how to become a better reader

Becoming a better reader

The importance of reading

Reading is an extremely important skill. It is by reading that you learn much of what you need to know

for your different school subjects. Reading is also an excellent way to improve your general English.

You can only learn from reading, however, if what you read is not too difficult. For this reason, it is

important to know what makes texts difficult and how you can improve your chances of understanding

them.

What makes texts difficult to understand

Most of your reading difficulties will be caused by a problem on the list below. Of course, when two or

more of these problems happen together, your chances of understanding will be even smaller.

many unknown words

long, complicated sentences

a topic you know nothing about

a topic you find boring

feeling tired

being distracted

small print, long paragraphs, no pictures

bad writing

How to understand more of what you read

You can do nothing about some of the reading difficulties: for example, you cannot change the print in

a book or make poor writing better. But there are many things you can do that will give you a better

chance of understanding what you read. Here are some suggestions:

Know your reading purpose - The way you read a book or a text depends very much on your

reasons for reading it. This is why it is so important to know your reading purpose. You should read a

question in your math exam differently from an entry in an encyclopaedia which you are looking at

quickly to find out the date of an event. The kind of reading you do in class or for your homework is

different from how you read a novel for pleasure in the summer vacation.

Teaching Notes : Reading 1

A common mistake of students is to read everything very slowly and carefully, looking up every

unknown word. Occasionally this is necessary - for example, when reading exam questions. But it

takes a long time, and it can even make understanding more difficult. Often it is better to use one of the

following quick reading methods:

Skimming - this is reading a text quickly to find out what information it contains. You should skim

when, for example, you want to check if a text has the information you need to answer some questions

or write a project.

Scanning - this is reading quickly to find a specific piece of information. You should scan when, for

example, you are looking for the answer to a question which you know is in the text.

If you know your reading purpose - perhaps by looking first at the questions you must answer after

reading - you can choose the best reading method.

Get background information - Find something out about the topic you have to read.

The more background information you have, the easier it will be to understand the text. You can get

this background information background in your own language. For example, if you are studying the

Italian Renaissance, you could read an encyclopaedia or textbook in your own language to find out the

most important details about this historical period. Your parents may also be able to give you useful

background information. Talk to them in your language.

You can sometimes get background information from the text itself. Many writers include a conclusion

or summary; if you read this first, it may give you a good start.

Use all the information in the book - Good textbooks are well-organised, with titles, sub-

titles, introductions, summaries or conclusions. Many books also have pictures with captions. Look at

all these first before starting to read.

Another aspect of good writing is that each paragraph has a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a

sentence, usually the first one in a paragraph, that contains the main idea of the paragraph. If you

concentrate on understanding the topic sentence, this may help you to understand what comes next.

Increase your vocabulary - Of course, reading itself is an excellent way to improve your

vocabulary, but there are many other things you can do. The better your vocabulary, the easier you will

find your reading.


Use your dictionary sensibly - It’s not a good idea to look up every new word you find. If you

do, it will take you a long time to read the text. This can be very boring, and usually will not help you

to a better understanding. (Click for advice on how and when to use your dictionary.)

Learn the important words that organise text - When you read texts in your science or

history books, you will find that most good writers organise their writing with cohesion markers. These

are words that connect different parts of the writing and help writers organise their ideas. If you learn

the important cohesion markers, you will find it easier to understand the text.

Here are some important cohesion markers: also, therefore, except, unless, however, instead,

(al)though, nevertheless, on the other hand, as a result, despite, in conclusion.

Choose the right place to read - You can’t really expect to understand a difficult book if you are

trying to read in the same room with the television on and your little brother distracting you. The same

goes for reading in the bus on the way to school. You also can’t expect to read a textbook and listen to

music at the same time. Try to find a quiet and comfortable place with good light, and your dictionaries

and other materials nearby.

Choose the right time to read - If you have a difficult text to read for homework, it’s probably

best to do this first. If you leave it until last when you are tired, you will find it even more difficult.

Important: If you have tried the advice above and you still cannot understand a text, then it is simply

too hard for you. Stop reading and ask someone to help you (your teacher, for example!). Nobody likes

to give up, but you will just be wasting your time if you continue to work at a text that is beyond you.

What to read

Most of the time you have to read what your teachers tell you to read. But as you know, reading is an

excellent way to improve your English, and so you should try to do some extra reading each week.

Here is some advice on how to choose what to read:

Try not to read something too difficult - There should be no more than about 6-10 new words per page;

reading for pleasure should not be hard work!

Reading easy books is good for you -You will improve your reading skills even if you read

simple books, as long as you read lots of them. (But you may find you don't really enjoy stories written

in English that has been over-simplified.)


Try to read some non-fiction - Reading non-fiction books or magazines will help you learn

some of the words you need to do well in your subject classes.

Choose something that is interesting to you - This is clear. In fact, if you are really

interested in a topic, you will probably be able to understand texts that would normally be too difficult

for you.


Reading comprehension

This section on reading comprehension deals with the following subjects:

1.Skimming and scanning

2.Non-verbal signals

3.Structure of texts

4.Structure of paragraphs

5.Punctuation

6.Author's viewpoint (inference)

7.Reader anticipation: determining the meaning of words

8.Summarizing

1. Skimming and scanning

Before starting to read a text in detail, the reader should take a moment to preview the text. Read

quickly, without pausing to study the details. This is called skim reading or skimming. The reader

should understand:

for which audience the text was written (general public, professionals, laymen,…)

what type of text it is (report, informal letter, formal letter, article, advertisement, …)

what the purpose of the author is (to describe, to inform, to explain, to instruct, to persuade)

the general contents of the text

After having skimmed the text, the reader can study the text in more detail, reading more slowly and

carefully and looking for specific information that he is interested in. This is called scanning.

2. Non-verbal signals


The meaning of a text is not only conveyed by means of words. All texts also contain non-verbal signs.

This can be the use of certain style features, such as different fonts, bold print, underlining, or italics.

The meaning of these style features can be different in different text. In one text italics may be used to

emphasize a word, in another text italics can indicate can be used to make subtitles.

Layout features are also non-verbal signals. For example:

heading:

a title printed at the top of a page to indicate the subject matter that is going to be discussed in a

particular chapter, column or section.

title:

tells you what the text is about.

subheading:

presents you with a brief summary, an introduction or explanation.

photographs:

pictures related to an article or a text.

captions:

comments on pictures related to a text

division into paragraphs:

each paragraph is a unity and deals with one particular idea.

figures, graphs, bar charts, etc:

to visualize facts and figures presented in the text.

3. The structure of the text

Most texts start with a title and sometimes a subtitle. After that, the introduction and the body followed

by a conclusion or summary.

An important aspect of reading is prediction. The better the reader can predict what he or she is going

to read, the faster and more effective he or she will read. The prediction process begins with the title.

The introduction mostly informs the reader about what he can expect.

The body consists of paragraphs. Each paragraph deals with one aspect of the subject matter.

Paragraphs are linked in a logical way.


The conclusion puts the subject matter in the right perspective

4. The structure of paragraphs

A paragraph is a group of sentences. The number of sentences and words in a paragraph depends on the

subject, but on average, paragraphs contain between 75 and 150 words. Each paragraph deals with one

aspect of the subject of the text. So, it is usually possible to give each paragraph its own subtitle, which

summarizes the contents of the paragraph in one sentence.

A typical paragraph consists of three parts. The first sentence contains the topic sentence, which is the

heart of the paragraph. The topic sentence (also called thesis sentence or key sentence) contains the

new aspect of the subject of the text. The second part of the paragraph contains sentences which

develop the aspect. These sentences may contain arguments, explanations, details, examples, and other

supporting evidence. The last sentence of a paragraph is often a summary of the paragraph or a linking

sentence to the next paragraph.

In many well written texts the reader will get a good impression of the contents by reading just the first

sentences (= the topic sentences) of each paragraph.

Paragraphs are linked in a logical way by link words. These link words are also used within a

paragraph.

Exercise: Paragraphs

Read the following paragraph and indicate:

the topic sentence

link words linking sentences

link words linking paragraphs

There is the first problem with tipping: the more discretion you have in the matter the more unpleasant

it is. Tipping is an aristocratic conceit - "There you go, my good man, buy your starving family a loaf"-

best left to an aristocratic age. The practicing democrat would rather be told what he owes right up

front. Offensively, rich people may delight in peeling off hundred-dollar bills and tossing them out to

groveling servants. But no sane, well-adjusted human being cares to sit around and evaluate the

performance of some beleaguered coffee vendor.


5. Punctuation

Punctuation is partly based on grammar. For example, commas are often used to separate clauses. If the

reader understands the meaning and usage of punctuation marks, it will be easier to understand the

grammatical structures.

Punctuation marks also indicate how the author wants the reader to interpret a piece of text. For

example, if the author puts something in brackets, the part of the sentence should be interpreted as an

addition to the sentence.

6. The author’s viewpoint (inference)

In reading a text the reader makes inferences or assumptions about the position of the author. Is the

author neutral or does the author show his own opinion. The author often shows his opinion either by

adding certain phrases or by adding a value to a word.

The author can add words like luckily, unfortunately to show that he is pleased or not pleased with

something. He can also add words which show his surprise, regret or other emotions, for example

surprisingly, to shock, unexpectedly, regrettably, pity, desirable, to be disappointed, etc. The author may

also use words to indicate the level of certainty, for example: certain, obviously, undoubtedly, naturally,

always, often, likely, probably, maybe, unlikely, hardly, rarely, never, etc. Another possibility is that the

author adds words to comment on more or less objective facts. For example Only 40% of the staff is

female has quite a different meaning than As much as 40% of the staff is female.

The author can also reveal his viewpoint by adding value to a word. For example, if something is big

he may use the word huge or gigantic to indicate he is impressed. If something is small he may use

words like tiny or microscopic to indicate that he is not impressed. If someone is afraid he may use the

word terrified to add suspense, if something is good he may use the word fantastic.

Exercise: author’s viewpoint

Read the following paragraph and write down which word indicates the author’s opinion. Also explain

what his opinion is.








7. reader anticipation: determining meaning of words

Even readers who have a wide and flexible vocabulary will encounter words of which they do not

know the meaning. Very often there is not enough time to look up all those words in a dictionary. This

means that readers should be able to guess the meaning of the word. This is often possible if the reader

understands the relationships between words in meaning and form.

To make a good guess at the meaning of the word, the reader must look for clues, indications, that help

him find that meaning. The following steps may help to disclose the meaning of unknown words:

step 1

determine the word class, i.e. a verb, a noun, an adjective, an adverb, etc.

step 2

determine its function in the sentence, i.e. how is it related to other words in the sentence?

step 3

contextual clues, i.e. is the context in which we find this word positive or negative; what does the

context tell us about the word?

step 4

is there any relation between this word and a word that is familiar to you? Consider the word "aging" in

"the population is aging rapidly". We recognise the word "age" in "aging" and therefore we can easily

derive its meaning.

step 5

try and derive the eventual meaning of the word

Exercise: determining the meaning

Read the following paragraph and try to find out what the meaning is of


conceit

groveling

Follow the 5 steps above and do not use a dictionary







8. Summarizing

It is very difficult to remember the complete contents of long texts. For that reason it is often advisable

to make notes of information in the text that is essential for the reader. The result is a short outline of

the text containing all aspects of the text. The length of the summary largely depends on the density of

the text. The average length of a good summary is about one-third of the original text, but summaries of

texts which contain many facts may be longer.

The following steps can be taken when summarizing a text.

Step 1: Familiarize with the material.

After you have read the text or a section of it, you can start summarizing. The length of the section read

through depends on the structure and the complexity of the text. With reports it is often a good idea to

read one section and then summarize. Newspaper articles are often best read as a whole before starting

with the summary.

Step 2: Select important information

You should go through each paragraph, sentence by sentence, asking yourself which information is

absolutely essential to the argument. You should write down complete sentences as much as possible.

This way it is avoided that information is written down in an unclear manner, forcing you to read again.

An alternative is to underline or highlight important sentences or phrases.

The main difficulty at this stage is to determine what is important and what is not. Some general rules:

Important: author, title, reason why the text was written, purpose, theme, key words, link words, all


major aspects (especially topic sentence of each paragraph), explanations, author’s opinion Less

important: introduction, summary, repetition, examples, anecdotes, analogies

Step 3: Paraphrase the information

Write down the information of the previous step in your own words. Writing down information in your

own words forces you to completely understand what you are writing down. You should try to

condense long and complex sentences into much shorter ones. So, your sentences should preferably be

short and to the point. Use active sentences as much as possible and avoid adjuncts.

Be careful with regard to the wording of your sentences. Avoid descriptions if they can be summarized

in one word. So, do not write down The state exclusively controls and possesses the trade in stamps but

use the word monopoly.

Step 4: Insert links between sentences and paragraphs

Make sure that the connection between sentences is clear and logical and that each group of sentences

smoothly fit in one paragraph. This can be done by inserting link words such as therefore, nevertheless,

but, however, because, on the other hand, etc. Sentences can also be linked by relative pronouns, for

example: who, which, whose, that. Using the correct links means that your summary becomes more

logical and coherent.

Step 5: Adjust the length of the summary

If you have to make a summary as part of an assignment and you are assigned a maximum number of

words, count the words and leave out information that is not essential or add important information.


READING COMPREHENSION

MAIN IDEAS: TOPICS

1. WHAT IS A MAIN IDEA?, where you will learn what you need to know about a main idea.

2. GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC IDEAS, where you will learn the difference between general and

specific ideas. There will be practice exercises to help you with this concept.

3. WHAT IS A TOPIC?, where you will learn to identify the topic of a paragraph. Practice will be

provided with this concept.

4. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS provide 3 exercises on different levels of difficulty,

followed by the correct answers.

5. REVIEW lets you see if you have remembered what you should for this lesson.

1.WHAT IS A MAIN IDEA?

The main idea is the central point of a paragraph. Very often, the main idea appears in one sentence --a

general sentence called the topic sentence.

The rest of the paragraph contains sentences made up of specific ideas and details that support and

explain the main idea.

2. GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC IDEAS

The main idea in a paragraph is a general idea. In contrast, the supporting information in a paragraph is

made up of specific ideas and details. To improve your skill at finding main ideas, you need to practice

distinguishing between general and specific ideas.

First, try it on the three groups of words below. Each group of words has one general idea and three

specific ideas. The general idea includes all the specific ideas. See if you can identify the general word

in each group. Then read the Answers and Explanations that follow:


1. jealousy hatred emotion worry

2. spiders cockroaches mosquitoes insects

3. chemistry science physics biology

Answers and Explanations

1. The general idea is "emotions" because it includes all of the others as examples.

2. The general idea is "insects" because it includes all of the others as examples.

3. The general idea is "science" because it includes all of the others as examples.

3. TOPICS

A paragraph's topic is the subject of the paragraph -- who or what the paragraph is about. Finding the

topic of a paragraph is the first step in finding out what the paragraph is trying to say to you. This

simple question will help you find the topic of a paragraph. In general, who or what is this paragraph

about?

Your answer to this question will be the paragraph's topic. Your answer must not be too broad nor too

narrow.

Read the paragraph below. As you do so, ask yourself "In general, who or what is this paragraph

about?" After you have chosen what you think is the topic, read the Explanation that follows:

Each year, thousands of people are bitten by snakes. Here is what to do if you are a victim of a

snakebite. First, keep still and warm. Next, remove rings and tight clothing. Wrap a bandage above the

bite. Do not apply a tourniquet, as this may cut blood circulation. Also, do not try to remove snake

venom. Finally, seek medical attention as soon as possible.

The topic of this paragraph is:

(a) snakebites

(b) things to do after a snakebite

(c) keeping still after a snakebite


Explanation

The first choice, "snakebites" is too general. It is true that the paragraph is about snakebites, but it is

only talking about one aspect of snakebites.

The second choice, "things to do after a snakebite" is the right answer -- this is what the paragraph is

about.

The third choice, "keeping still after a snakebite," is too specific -- it is only one of the things you

should do after being bit.

Now, read the next paragraph and look at the choices for the topic. One is too general, one is just right,

and one is too specific. Think about which is which, then read the Explanation that follows.

The cost of printing money and then destroying old ones has become too expensive for the government.

As a result, serious efforts are being taken to replace the dollar bill with a dollar coin. The dollar coin

will last far longer than a dollar bill. It could also be used in vending machines easier than a dollar

bill. And it will help cities, too. Cities spend a lot of time counting bills placed in collection boxes. A

dollar coin would change that.

The topic of this paragraph is:

a. Using a dollar coin in a vending machine

b. Reasons for a dollar coin

c. A dollar coin

Explanation

The first choice, "using a dollar coin in a vending machine," is too specific. It does not tell what the

paragraph is about.

The second choice, "reasons for a dollar coin," is the right answer -- this is what the paragraph is about.

Most of the sentences present reasons that a dollar coin is better than a dollar bill.

The third choice, "A dollar coin," is too general. The right topic will tell you what the paragraph is

likely to say about a dollar coin.


Topics: Exercise

There are five paragraphs below. After each paragraph are two questions about the topic of the

paragraph. Read the paragraphs and answer the questions. The correct answers and explanation follow

the five paragraphs.

A. A national contest to find the worst boss in the nation had some remarkable candidates. One person

nominated a boss who had a sign on his desk saying "people are animals." Another named a boss who

liked to choke and bite his employees. And the winner was a boss who would not let his employees go

to a funeral unless they produced a death notice that was printed in the local paper.

1. As a topic of this paragraph, "A national contest" is

a. too general b. just right c. too specific

2. As a topic of this paragraph, "A contest to find the worst boss in the nation" is


B. Hot tubs have become popular places to relax and relieve muscle tension. However, if you use a hot

tub, you should be careful. Dipping your body in hot water makes your heart beat faster. This can be a

problem for people with high blood pressure. The hot water also raises your body temperature. This

can cause a loss of important body fluids. And five to ten minutes in a hot tub burns off blood sugar.

This can be harmful for people with diabetes.

3. As a topic of this paragraph, "Cautions for using a hot tub" is


4. As a topic of this paragraph, "What five to ten minutes in a hot tub can do" is


C. The highest military honor in the land is to be named as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Only

a few military men have held this post. The first Chair an was General Omar Bradley, who was

nominated by President Harry Truman. Other Chairs have included General Maxwell Taylor, Admiral

William Crowe, and General Colin Powell, who became famous for his handling of the Gulf War.


5. As a topic of this paragraph, "General Colin Powell" is


6. As a topic of this paragraph, "Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff" is


D. There are currently 5.5 billion people living in the world today. Population is expected to grow

rapidly in coming years. By the year 2000, this figure is expected to grow to 6.3 billion. Twenty five

years later, it is estimated that over 8 billion people will inhabit the planet. And in sixty years,

population will be over 10 billion.

7. As a topic of this paragraph, "Population" is


8. As a topic of this paragraph, "The number of people in the world today" is


E. People who don't brush their teeth regularly usually have bad breath. There are other causes of bad

breath. A throat infection is one source of bad breath. A sinus problem can also cause bad breath. Even

too much coffee or alcohol can cause bad breath. And a stomach problem resulting in acid buildup can

be a contributor, as well.

9. As a topic of this paragraph, "Bad breath" is


10. As a topic of this paragraph, "Causes of bad breath" is


Answers and Explanation

A. 1. a 2. b (The paragraph gives examples of bad bosses who have been nominated in a contest to find

the worst boss in the nation. "A national contest" is too general, since the paragraph is talking about one

particular contest.)

B. 3. b 4. c (The paragraph lists cautions for people who use a hot tub. "What five to ten minutes in a

hot tub can do" is too specific because it is one of the cautions.)


C. 5. c 6. b (This paragraph identifies people who have been Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

"General Colin Powell" is too specific because he is only one of the people who were Chairmen.)

D. 7. a 8. c (If you ask yourself the question "Who or what is this paragraph about?", your answer

should be "Population growth in years to come." Thus, "Population" is too general, and "The number of

people in the world today" is too specific, since it says nothing about the future.)

E. 9. a 10. b (This paragraph gives the causes of bad breath. "Bad breath" is too general because it does

not focus on the actual subject that is discussed.)


5. REVIEW: MAIN IDEAS: TOPICS

To review what you have learned in this tutorial, answer each of the following questions. Then check

your answers below.

1. True or False : In a paragraph, supporting details are always more specific than the main idea.

2. When the main idea is stated in one sentence of a paragraph, that sentence is called the

a. topic b. topic sentence c. central point

3. To find the main idea of a paragraph, you should first look for the

a. topic b. topic sentence c. supporting details

4. The question to ask when looking for a paragraph's topic is:

a. What details support the main idea?

b. What meaning is the author trying to get across?

c. In general, who or what is the paragraph about?

5. The topic of a paragraph should be

a. neither too general nor too specific.

b. explained at the beginning of the paragraph.

c. explained by all of the sentences in a paragraph.

1. True

2. b

3. a

4. c

5. a


MAIN IDEAS: TOPIC SENTENCES

1. WHAT IS A TOPIC SENTENCE? where you will learn what you need to know about a topic

sentence.

2. WHERE IS A TOPIC SENTENCE LOCATED? where you will learn the different parts of a

paragraph where a topic sentence may be located, and how to find that sentence.


followed by the correct answers.

4. REVIEW lets you see if you have remembered what you should for this lesson and this important

skill.

WHAT IS A TOPIC SENTENCE?

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It is a general statement that

covers all or most of the material in the paragraph. Locating the topic sentence in a paragraph is one of

the most important reading skills there is.

To find a paragraph's topic sentence, you should do the following:

1. Identify the topic of the paragraph by asking yourself Who or what is this paragraph about?"

2. Find the sentence that is a general statement telling you what you need to know about the topic.

WHERE IS A TOPIC SENTENCE LOCATED?

A topic sentence may be anywhere within a paragraph: It can be the first sentence in the paragraph.

When this occurs, the first sentence will be a general statement that will introduce a subject and will

then be followed by sentences that will support that statement in some important way.

It can be in the middle of a paragraph. This will occur in two circumstances:


1. Sometimes, a paragraph begins with an introductory sentence that is meant to grab your attention.

It may be a very general statement that looks like a topic sentence, but then is followed by a sentence

than changes direction.

This sentence is the one that is explained in the rest of the paragraph, and it becomes the topic sentence.

2. You will also find a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph when the paragraph starts with a

question. Question will never be a topic sentence. Look for the answer to the question - this will be the

topic sentence of the paragraph. Of course, if the answer to a question is "Yes," or "No," this will not be

your topic sentence.

The explanation that follows this one-word answer will be the topic sentence. a topic sentence can

appear at the end of a paragraph, either as a summary or a conclusion.

A summary will bring together all of the points made in the paragraph. A conclusion is where all of the

points lead up to a final, important point.

3. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS

The following exercises will help you master the concept of "Locations of Main Ideas." There are three

exercises, increasing in difficulty.

Topic Sentences: Exercise 1

In the following five paragraphs, the topic sentence is in different places. Read each paragraph and

decide which sentence is the topic sentence. Write the number or numbers of the topic sentence in the

space provided.

The answers and explanation follow the exercise.

A. (1)Do you know what to do if you are stung by a bee or a hornet? (2)There is a number of steps that

should be followed if this happens to you. (3)The first thing to do is remove the stinger. (4)A stinger

contains venom. (5)It will continue to release venom as long as it is contact with skin. (6)When the

stinger is removed, put ice on the wound. (7)This will reduce the swelling. (8)Then, apply a small

amount of baking soda. (9)It contains enzymes that will weaken the venom. (10)Finally, look for signs

of an allergic reaction such as difficulty in breathing. (11)People have died from strong allergic

reactions to stings. (12)When one occurs, the victim should be taken to the hospital for treatment.


The topic sentence is # ____.

B. (1)The world's oldest known bound book is a prayer book. (2)The book is over 1,600 years old. (3)It

was discovered in a child's grave in 1984. (4)The book's nearly 500 hand-written pages were stuck

together. (5)Experts had to separate each page. (6)The book is now on display in the Coptic Museum in

Cairo, Egypt.

The topic sentence is # _____.

C. (1)Black ice is an invisible coating of ice that forms on an asphalt road surface. (2) Black ice is very

dangerous. (3)It is caused by drizzle falling on the frozen pavement. (4)Drivers don't know the roadway

is icy. (5)When their cars hit the ice, they skid out of control. (6)Sometimes cars bounce off of each

other like characters in an arcade game. (7)Sometimes they skid off the roadway into ditches.

(8)Incidences of black ice have caused numerous collisions and deaths in the colder regions of the

country.


D. (1)Albert Einstein was one. (2)So was artist Pablo Picasso. (3)American writer and humorist Mark

Twain was one, as well. (4)Others include Babe Ruth, General Norman Schwartzkopf, Johann

Sebastian Bach, and Joan of Arc. (5)What do all of these famous people have in common? (6)All of

them are left-handed.


E. (1)A low fat diet may prevent major illnesses, including cancer and heart disease. (2)Because of

this, doctors and nutritionists have suggested many ways for people to lower the fat in your diet. (3)

They recommend using non-fat milk instead of whole milk. (4) Also, they suggest that people eat little

or no meat. (5)For people who eat meat, poultry is recommended. (6)It has less fat than beef or pork.

(7) People should also cut down on the number of eggs they eat. (8)Eating non-fat yogurt for dessert

instead of ice cream is also recommended.



IMPLIED MAIN IDEAS

1. WHAT IS AN "IMPLIED MAIN IDEA?" where you will learn how a main idea of a paragraph can

be implied or unstated.

2. HOW TO CREATE AN IMPLIED MAIN IDEA will teach you what you should do when you find a

paragraph that has no topic sentence.

3. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS provide three exercises on different levels of difficulty,

followed by correct answers.

4. REVIEW lets you see if you remember what you should for this lesson.

1. WHAT IS AN "IMPLIED MAIN IDEA?"

When you read a paragraph, you must look for its main idea. Many paragraphs have topic sentences

that express the main idea of the paragraph. Some paragraphs have no topic sentence. This does not

mean that there is no main idea in the paragraph. When a paragraph has no topic sentence, the

supporting details suggest the main idea. The main idea is implied, or unstated, which means that you

have to figure it out by deciding what point the supporting details are making.

Here is an example of a paragraph with an implied main idea. Read the paragraph and try to figure out

the main idea of the paragraph by piecing together the details of the paragraph. Then read the

Explanation that follows.

(1)Area codes are numerical codes assigned by the telephone company to tell which part of the country

you are calling. (2)Area codes were first introduced in 1947. (3)At that time, there were 86 area codes.

(4)Today there are over 150. (5)California, the most populous state in the country, has the most area

codes. (6)An area code can serve almost 800 three-digit prefixes. (7)Each prefix has almost 10,000

possible telephone numbers.

Explanation


Every sentence in this paragraph is talking about "area codes," with each looking at a different aspect

of area codes. The sentences are connected only by the fact that each deals with area codes. Thus, the

implied main idea must reflect this fact. It might read: "There are various interesting facts about area

codes."

HOW TO CREATE AN IMPLIED MAIN IDEA

When you see that no sentence is general enough to include all of the others -- that each sentence is too

specific to cover all the others -- the paragraph's main idea is implied. Your task is to figure out the

author's main idea. You can do so by asking two questions:

1. What is the topic, or subject, of the paragraph? In other words, who or what is the entire paragraph

about?

2. What is the main point being made about the topic?

To find the answer to the first question, you must see what subject is constantly being referred to.

Once you have found the topic, ask yourself, "What is the author's main point about the topic?" In other

words, "What is the author saying about the topic?" Your answer should not be too general nor too

specific. Try to make it broad enough to include all the supporting details in the paragraph, and make

sure you state it in a complete sentence.

Try it on the following paragraph. Read each sentence, then ask yourself what the topic of the

paragraph is. Once you identify the topic, ask what the individual sentences are saying about the topic.

Then read the Explanation that follows.

(1)College and university sports teams have nicknames. (2)Most are common, such as the Bears, Lions,

and Tigers. (3)However, some are unusual. (4)For instance, the University of California at Irvine is

nicknamed "Anteaters." (5)The University of Washburn's sports teams are called the "Ichabods."

(6)Richland College sports teams are called "Thunderducks." (7)And perhaps the strangest of all

belongs to the University of California at Santa Cruz. (8)Their nickname is the "Banana Slugs."

Explanation

What is the main idea of the paragraph? No one sentence expresses it. When this happens, you must

consider the topic of the paragraph and then look at the details to try to piece together the "missing

topic sentence."


This paragraph starts talking about college nicknames. But it does not focus on common nicknames.

The signal word "however" at the beginning of Sentence 3 tells you that the paragraph is changing

directions, and will focus on "Unusual college nicknames." This is the topic of the paragraph.

Sentences 4 - 8 are detail sentences that provide the following examples:

1. The University of California at Irvine is nicknamed "Anteaters."

2. The University of Washburn's sports teams are called the "Ichabods."

3. Richland College sports teams are called "Thunderducks."

4. The University of California at Santa Cruz team nickname is the "Banana Slugs."

Once you have identified the important details, ask yourself this question: "What point do all the details

add up to?" In the above paragraph, the details all add up to the main idea that "Some college sports

teams have unusual nicknames." This is the implied main idea of the paragraph.

A Note about paragraphs that begin with a Question

Sometimes, a paragraph will begin with a question. The answer to that question is the main idea of the

paragraph. Often, that idea is expressed as a sentence. Sometimes, however, it is not. When this

happens, you must formulate the answer to the question in your mind.

The answer will be the "missing topic sentence," or the implied main idea of the paragraph.

Here is an example. Read the paragraph, trying to answer the question that is asked in the first sentence

of the paragraph. Then read the Explanation that follows.

(1)What happens to thoroughbred race horses when they are too old to race? (2) Essentially, there are

two groups of "over-the-hill racer horses. (3)The first group are the unlucky ones. (4)They are sold to

slaughter houses, where they become pet food or are killed and their meat becomes delicacies in

Europe or Japan. (5)The second group are the lucky ones who find their way to an Equine Retirement

Foundation ranch. (6)These ranches are run by people who love horses and who want to provide a

final resting place for horses that gave their all as they raced. (7)The people running the ranches

understand the stress and effort that each horse went through in training and in running races. (8)They

reward the horses by letting them roam pastures, feeding them well, and letting them enjoy the

companionship of other horses. (9)And the horses are cared for by people who love and understand

these gentle yet competitive animals.


Explanation

This paragraph starts with a question. When looking for a paragraph's topic sentence, you should

always look for the answer to the question. In this paragraph, no one sentence answers the question.

When this happens, you have to piece together the details to come up with the "missing topic

sentence."

First, look for the paragraph's topic. The topic of this paragraph is "What happens to thoroughbred race

horses when they are too old to race." The details of the paragraph should provide you with the answer

-- they tell you that there are two categories of such horses. Identify them and you have come up with

the answer to the question. A good implied main idea might be: "Thoroughbred race horses that are too

old to race are either sold for slaughter or enjoy life at an Equine Retirement Foundation ranch."



The following exercises should help you to master the concept of "Implied Main Ideas." The three

exercises increase in difficulty.

Implied Main Ideas: Exercise 1

DIRECTIONS: There are five paragraphs below. Read each paragraph and then choose what you think

is the implied main idea. When you are finished, read the Answers and Explanations that follow.

1. The biggest living thing in America is a tree. So is the oldest living thing. Both are found in

California. The oldest living tree is a bristlecone pine tree. Nicknamed "Methuselah," it is 4,700 years

old. "General Sherman" is the largest tree. It is a giant sequoia, standing 385 feet in height. It weighs

over 1,400 tons, more than the combined weight of 360 elephants.

The implied main idea of this paragraph is:

a. In America, things that are old and large have nicknames.

b. The biggest and oldest living things in the world are in America.

c. Trees are both the biggest and oldest living things in America.

d. General Sherman probably named the largest tree in America.

2. Each year, Fortune magazine lists the world's largest corporations. Of the top 500 companies, 157

call the United Stateshome. Five of the ten largest companies are from the United States. General

Electric is ranked eighth. IBM is sixth. Ford is ranked fourth. Exxon is third. At the top of the list is

General Motors.


a. The United States has a significant number of the world's largest corporations.

b. More large corporations call the United States home than any other country.

c. The number of corporations calling the United States home is on the decline.

d. General Motors is always at the top of Fortune magazine's list of the largest corporations in the

world.


3. Is there any one day of you year you dread? For some people, it is their birthday. After all, a

birthday is a reminder that we are getting older. Others are anxious as April 15 approaches. This is the

day that federal taxes are due. For others, the most feared day is Friday the 13th. On this day, wedding

chapels are usually shut down. Toy stores sell out ouija boards. Travel is down, especially on airplanes.

And people have been known to stay in their house the entire day rather than risk anything happening

to them.


a. The most feared day of the year is Friday the 13th.

b. Different people fear different days of the year.

c. Everyone dreads the date their birthday falls on.

d. Someone whose birthday falls on Friday the 13th is in real trouble.

4. Hummingbirds are the world's smallest birds. The Bee hummingbird of Cuba is only 2 inches long.

This is just a little bigger than a penny. Hummingbirds live only in the western hemisphere. Most

migrate north in the early spring and return south in early fall. Their life span is between nine and

twelve years. The colorful birds are very curious. They are also aggressive toward each other. Perhaps

their best known trait is their ability to fly backwards. They are the only bird in the world that can do

this.


a. There are no hummingbirds in the eastern hemisphere.

b. There are a number of interesting facts about the hummingbird.

c. Hummingbirds are migratory birds that are curious, aggressive, and can fly backwards.

d. Hummingbirds are the most fascinating birds in the world.

5. Local pizza parlors are found in most neighborhoods throughout the country. Because costs are low

and their products are popular, most are money-making operations. Estimates are that local pizza

parlors and small chains take in well over a billion dollars each year. Nationwide, three chains take in

even more money. Little Caesar's takes in over 2.2 billion dollars in sales. Domino's takes in $2.4

billion. And the leader of the pack is Pizza Hut. Yearly, they take in $4.5 billion, accounting for 28% of

all pizza sales in the country.


a. No pizza chain will ever make as much money as Pizza Hut.

b. If you want to get wealthy, you should own a pizza parlor.

c. Everyone in the Unites States loves pizza.


d. Pizza is big business in the United States.

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATION

1. c (There are three major details that have to be pieced together to come up with the implied main

idea. First, the paragraph is centered in America. Second, it is talking about the oldest living thing.

Third, it is talking about the largest thing. The only choice that brings these elements together is "c:

Trees are both the biggest and oldest living things in America.")

2. a (The topic of the paragraph is "The world's largest corporations." The point being made about the

topic is that a lot of them are located in the U.S. Thus, the implied main idea is "a. The United States

has a significant number of the world's largest corporations.")

3. b (The paragraph begins with a question. Answer the question and you have come up with the

implied main idea. The answer is "b. Different people fear different days of the year.")

4. b (Each sentence in the paragraph focuses on a specific fact about hummingbirds. The implied main

idea must reflect this.

The only choice that does this is "b. There are a number of interesting facts about the hummingbird." If

you were tempted to answer "d. Hummingbirds are the most fascinating birds in the world," remember

that your implied main idea cannot be too general. The statement may be true, but it is not made in the

paragraph.)

5. d (The paragraph is talking about local and national pizza establishments. Its focus is on the money

that is generated by pizza establishments. The only clear choice to connect these ideas is "d. Pizza is

big business in the United States.")



DIRECTIONS: There are five paragraphs below. Read each paragraph and then write in you think is

the implied main idea. Each implied main idea is started for you. When you are finished, read the

Answers and Explanations that follow.

1. Scientists who work with domestic turkeys are concerned. A new disease has been identified that is

responsible for the deaths of sick and healthy turkeys. The disease is called "round heart syndrome." It

expands the hearts of turkeys to four times normal size. This causes the turkey to die of cardiac arrest.

It is not unusual for healthy turkeys to die, as well. When they see a turkey that has died, some turkeys

become so panicked that they go into convulsions. This often leads to their dying of a heart attack, too.

"Scientists are worried about_____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________."

2. Orthodontists usually straighten the teeth of children. Lately, they have found a growing clientele

with adults. The major reason for this is that different kinds of braces are now available. Many adults

do not like the "tin grin" that goes along with metal braces. They now have two choices not available

before. One is clear braces. Made of plastic, they are much less obvious than metal braces. The second

choice is lingual braces. These are attached to the back of the teeth, so they are out of sight. Thus,

business people need no longer feel self-conscious about wearing braces.

"Because different kind of braces are available, _____________________________

____________________________________________________________________________."

3. Spring showers can result in hazardous road conditions. The National Safety Council has put

together a list of suggestions for drivers. First, make sure your windshield wipers and tires are in good

shape. Check the depth of the grooves in your tires by putting a penny into the grooves. If the top of

Abraham Lincoln's head appears, you need new tires. The oil on the roadway mixes with water, causing

slippery roads. Leave more distance between you and the car in front of you. Cars need as much as ten


times more space to stop on wet roads. Next, don't drive through large puddles. The splashing water

could affect your brakes and your vision. Above all, drive defensively in the rain. Be alert for any

hazard, including other drivers who are not being cautious.

"The National Safety Council has suggestions for ____________________________

____________________________________________________________________________."

4. Until recently, scientists thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia about

11,500 years ago. The first inhabitants were thought to have walked across a land bridge that is now a

body of water called the Bering Strait. New evidence from archeological digs shows that the scientists

may have been wrong. Digs from the past two decades have turned up artifacts from much earlier. A

dig in a cave in New Mexico turned up steel tools, a human palm print in clay, and a spear imbedded in

a bone. A scientific procedure that dates artifacts shows that these are about 30,000 years old. Other

digs have turned up evidence that man may have been here even longer, perhaps as early as 45,000

years ago.

"Scientists who thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia about 11,500

years ago now believe

that ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________."

5. Insurance companies are in business to make money. Some companies feel that it is safe to insure

just about anything. For instance, Bruce Springsteen's voice is insured for $5.5 million. Actor

Christopher Reeve was insured for $20 million during the filming of "Superman." A radio station in

Memphis, Tennessee, offered a prize of $1 million to anyone who found Elvis Presley alive. An

insurance company guaranteed the prize. And Chicago's Second City comedy troupe took out an

insurance policy should any member of the audience die laughing.

"Insurance companies have written _______________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________."



1. Possibilities: "Scientists are worried about the health of domestic turkeys."; "Scientists are worried

about a new disease that is responsible for the deaths of sick and healthy turkeys. (Since this sentence is

already started for you, you simply have to figure out what scientists are worried about. Your answer

must focus on turkeys, and on their health.)

2. Possibilities: "Because different kinds of braces are available, orthodontists are straightening the

teeth of more adults."; "Because different kinds of braces are available, more adults are having their

teeth straightened." (Your implied main idea must include the fact that adults are getting their teeth

straightened more than ever."

3. Possibilities: "The National Safety Council has suggestions for people who drive during spring

showers."; "The National Safety Council has suggestions for driving when spring showers have caused

hazardous road conditions." (Your implied main idea must be broad enough to include the notion of

"spring showers;" it should not be so specific that any of the suggestions is listed.)

4. Possibilities: "Scientists who thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia

about 11,500 years ago now believe that man may have been here long before that."; "Scientists who

thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia about 11,500 years ago now

believe that man may have been here 45,000 years ago."

(Your implied topic sentence must include the notion that scientists now believe their earlier estimate

was wrong. It is not enough to just say this, however. You should go further by telling why they believe

this.)

5. Possibilities: "Insurance companies have written some unique insurance policies."; "Insurance

companies have written some strange policies." (The examples in the paragraph are of policies written

by insurance companies that are hard to believe. This must be reflected in your implied main idea;

make sure that none of the examples are included in your sentence.)



DIRECTIONS: There are five paragraphs below. Read each paragraph and then write what you think is

the implied main idea in the space provided. When you are finished, read the Answers and

Explanations that follow.

1. Kidney stones are calcium deposits that form in the kidney. These stones can be very painful and may

have to be removed surgically. Calcium deposits have been linked to low fluid intake. For many people,

kidney stones can be prevented. Doctors and nutritionists recommend that people drink at least eight

glasses of non-alcoholic fluid per day. This should include drinking two glasses of fluids before going

to bed.

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

2. "BMI" is a formula for estimating the amount of body fat people have. BMI stands for "body mass

index." The formula divides a person's weight by the square of the person's height. This gives a figure

that is designed to tell if a person is too skinny, about right, or too fat. While the formula may seem

complicated, it is actually easy. It is becoming an accepted way to determine the amount of body fat a

person has.

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

3. Have you ever wonder how automobile models get their names? Some, such as "Edsel," are named

after a person. Edsel Ford a son of the founder of Ford Motors. A second way is to remind people of

another car. Ford's "Windstar" replaced its popular "Aerostar." Ford wanted people to be reminded of


the earlier minivan. A third way is to take a word from a foreign language. "Mondeo" means "world" in

Italian. The Mondeo is a car that was designed in America and is built in the U.S. and Europe. Finally,

some cars are named with words that mean nothing but suggest something. "Acura"

sounds like the word accurate. It is meant to suggest that the car has been precisely engineered.

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

4. Large companies can afford to spend millions of dollars to build up a following. This is not the case

for small companies. Most small businesses depend on word of mouth to improve sales. This makes the

company name especially important. It helps to have a name that people will remember. For instance, a

successful California health spa that provides massages is called "Nice to be Kneaded." "You Gotta

Have Art" is the name of a successful graphics arts firm. And "The Pickup Artist" is a company that

doing a booming business in recycling.

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

5. The term "killer bees," refers to a group of aggressive bees that escaped from an experiment in

Brazil in 1957. They have migrated at a rate of 100-300 miles per year, and have arrived in the United

States. There have been reports that killer bees are larger than the European honeybees we have grown

accustomed to in the United States. In truth, they are a little smaller. Some people who have been stung

have said that the killer bees have stung them repeatedly. They are incapable of stinging more than

once, as they lose their stinger with the first sting. Some have claimed that the venom of the killer bee is

stronger than other bees. Actually, it is the same strength as other honeybees. And some people have

claimed that they were "hunted" by killer bees. They do not hunt. However, they are more easily

provoked than other bees, and when they become agitated they sting in groups, often chasing their

victim.


____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________


1. Kidney stones may be prevented by drinking a large amount of non-alcoholic fluids.

(The key details that must be included in your implied main idea are "kidney stones," "prevention,"

and "a large amount of non-alcoholic fluids." The above sentence combines all of these details in a

complete sentences.)

2. An easy formula can be used to determine the amount of body fat people have.

(This paragraph is about a formula known as "BMI." Your implied main idea must acknowledge this,

and tell what the formula is designed to do. Naming the formula is not necessary, as this is done in the

paragraph.)

3. Automobile models get their names in different ways.

(This paragraph begins with a question. The answer to the question's focus will be your implied main

idea. The focus is not whether you have wondered how automobiles get their name. This is just the

author's way of grabbing your attention.

The focus is how automobile models get their names. Several examples of ways that automobiles get

their names are given. You should not give each of these ways; rather, you should lump these examples

together using a general phrase such as "different ways" or "various ways.")

4. A company name that people will remember is important to the success of a small business.

(The focus of this paragraph is on how small businesses can become successful. While there may be

many ways, the paragraph mentions only one: the importance of a good company name. These are the

only two details that should be incorporated into your implied main idea.)

5. There are a lot of myths about "killer bees."

(This paragraph is clearly about "killer bees." Your implied main idea must look at what is being said

about killer bees. The ideas that are presented are all incorrect beliefs about killer bees.)


4. REVIEW

To review what you've learned in this tutorial, answer each of the following questions. Then check with

the answers that

follow:

1. TRUE OR FALSE? A paragraph without a topic sentence may have an implied main idea.

2. TRUE OR FALSE? A paragraph without a topic sentence does not have supporting details.

3. An implied main idea is also called

a. a general idea

b. an unstated main idea

c. a non-essential idea

4. To find an implied main idea of a paragraph, you should first look for the

a. topic of the paragraph

b. length of the paragraph

c. topic sentence of the paragraph

5. To find the implied main idea of a paragraph requires

a. a dictionary

b. some detective work

c. topic sentences

1. True

2. False

3. b

4. a

5. b


VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT

1. WHAT IS "VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT"? Where you will learn what this important concept is

about.

2. USING CONTEXT CLUES shows you how this concept will help you with your reading.

3. TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES presents four common context clues and gives you practice with

each type of clue.


followed by the correct

answers.

5. REVIEW lets you see if you have remembered what you should for this important skill.

1. WHAT IS "VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT"?

Vocabulary in context means using clues found in the sentence or paragraph you are reading to figure

out the meaning of a word you are not familiar with.

Here's how it works.

What would you say if someone asked you what the word culpable means?

Just thinking of the meaning of the word might be difficult for you. But if you saw the word in a

sentence, you would be

more likely to know what it means. Here is the word emanate in a sentence.

See if you can figure out its meaning.

Read the sentence, choose its meaning, then read the Explanation.

After the automobile accident, police must try to determine who is culpable. The party who is not to

blame is not charged with any offense. Culpable means:


a. believable b. hurt c. to blame

Explanation

Culpable means "to blame." Choices a and b may work in the first sentence, but the second sentence

eliminates them as possibilities. The phrase "the party who is not to blame" makes it clear that culpable

means "to blame."

2. USING CONTEXT CLUES

In order to determine what culpable meant, you used clues that were provided by the words

surrounding the word culpable. These words are called "context."

Knowing how to use the context surrounding difficult or unfamiliar words can help you figure out what

new words mean.

Context clues help you in three ways:

1. Context clues will save you time when you are reading, since you won't have to stop and look up

every new word you read.

2. Context clues will improve your understanding of what you read, since you will know the meaning

of more of the words you are reading.

3. Context clues will expand your vocabulary, because you will be learning the meanings of many new

words. When you see these words more than once, they will become a part of your reading vocabulary.

3. TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES

Here are four common types of context clues:

1. Examples

2. Synonyms

3. Antonyms

4. General Sense of the Sentence or Passage

Here is a look at each of these common clues.


1. Examples

A difficult word may be followed by examples that will reveal what the word means.

The examples often follow signal words such as for example, including, or instance, such as, or e.g.

(which means "for example"). Here are three sentences that use examples as clues to help you

determine the meaning of a word you may not be familiar with. See if you can come up with the

meaning of the word that is in italics. Then read the Answers and Explanation that follows the three

sentences.

1. Adversities such as poverty, poor grades, and a weak family background can be overcome with hard

effort.

Adversities are:

a. obstacles b. pleasures c. obligations

2. Pungent odors, including those from a lemon, garlic, and ammonia, can cause allergic reactions in

some people.

Pungent means:

a. unusual b. strong c. mild

3. Carla had a reputation for doing perilous activities. For instance, she loved to climb steep mountains

without a safety rope, and she enjoys diving among sharks.

Perilous means:

a. fun-filled b. boring c. dangerous


In each sentence, the examples probably helped you to figure out the meanings of the words in italics:

1. Poverty, poor grades, and a weak family background are all examples of OBSTACLES that can be

overcome. The second choice, "pleasures," and the third choice, "obligations," do not work at all.

2. The odor that comes from a lemon, garlic, and ammonia is STRONG. The first choice,"unusual," is

not correct because all three examples are of common items. The third choice, "mild," does not apply at

all.

3. The activities listed are DANGEROUS. The first choice, "fun-filled," does not work, because diving


among sharks is not generally thought of as a pleasant thing to do. And neither activity could be

thought of as "boring."

2. Synonyms

Synonyms are words that have similar meanings. For example, the words club, organization, and

association are synonyms - they all mean about the same thing. Synonyms may be purposely provided

by an author to help readers understand a word.

Synonyms may be introduced in three ways:

1. Often the synonym will be directly before or after an unfamiliar word, and it will be set of by

commas, dashes, or parentheses.

Here is an example:

After six years of drought, California had a copious -- abundant -- amount of rain in 1993.

The word copious is explained in the sentence by the synonym ABUNDANT.

2. Synonyms may be introduced by the words or and that is

Here are examples:

(a) Johnny had the audacity, or nerve, to tell me he could do anything better than I could.

The terms audacity and "nerve" are synonyms. The word "or" coming between them signals this fact.

(b) Brothers and sisters sometimes like to play innocuous, that is, harmless, pranks on each other.

The terms innocuous and "harmless" are synonyms. The phrase "that is" coming between the two terms

signals this.

3. Synonyms may appear somewhere else in a sentence, or in an entirely different sentence, as a

restatement of the

meaning of an unknown word.


Here is an example:

A good detective tries to corroborate statements made by witnesses. Sometimes statements can be

confirmed by

interviewing witnesses separately.

The terms corroborate and "confirm" are synonyms. The second sentence is a restatement of the first

sentence, and

"confirm" is used in place of "corroborate."

3. Antonyms

Antonyms are words with opposite meanings.

For example, summer is the opposite of winter; soft is the opposite of hard, and wet is the opposite of

dry.

When authors use antonyms as context clues, the opposite meaning of an unknown word is provided.

Antonyms are often signaled by words such as unlike, but, however, instead of, in contrast, and on the

other hand.

The examples below should help you to understand how this type of clue works. Each sentence has an

antonym as a context clue. Read each sentence and see if you can come up with the right meaning for

the word in italics. Then read the Answers and Explanation that follows.

1. Even though Sarah claimed she was not at the dance, Mike's videotape of her dancing with Fred was

irrefutable proof.

Irrefutable means:

a. definite b. unreliable c. published

2. Instead of alleviating the situation, Mark's explanation of why he was two hours late for his date only

made things worse.

alleviate means:

a. make things worse b. keep things the same c. make things better

3. After a twenty-mile hike, I assumed I would be ravenous, but I was so happy that the hike was over


that I couldn't eat a thing.

Ravenous means:

a. sad b. hungry c. crazy


If you looked for the antonyms of the words in italics, you should have come up with these answers:

1. Irrefutable means "a. definite."

A videotape of Sarah is reliable, so "b. unreliable" cannot be correct. And there is no reason to believe

the videotape was released, so "c. published" could not be the correct response.

2. Alleviate means "c. make things better."

The sentence tells us that Mark's explanation made things worse. The opposite of making things worse

is making things better.

3. Ravenous means "b. hungry."

The signal word but tells you that the opposite meaning of ravenous will be in the next part of the

sentence. When the sentence says that the author "couldn't eat a thing," you should have determined the

meaning of ravenous.

4 General Sense of the Sentence or Passage

Often the context surrounding an unknown word contains no examples, synonyms, or antonyms.

How, then, can you understand the word? You can use the general sense of the sentence or passage.

Careful reading and your experiences with the situation being described will give you the meaning of

the word.

Here are three sentences that you will have to sense in order to get the meaning of the word in italics.

Try to find its meaning, then read the Answers and Explanations that follows the three sentences.

1. In general, people who achieve success despite obstacles such as handicaps, poverty or a poor

upbringing are lauded by society.

Lauded means to:

a. not believed b. praised c. hated

2. Residents of Malibu and other seaside resides have to buttress the foundations of their houses before


a big storm.

Buttress means:

a. strengthen b. remove c. purchase

3. Because he was hit from behind, Ray was unable to identify his assailant.

An assailant is:

a. a priest b. a mother c. an attacker


Each sentence provides context clues that become clear if you read carefully and think about the

situation being described.

1. Lauded means "b. praised."

Experience should tell you that this is what is done for people who become successful despite

obstacles.

2. Buttress means "a. strengthen."

Even if you don't live in a seaside community, watching the news or reading about accounts in the

newspaper should help you to know this.

3. An assailant is "c. an attacker."

Someone who hits you from behind must be an attacker.



Vocabulary in Context: Exercise1

For each sentence below, do two things. First, using context clues for help, choose the letter of the best

meaning for each word in italics. Then, choose which type of context clue was provided by the

sentence. When you finish, check your answers in the section that follows the exercise.

1. When John ran out of gas, a friendly motorist stopped and let him siphon, or draw off, a gallon of

gas from his car.

Siphon means to:

a. stick to b. draw off c. steal

The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:

a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense

2. When Coach Day was hit with a barrage of complaints, including his lack of leadership, his inability

to win, and the fact that he showed up late for practice all the time, he decided it was time to quit.

A barrage is:

a. a limited number b. a warning of a threat c. a large number



3. The cockroach is found just about everywhere on earth because it can adapt to almost any

environment.

Adapt to means to:

a. move to b. adjust to c. reject



4. You constantly renege on your promises, but I have been taught to live up to my word at all times.


Renege means to:

a. go back on b. live up to c. speak freely



5. Military ordnance including guns, tanks, missiles, and bombs, is expensive and becomes obsolete

quickly.

Ordnance is:

a. reserves b. employees c. weapons



6. A respite such as a half-time at a football game and the time between innings in baseball is common

in sporting events.

A respite is:

a. a rest period b. a busy time c. an unplanned break



7. The aperture, or opening, in a camera lens met be set precisely for a good shot.

An aperture is:

a. a camera b. an opening c. a good shot



8. Only Alaska and Hawaii are not part of the 48 contiguous states in the U.S.

Contiguous means:

a. original b. connecting c. polluted




Answers

1. Meaning: b Technique: b

2. Meaning: c Technique: a

3. Meaning: b Technique: d

4. Meaning: a Technique: c


6. Meaning: a Technique: a




Vocabulary in Context: Exercise2




1. A benign -- harmless -- tumor can still cause pain and discomfort.

Benign means:

a. harmful b. harmless c. small



2. The Academy of Esteemed Scientists announced that they were going to honor Dr. Horace Block for

his work at their annual meeting in June, and that Dr. Block would appear and speak to the group.

When Doctor Block died in May, the Academy decided they could still honor him posthumously.

Posthumously means:

a. after a person's death b. before a person dies c. carefully



3. Good students know that you don't have to copy a lecture verbatim in order to get the general

meaning intended by the professor.

Verbatim means:

a. in part b. alone c. word for word



4. May's dog "Skipper" was acting listless at home, so May brought the dog to the vet, where he was


still unresponsive.

Listless means:

a. not responsive b. sore c. sick



5. When you are asked to explain yourself, a concise explanation is usually preferable to a lengthy one.

Concise means:

a. lengthy b. short c. dull



6.Although I felt my argument was tenable, everyone else in my study group thought it was not

defensible at all.

Tenable means:

a. colorless b. liked by everyone c. able to be defended



7. Luis does not make a lot of money, but he believes in donating what he can to charity. Thus, he gives

a nominal amount of his salary to charity each year.

Nominal means

a. large b. small c. normal



Answers



2. Meaning: a Technique: d

3. Meaning: c Technique: d

4. Meaning: a Technique: b

5. Meaning: b Technique: c

6. Meaning: c Technique: c



Vocabulary in Context: Exercise 3




1. Colonel Harlan Sanders failed at several enterprises before he began to make and sell fried chicken

at the age of 65.

An enterprise is

a. an assignment b. a marriage c. a business



2. Amnesty International is an organization that lists countries that commit heinous crimes against the

residents and visitors of the country.

Heinous means

a. proper b. inhuman c. merciful



3. Some people are impervious to bee stings, while others are affected by them so severely that they

require hospitalization.

Impervious to means

a. unaffected by b. concerned about c. severely bothered by



4. Prodigious actors such as Orson Welles, John Candy, and Jackie Gleason may have lived longer had

they lost weight.


Prodigious means

a. heavy b. light c. eye-catching



5. It is not unusual for people to vacillate when they try to buy a car. At one point, their minds are set

on one car, but they hesitate when they see another.

Vacillate means to

a. purchase b. change your mind c. overreact



6. When Professor Heckberger found no discernable difference in the essays submitted by Alan and

Mike, she gave a failing grade to each.

Discernible means

a. introductory b. unintentional c. noticeable



7. While salacious comments such as "Your team plays like old ladies;" "When's the real team going to

show up?": and "My little sister plays better than your team" are common at sporting events between

schools, they have been known to incite riots that have resulted in police actions.

Salacious means

a. admirable b. humorous c. offensive



8. Muscles that are not used will atrophy. To make them larger, workouts with weights are often

recommended.

Atrophy means to


a. become smaller b. become stronger c. fall off



Answers




4. Meaning: a Technique: a






5. REVIEW

To review what you have learned in this tutorial, answer each of the following questions. Then check

your answers in the Answers section that follows.

1. The context of a word is

a. its meaning b. its opposite meaning c. the words around it.

2. This type of context clue helps readers figure out the meaning of a new word with signal words such

as however, but, and on the other hand.

a. example b. synonym c. antonym

3. This type of context clue helps readers figure out the meaning of a new word with signal words such

as for example, including, or instance, such as, or e.g.


4. In the sentence below, which type of context clue is used for the word in italics?


Urban, or city, problems, seem to be getting worse each year.

5. In the sentence below, which type of context clue is used for the word in italics?


Peter can convey his feelings easily, but his brother Paul has trouble expressing what he feels.

Answers

1. c

2. c

3. a

4. b

5. c


Other Techniques

Scanning the details

To prepare for a career in engineering, a student must begin planning in high schools. Mathematics

and science should form the core curriculum. For example, in a school where sixteen credit hours are

required for high school graduation, four should be in mathematics, one each in chemistry, biology,

and physics. The remaining credits should include four in English and at least three in the humanities

and social sciences. The average entering freshman in engineering should have achieved at least 1 2.5

grade point average on a 4.0 scale in his or her high school. Although deficiencies can be corrected

during the first year, the student who needs additional work should expect to spend five instead of four

years to complete a degree.

1. What is the average grade for an entering freshman in engineering?

2. When should a student begin planning for a career in engineering?

3. How can a student correct deficiencies in preparation?

4. How many credits should a student have in English?

5. How many credits are required for a high school diploma?


Making inferences

When an acid is dissolved in water, the acid molecule divides into two parts, a hydrogen ion and

another ion. An ion is an atom or a group of atoms which has an electric charge. The charge can be

either positive or negative. If hydrochloric acid is mixed with water, for example, it divides into

hydrogen ions and chlorine ions.

A strong acid ionizes to a great extent, but a weak acid does not ionize so much. The strength of an

acid, therefore, depends on how much it ionizes, not on how many hydrogen ions are produced. It is

interesting that nitric acid and sulfuric acid become greatly ionized whereas boric acid and carbonic

acid do not.

1. What kind of acid is sulfuric acid?

2. What kind of acid is boric acid?

Answers:

1. A strong acid ionizes to a great extent, and sulfuric acid becomes greatly ionized.

Conclusion: Sulfuric acid is a strong acid.

2. A weak acid does not ionize so much and boric acid does not ionize greatly.

Conclusion: Boric acid is a weak acid.


Identifying exceptions

All music consists of two elements – expression and design. Expression is inexact and subjective, and

may be enjoyed in personal or instinctive way. Design, on the other hand is exact and must be analyzed

objectively in order to be understood and appreciated. The folk song, for example, has a definite

musical design which relies on simple repetition with a definite beginning and ending. A folk song

generally consists of one stanza of music repeated for each stanza of verse.

Because of their communal, and usually uncertain origin, folk songs are often popular verse set to

music. They are not always recorded, and tend to be passed on in a kind of musical version of oral

history. Each singer revives and perfects the song. In part as a consequence of this continuous revision

process, most folk songs are almost perfect in their construction and design. A particular singer’s

interpretation of the folk song may provide an interesting expression, but the simple design that

underlies the song itself is stable and enduring.

1. All of the following is true of a folk song except

a. There is a clear start and finish.

b. The origin is often not known.

c. The design may change in the interpretation.

d. Simple repetition is characteristic of its design.


Locating references

The National Road, also known as the Cumerland, was constructed in the early 1800s to provide

transportation between the established commercial areas of the East and Northwest Territory. By 1818,

the road had reached Wheeling, West Virginia, 130 miles from its point in Cumberland, Maryland. The

cost was a monumental thirteen thousand dollars per mile.

Upon reaching the Ohio River, the National Road became one of the major trade routes to the western

states and territories, providing Baltimore with a trade advantage over neighboring cities. In order to

compete, New York state authorized the construction of the Erie Canal, and Philadelphia initiated a

transportation plan to link it with Pittsburgh. Towns along the rivers, canals, and the new National

Road became important trade centers.

1. The word “its” in line 3 refers to _________________ .

2. The word “it” in line 8 refers to _________________ .


how to become a better reader

Documents

reading purpose

reading difficulties

best reading method

usefulbackground information

better understanding

topic sentence

difficult book

good writers