile and Engineering Institute have jointly come together and formed a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) company viz. Ichalkaranji Textile Development Cluster Limited (ITDC).The individual members will contribute to the extent of about 50% of the project cost and the balance amount would come in from the grant in aid from Department of Industrial Promotion and Policy, Government of India,under the Industrial Infrastructure up-gradation Scheme (IIUS). ServicesFurther information: Information technology in IndiaandBusiness process outsourcing in IndiaIndia is 13th in services output. The services sector provides employment to 23% of the work force and is growing quickly, with a growth rate of 7.5% in 19912000, up from 4.5% in 195180. It has the largest share in the GDP, accounting for 55% in 2007, up from 15% in 1950. Information technology and business process outsourcing are among the fastest growing sectors, having a cumulative growth rate of revenue 33.6% between 199798 and 200203 and contributing to 25% of the country's total exports in 200708.[82] The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialisation, and an availability of a large pool of low cost, highly skilled, educated and fluent English-speaking workers, on the supply side, matched on the demand side by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports, or those looking to outsource their operations. The share of the Indian IT industry in the country's GDP increased from 4.8% in 200506 to 7% in 2008.[83] In 2009, seven Indian firms were listed among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world.[84]RetailMain article: Retailing in IndiaRetail industry is one of the pillars of Indian economy and accounts for 1415% of its GDP. The Indian retail market is estimated to be US$ 450 billion and one of the top five retail markets in the world by economic value. India is one of the fastest growing retail market in the world, with 1.2 billion people. India's retailing industry essentially consists of the local mom and pop store, owner manned general stores, convenience stores, hand cart and pavement vendors, etc. Organised retail supermarkets account for 4% of the market as of 2008. Regulations prevent most foreign investment in retailing.In 2012 government permitted 51%FDI in multi brand retail and 100% FDI in single brand retail. Moreover, over thirty regulations such as "signboard licences" and "anti-hoarding measures" may have to be complied before a store can open doors. There are taxes for moving goods from state to state, and even within states. TourismMain article: Tourism in IndiaTourism in India is relatively undeveloped, but a high growth sector. It contributes 6.23% to the national GDP and 8.78% of the total employment. The majority of foreign tourists come from USA and UK. India's rich history and its cultural and geographical diversity make its international tourism appeal large and diverse. It presents heritage and cultural tourism along with medical, business and sports tourism. India has one of the largest and fastest growing medical tourism sectors. MiningMain article: Mining in IndiaMining forms an important segment of the Indian economy, with the country producing 79 different minerals (excluding fuel and atomic resources) in 200910, including iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, chromite, limestone, asbestos, fluorite, gypsum, ochre, phosphorite and silica sand. Agriculture Agriculture in India, Forestry in India, Animal husbandry in India, and Fishing in IndiaIndia ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 15.7% of the GDP in 200910, employed 52.1% of the total workforce, and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the largest economic sector and a significant piece of the overall socio-economic development of India. Yields per unit area of all crops have grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultal practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world.[95] Indian states Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat and Maharashtra are key agricultural contributing states of India.

India receives an average annual rainfall of 1,208 millimetres (47.6in) and a total annual precipitation of 4000billion cubic metres, with the total utilisable water resources, including surface and groundwater, amounting to 1123billion cubic metres.[96] 546,820 square kilometres (211,130sqmi) of the land area, or about 39% of the total cultivated area, is irrigated. India's inland water resources including rivers, canals, ponds and lakes and marine resources comprising the east and west coasts of the Indian ocean and other gulfs and bays provide employment to nearly six million people in the fisheries sector. In 2008, India had the world's third largest fishing industry. India is the largest producer in the world of milk, jute and pulses, and also has the world's second largest cattle population with 175 million animals in 2008.[99] It is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnuts, as well as the second largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of the world fruit and vegetable production respectively.[99] India is also the second largest producer and the largest consumer of silk in the world, producing 77,000 million tons in 2005. Banking and finance Finance in IndiaThe Indian money market is classified into the organised sector, comprising private, public and foreign owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as scheduled banks, and the unorganised sector, which includes individual or family owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies. The unorganised sector and microcredit are still preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes, like ceremonies and short duration loans.[102]Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority sectors like agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade, small businesses, etc. to ensure that the banks fulfill their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total bank deposits increased from 5,910 crore (US$1.08 billion) in 197071 to 3,830,922 crore (US$697.23 billion) in 200809. Despite an increase of rural branches, from 1,860 or 22% of the total number of branches in 1969 to 30,590 or 42% in 2007, only 32,270 out of 500,000 villages are covered by a scheduled bank. India's gross domestic saving in 200607 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.7%.More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold. The public sector banks hold over 75% of total assets of the banking industry, with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2% and 6.5% respectively. Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks, like encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness, other reforms have opened up the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign players. Energy and power Energy policy of India

As of 2010, India imported about 70% of its crude oil requirements Shown here is an ONGC platform at Mumbai High in the Arabian Sea, one of the few sites of domestic production.

As of 2009, India is the fourth largest producer of