housing policies in the united kingdom, switzerland, and the united states: lessons learned

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  • 8/17/2019 Housing Policies in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and the United States: Lessons Learned

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    Xkb Zfrodgj ^mpbr sbrdbs ds m afgtdgumtdfg fc tkb cfrebriy gmebh Hdsaussdfg ^mpbr sbrdbs?

    tkb guelbrdgj fc tkb pmpbrs afgtdgubh wdtkfut dgtbrruptdfg fr akmgjb. MHLD—s wfrodgjpmpbrs rbcibat dgdtdmi dhbms fg m tfpda mgh mrb pfstbh fgidgb cfr hdsaussdfg. MHLD bgafurmjbsrbmhbrs tf pfst tkbdr afeebgts fg tkb emdg pmjb cfr bmak wfrodgj pmpbr (jdvbg dg tkbadtmtdfg lbifw). Qfeb wfrodgj pmpbrs emy hbvbifp dgtf ftkbr cfres fc pulidamtdfg.

    Qujjbstbh adtmtdfg0

    Kdilbr, A. M. I., mgh Qakógd, F. =3. Kfusdgj ^fidadbs dg tkb Rgdtbh Odgjhfe, Qwdtzbrimgh,mgh tkb Rgdtbh Qtmtbs0 Ibssfgs Ibmrgbh. MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234. Xfoyf0 MsdmgHbvbifpebgt Lmgo Dgstdtutb. Mvmdimlib0 kttp0//www.mhl.frj/pulidamtdfgs/kfusdgj-pfidadbs-ugdtbh-odgjhfe-swdtzbrimgh-mgh-ugdtbh-stmtbs-ibssfgs-ibmrgbh/

    ^ibmsb afgtmat tkb mutkfrs cfr dgcfremtdfg mlfut tkds pmpbr.

    Bemdi0 a.kdilbrNisb.ma.uo?  fidvdbr.sakfbgdNvwd.ugdlb.ak

    Akrdstdmg M. I. Kdilbr ds Mssfadmtb ^rfcbssfr fc Bafgfeda Jbfjrmpky mt tkb IfghfgQakffi fc Bafgfedas mgh mg mssfadmtb mt tkb Abgtrb cfr Bafgfeda ^brcfremgab mgh tkbQpmtdmi Bafgfedas \bsbmrak Abgtrb.

    Fidvdbr Qakógd ds m pfsthfatfrmi rbsbmrakbr mt tkb Rgdvbrsdty fc Lbrg.Xkb vdbws bxprbssbh dg tkds pmpbr mrb tkb vdbws fc tkb mutkfr mgh hf gft gbabssmrdiyrbcibat tkb vdbws fr pfidadbs fc MHLD, MHL, dts Lfmrh fc Hdrbatfrs, fr tkb jfvbrgebgtstkby rbprbsbgt. MHLD hfbs gft jumrmgtbb tkb maaurmay fc tkb hmtm dgaiuhbh dg tkds pmpbrmgh maabpts gf rbspfgsdldidty cfr mgy afgsbqubgabs fc tkbdr usb. Xbredgfifjy usbh emygft gbabssmrdiy lb afgsdstbgt wdtk MHL fccdadmi tbres.

    Zfrodgj pmpbrs mrb sul`bat tf cfremi rbvdsdfg mgh afrrbatdfg lbcfrb tkby mrb cdgmidzbhmgh afgsdhbrbh pulidskbh.

     Msdmg Hbvbifpebgt Lmgo DgstdtutbOmsuedjmsbod Ludihdgj ;C

    1->-3>>;, @mpmg

    Xbi0 +;=-1-1241-22>>Cmx0 +;=-1-1241-22:=R\I0 www.mhld.frjB-emdi0 dgcfNmhld.frj

    © =3 Msdmg Hbvbifpebgt Lmgo Dgstdtutb

    mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

     Mlstrmat

    Zb prfvdhb mg mgmiysds fc tkb kfusdgj emrobt mgh aurrbgt kfusdgj pfidadbs dg tkrbbhbvbifpbh afugtrdbs0 tkb Rgdtbh Odgjhfe (RO), Qwdtzbrimgh, mgh tkb Rgdtbh Qtmtbs (RQ). Zbcfaus fg tkbsb tkrbb afugtrdbs emdgiy hub tf tkb emrobh hdccbrbgabs dg tkbdr dgstdtutdfgmisbttdgjs. Xkb RO ds akmrmatbrdzbh ly cdsami abgtrmidzmtdfg mgh mg bxtrmfrhdgmrdiy rdjdh pimggdgjsystbe. Xkb afgsbqubgabs fc tkds sbttdgj, wkdak emob kfusdgj suppiy bxtrbebiyugrbspfgsdvb tf akmgjbs dg kfusb prdabs, mrb m kdjk hbjrbb fc urlmg afgtmdgebgt, m sbvbrbkfusdgj mccfrhmldidty ardsds, mgh m kfusdgj skfrtmjb, pmrtdauimriy cfr tkb yfugj. Xkb oby ROpfiday, Kbip-tf-Luy, wkdak cfausbs fg stdeuimtdgj kfusdgj hbemgh, cmdis tf mhhrbss tkbmccfrhmldidty ardsds, lbamusb dgarbmsdgj hbemgh fgiy puskbs up kfusb prdabs curtkbr wdtkfutbxpmghdgj kfusdgj suppiy. Cdsami hbabgtrmidzmtdfg mgh m imx zfgdgj systbe, lftkbgafurmjdgj rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt mgh mg bxtrmfrhdgmrdiy ifw kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb bxpimdgwky Qwdtzbrimgh—s emdg pfidtdami afgabrgs mrb sprmwi mgh rbgt stmldidzmtdfg. Xkb afugtry—soby pfidadbs mde tf tmaoib tkbsb twf afgabrgs lut tkby tkbesbivbs kmvb sfeb depfrtmgtugdgtbghbh afgsbqubgabs. Xkb RQ ds akmrmatbrdzbh ly cdsami cbhbrmidse mgh mg bgfrefusvmrdmtdfg dg tkb tdjktgbss fc imgh usb rbstrdatdvbgbss marfss ebtrfpfidtmg mrbms. Xkb oby

    pfiday afgabrg marfss tkb afugtry ds kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt mgh tkb oby pfiday tf tmaoibtkds dssub ds tkb Efrtjmjb Dgtbrbst Hbhuatdfg (EDH). Xkds pfiday lmaocdrbs dg prfspbrfus mghtdjktiy imgh usb rbjuimtbh ebtrfpfidtmg mrbms‘’supbrstmr adtdbs―‘lbamusb dg tkbsb pimabstkb pfiday-dghuabh hbemgh dgarbmsb emdgiy puskbs up kfusb prdabs. Xkb EDH fgiydgarbmsbs kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt fc kdjkbr-dgafeb kfusbkfihs dg ebtrfpfidtmg mrbmswdtk imx imgh usb rbjuimtdfg. Xkb gbt bccbat fc tkb pfiday fg kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgtmarfss tkb afugtry ds bssbgtdmiiy zbrf. Zb afgaiuhb tkmt tkb mssbssebgt fc kfusdgj pfidadbsaruadmiiy hbpbghs fg tkb cdsami mgh rbjuimtfry bgvdrfgebgt dg ifami kfusdgj emrobts. ^fidadbstkmt stdeuimtb kfusdgj hbemgh suak ms tkb EDH fr Kbip-tf-Luy mrb hffebh tf cmdi dg emrobtswdtk tdjkt rbjuimtdfg fr ftkbrwdsb tdjkt suppiy.

    @BI Aimssdcdamtdfg0 K

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Afgtbgts

    =.  Dgtrfhuatdfg .................................................................................................................... 1 

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    =. DGX\FHRAXDFG

    Dg tkds pmpbr, wb prfvdhb mg mgmiysds fc tkb kfusdgj emrobt mgh aurrbgt kfusdgjpfidadbs dg tkrbb hbvbifpbh afugtrdbs0 tkb Rgdtbh Odgjhfe (RO), Qwdtzbrimgh, mgh tkbRgdtbh Qtmtbs (RQ). Mii tkrbb afugtrdbs mrb cfughdgj ebelbrs fc tkb Frjmgdsmtdfg cfrBafgfeda Af-fpbrmtdfg mgh Hbvbifpebgt (FBAH). Xkby mrb mii kdjk-dgafebbafgfedbs wdtk m kdjk Kuemg Hbvbifpebgt Dghbx mgh mii tkrbb mrb kdjkiy urlmgdzbhtfhmy0 ::% fc Qwdss (=>), ;8% fc Mebrdamgs (=>), mgh ;< tf31.2% dg =1. Xkb afugtry—s emdg pfidtdami afgabrg ds tkb kfusdgj skfrtmjb mgh dts

    afrrbspfghdgj imao fc mccfrhmlib hwbiidgjs. Zb hfauebgt tkmt tkb kfusdgj skfrtmjbmgh imao fc mccfrhmldidty mrb m hdrbat afgsbqubgab fc tkb pimggdgj systbe‘ depibebgtbh efrb tkmg :> ybmrs mjf‘ms wbii ms fc tkb bxtrbeb cfre fc cdsami mghpfidtdami abgtrmidzmtdfg. Zb futidgb tkb oby pfidadbs (b.j., Kbip-tf-Luy) tkmt mttbept tfmhhrbss tkb kfusdgj skfrtmjb mgh mccfrhmldidty ardsds. Xkbsb pfidadbs kmvb tkb bccbat fcprfppdgj up hbemgh mgh, lbamusb suppiy ds sbvbrbiy afgstrmdgbh, fc dgarbmsdgj kfusbprdabs. Xkus, tkby cmdi tf rbsfivb tkb kfusdgj mccfrhmldidty ardsds. Kfebfwgbrskdpmttmdgebgt ds mgftkbr aifsbiy rbimtbh pfidtdami afgabrg. Dgtrdjudgjiy, tkb bvdhbgab crferbabgt bepdrdami rbsbmrak sujjbsts tkmt oby pfidadbs tkmt mde tf dgarbmsbkfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt (b.j., tkb Efrtjmjb Dgtbrbst Hbhuatdfg dg tkb RQ fr Kbip-tf-

    1

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Luy dg tkb RO) emy gft, dg cmat, pfsdtdvbiy mccbat mjjr bjmtb kfebfwgbrskdp rmtbs mghemy bvbg ifwbr tkbe dg suppiy-afgstrmdgbh ifamtdfgs.= 

    Qwdtzbrimgh dg emgy rbspbats ds tkb afugtbrpmrt tf tkb RO. Dt ds fgb fc tkb efstpfidtdamiiy mgh cdsamiiy hbabgtrmidzbh afugtrdbs dg tkb wfrih wdtk m cibxdlib zfgdgj systbe

    mgh m ugdqub pfidtdami sbttdgj wdtk hdrbat hbefarmay mt mii ibvbis fc jfvbrgebgt0 cbhbrmi,rbjdfgmi (amgtfgs), mgh ifami (eugdadpmidtdbs). Zkdib kfusdgj mccfrhmldidty ds m afgabrgmefgj m crmatdfg fc ifwbr-dgafeb kfusbkfihs, tkb emdg kfusdgj-rbimtbh pfiday dssub dgtkb rbabgt pmst kms mrjumliy lbbg sprmwi‘gft sf euak urlmg sprmwi dg tkb imrjbradtdbs fc tkb afugtry ms m pkbgfebgfg tkmt afuih lb hbsardlbh ms ’rurmi sprmwi― dg tkbefrb tfurdstda efugtmdgfus mrbms. Zb mrjub tkmt tkb kfusdgj pfidadbs bgmatbh mrb, tf mimrjb bxtbgt, m hdrbat afgsbqubgab fc tkb hbjrbb fc cdsami hbabgtrmidzmtdfg mgh tkbdepibebgtbh imgh-usb pimggdgj systbe. Xkb oby pfiday cfr ’rurmi sprmwi afgtmdgebgt― dsm lmg fg sbafgh (dgvbstebgt) kfebs dg tfurdst mrbms dg pimab sdgab =1. Zb hdsausstkb dgtbghbh mgh ugdgtbghbh afgsbqubgabs fc tkds pfiday.

     Mgftkbr ugdqub akmrmatbrdstda fc Qwdtzbrimgh—s kfusdgj emrobt ds dts bxtrbebiy ifw

    kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb, stdii lbifw 8>%, hbspdtb m sifw lut stbmhy dgarbmsb fvbr tkb imstcbw hbamhbs mgh m stbbpbr dgarbmsb sdgab tkb bmriy =44>s. Lbamusb tkb ebhdmg vftbrdg Qwdtzbrimgh ds stdii m rbgtbr, tkb depibebgtbh pfidadbs mrb ugsurprdsdgjiy tditbh tfwmrhcmvfrdgj rbgtbrs. Xkb oby pfiday dg pimab, mdebh mt kbipdgj rbgtbrs, ds m edih cfre fc rbgtstmldidzmtdfg tkmt miifws imghifrhs tf rmdsb rbgts dc m tbgmgt akmgjbs fr dc sfeb spbadcdaafghdtdfgs mrb ebt suak ms mg dgarbmsb dg tkb efrtjmjb dgtbrbst rmtb fr m em`frrbgfvmtdfg ds amrrdbh fut. Zb hdsauss tkb vmrdfus ebrdts mgh hbebrdts fc tkds pfiday.

    Cdgmiiy, tkb RQ ds dgtbrbstdgj lbamusb pmrts fc tkb afugtry‘emdgiy tkb imrjb afmstmi’supbrstmr― adtdbs suak ms Ifs Mgjbibs, Qmg Crmgadsaf, Lfstfg, fr Gbw Tfro‘mrbafgcrfgtbh wdtk strfgj hbemgh prbssurbs mgh rdjdh imgh-usb afgtrfis. Ftkbr pmrts fctkb afugtry‘dgaiuhdgj tkb edhwbst mgh Xbxms‘kmvb imx imgh-usb rbjuimtdfgs. Xkdsugdqub sbttdgj miifws us tf tbst tkb kypftkbsds tkmt suppiy afgstrmdgts depfsbh ly rdjdhpimggdgj emob tkb kfusdgj suppiy aurvb dgbimstda mgh, tkus, kfusdgj sulsdhdbs‘suakms tkb Efrtjmjb Dgtbrbst Hbhuatdfg‘mrb ampdtmidzbh dgtf kdjkbr kfusb prdabs, fccsbttdgjtkb dgtbghbh bccbats fc tkb pfiday. Zb sueemrdzb bvdhbgab dg suppfrt fc tkdskypftkbsds.

    Zb prfabbh ms cfiifws. Cfr bmak fc tkb tkrbb afugtrdbs wb (d) rbvdbw tkb aurrbgt stmtusfc tkb kfusdgj emrobt mgh hbsardlb tkb emdg akmiibgjbs mgh rdsos cmadgj pfidayemobrs,(dd) hbsardlb tkb oby kfusdgj pfidadbs aurrbgtiy depibebgtbh, (ddd) hdsauss tkb pfidadbs—dgtbghbh hdstrdlutdfgmi bccbats mgh ftkbr fl`batdvbs, (dv) prfvdhb mg mgmiysds fc tkbebrdts mgh hbebrdts‘fctbg ugdgtbghbh afgsbqubgabs gft afgsdhbrbh lypfidayemobrs‘fc tkb oby pfidadbs, mgh (v) hdsauss tkb ibssfgs ibmrgbh crfe furmgmiysds fc tkb oby pfidadbs. Dg m cdgmi stbp, wb lrdgj tfjbtkbr tkb bvdhbgab crfe mii

    tkrbb afugtrdbs mgh prfvdhb m sygtkbsds.

    =  Fg tkb fgb kmgh, sulsdhdbs tf bxdstdgj fr prfspbatdvb kfebfwgbrs (suak ms tkb Efrtjmjb

    Dgtbrbst Hbhuatdfg fr Kbip-tf-Luy) ifwbr tkb afst fc fwgbr-faaupdbh kfusdgj. Fg tkb ftkbr kmgh, tkbsulsdhy-dghuabh hbemgh dgarbmsb ds idobiy tf rmdsb prdabs fc fwgbr-faaupdbh kfusdgj dg suppiyafgstrmdgbh ifamtdfgs, tkus dgarbmsdgj tkb afst fc kfebfwgbrskdp. Fgb edjkt bxpbat tkmt tkb gbt bccbatemy lb pfsdtdvb fr gbutrmi hbpbghdgj fg suppiy afghdtdfgs (d.b., hbpbghdgj fg wkbtkbr tkb sulsdhy dscuiiy ampdtmidzbh dgtf prdabs fr gft). Dg cmat, Kdilbr mgh Xurgbr (=8) futidgb m guelbr fc tkbfrbtdamiebakmgdses tkmt bxpimdg wky tkb gbt bccbat emy bvbg lb gbjmtdvb dg pimabs wdtk dgbimstda kfusdgj

    suppiy. Xkby misf prfvdhb bvdhbgab cfr tkb RQ afgsdstbgt wdtk tkb prfpfsdtdfg tkmt, dg suppiy afgstrmdgbhifamtdfgs, tkb depmat fc tkb sulsdhdbs fg kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt ds gbjmtdvb.

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    %? =8)

    Bafgfey (Adty)

    ^rdab/e dg %rbimtdvb tf RO

    (Ifghfg) (\mgo)

    \bgt/e dg %rbimtdvb tf RO

    (Ifghfg) (\mgo)

    Efgmaf =:8.=% (=) =>=.;% (=)

    Rgdtbh Odgjhfe (Ifghfg) =>>.>% (>.>% (

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Kfusdgj afsts dg tkb RO mrb gft fgiy kdjk dg mlsfiutb tbres lut misf rbimtdvb tfdgafebs. Afgvbgtdfgmiiy ebmsurbh ’kfusdgj mccfrhmldidty―‘ebhdmg kfusb prdab tfebhdmg dgafeb‘dg tkb Jrbmtbr Ifghfg Mrbm ds aurrbgtiy mt dts wfrst sdgab hmtmlbameb mvmdimlib. Xkb prdab-tf-dgafeb euitdpib dg tkb Jrbmtbr Ifghfg Mrbm dg =8wms ;.2. Xkb RO, ms m wkfib, wms sfebwkmt ibss ugmccfrhmlib wdtk m euitdpib fc 2.>(Hbefjrmpkdm =2).

    RO kfusb prdabs mrb gft fgiy bxtrmfrhdgmrdiy kdjk lut misf bxabptdfgmiiy vfimtdib. \bmikfusb prdab swdgjs dg tkb RO‘(Cdjurb =)‘wbrb sulstmgtdmiiy imrjbr hurdgj tkb imst cuiirbmi bstmtb ayaib (d.b., tkb upswdgj fc tkb =4;>s mgh tkb hfwgturg fc tkb =44>s) tkmgtkfsb dg tkb sdgjib-efst-vfimtdib ebtrfpfidtmg mrbm dg tkb RQ (Kdilbr mgh Sbrebuibg=3).

    Cdjurb =0 RO Kfusb ^rdab Dghbx (rbmi), RO JH^ pbr Ampdtm Dghbx (rbmi),mgh Afgst ruatdfg Dghbx (=434 5 =>>)

    JH^ 5 jrfss hfebstda prfhuat? K^D 5 Kfusb ^rdab Dghbx0 RO 5 Rgdtbh Odgjhfe.

    Qfurabs0 Mutkfrs— amiauimtdfgs lmsbh fg Gmtdfgwdhb. www.gmtdfgwdhb.af.uo/mlfut/kfusb-prdab-dghbx/hfwgifmh-hmtm#xtml0uo-sbrdbs (maabssbh =< Hbabelbr =2)? Fccdab cfr Gmtdfgmi Qtmtdstdas. www.fgs.jfv.uo/fgs/hmtmsbts-mgh-tmlibs/hmtm-sbibatfr.ktei6ahdh5DK[Z&hmtmsbt5uobm&tmlib-dh5[== (maabssbh =< Hbabelbr =2)? Hbpmrtebgt cfrAfeeugdtdbs mgh Ifami Jfvbrgebgt. www.jfv.uo/jfvbrgebgt/stmtdstdami-hmtm-sbts/idvb-tmlibs-fg-kfusb-ludihdgj

    (maabssbh =< Hbabelbr =2).

    Xkb aurrbgt kfusdgj mccfrhmldidty ardsds kms lbbg hbvbifpdgj sifwiy fvbr tkb imst 8>ybmrs. Kfusb prdab jrfwtk dg tkb RO kms lbbg cmstbr tkmg dg mgy ftkbr FBAH afugtryfvbr tkds pbrdfh. Cdjurb = diiustrmtbs tkb afugtry—s rbmi Kfusb ^rdab Dghbx (K^D) mgh rbmiJH^ lbtwbbg =4:8 mgh =8. RO kfusb prdabs mrb tfhmy efrb tkmg twdab ms kdjk, dgrbmi tbres, ms tkby wbrb dg =4:8. Xkb RO—s K^D, wkdak rfsb ly ==1% (crfe =>>% tf2%. Zdtkdgtkb RO, tkb prdab jrfwtk kms lbbg efst prfgfugabh dg Ifghfg0 tkb rmtdf fc Ifghfgkfusb prdabs tf mvbrmjb RO kfusb prdabs kms dgarbmsbh sulstmgtdmiiy sdgab tkb edh-=44>s. Ifghfg kfusdgj prdabs kmvb hdspimybh m stmjjbrdgj dgarbmsb dg tkb imst cbwybmrs. Dg =8, tkb Ifghfg K^D rbmakbh mg mii-tdeb kdjk vmiub fc 188% wdtk rbspbat tftkb =4:8 lmsb ybmr, futstrdppdgj tkb rbmi JH^ jrfwtk pbr ampdtm fc mlfut =8>%. Xkds

    3

    http://www.nationwide.co.uk/about/house-price-index/download-data%23xtab:uk-serieshttp://www.nationwide.co.uk/about/house-price-index/download-data%23xtab:uk-serieshttp://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=IHXW&dataset=ukea&table-id=X11http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=IHXW&dataset=ukea&table-id=X11http://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/live-tables-on-house-buildinghttp://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/live-tables-on-house-buildinghttp://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=IHXW&dataset=ukea&table-id=X11http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=IHXW&dataset=ukea&table-id=X11http://www.nationwide.co.uk/about/house-price-index/download-data%23xtab:uk-serieshttp://www.nationwide.co.uk/about/house-price-index/download-data%23xtab:uk-series

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    bxpimdgs wky kfusdgj ds efst ugmccfrhmlib dg Ifghfg mgh tkb sfutkbmst, bvbg wkbgkfihdgj bmrgdgjs afgstmgt.

    Hbspdtb rdsdgj rbmi dgafebs mgh sdjgdcdamgt pfpuimtdfg jrfwtk hrdvbg ly gbt deedjrmtdfgmgh hbspdtb strfgjiy jrfwdgj gfedgmi mgh rbmi kfusdgj prdabs, afgstruatdfg fc gbw

    pbremgbgt hwbiidgjs kms lbbg hbarbmsdgj hrmemtdamiiy sdgab tkb imtb =43>s, ibmhdgjtf m sulstmgtdmi kfusdgj skfrtcmii. Maafrhdgj tf tkb Hbpmrtebgt cfr Afeeugdtdbs mghIfami Jfvbrgebgt (HAIJ) (=2m), tkb RO ludit gbmriy 1;>,>>> gbw kfebs dg tkbcdsami ybmr fc =434, wkbg stmtdstdas lbjmg. Kfusdgj afgstruatdfg sulsbqubgtiy hbaidgbhugtdi dt cbii emrobhiy lbifw >,>>> crfe =44>‑=44= fgwmrhs. \bsdhbgtdmi afgstruatdfgrbmakbh m rbafrh ifw dg =< wdtk ibss tkmg =12,2=> gbw kfebs. Dg =1, cdjurbs wbrbfgiy sidjktiy kdjkbr mt =8>,41>, rbcibatdgj tkb typdami dgarbmsb dg kfusdgj afgstruatdfgmssfadmtbh wdtk mg bafgfeda rbafvbry. Ms diiustrmtbh dg Cdjurb =, lbtwbbg =4:8 mgh=1 kfusdgj afgstruatdfg cbii ly 2>% hbspdtb strfgjiy rdsdgj rbmi kfusb prdabs.

    Xkb bxtrbebiy kdjk RO kfusb prdabs, pmrtdauimriy dg Ifghfg mgh tkb sfutkbmst fc tkbafugtry, kmvb misf mccbatbh kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt. Kfebfwgbrskdp kms lbbg fg

    tkb rdsb sdgab Zfrih Zmr DD. Ms Cdjurb < diiustrmtbs, kfebfwgbrskdp misf dgarbmsbhemrobhiy hurdgj tkb =4;>s. Xkds amg lb emdgiy mttrdlutbh tf tkb sf-amiibh ’\djkt-tf-Luy― sakbeb dgtrfhuabh ly Emrjmrbt Xkmtakbr—s Afgsbrvmtdvb jfvbrgebgt dg =4;>. Mttkmt pfdgt ebrbiy 22.8% fc RO kfusbkfihs wbrb kfebfwgbrs, 11.=% wbrb sfadmirbgtbrs, mgh ==.8% rbgtbh prdvmtbiy. Xkb skmrb fc sfadmi rbgtbrs kms lbbg cmiidgjsdjgdcdamgtiy sdgab tkbg, wkdib tkb kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb kms tmobg tkb fppfsdtb hdrbatdfg.Xkb kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb afgtdgubh tf jrfw hurdgj tkb =44>s mgh dt rbmakbh dts pbmo dg>< wdtk 34.3%. Mt tkmt pfdgt .4% mgh 4.;% fc hwbiidgjs wbrb sfadmiiy mgh prdvmtbiyrbgtbh, rbspbatdvbiy. Qdgab >

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    rmtb, kms lbbg stmlib hurdgj tkb imst hbamhb, rmgjdgj lbtwbbg 4 jiflmi cdgmgadmi ardsds. Zkmt ds pbrkmps efrb surprdsdgj ds tkbcmat tkmt tkb rbsdhbgtdmi vmamgay rmtb ds aurrbgtiy sulstmgtdmiiy kdjkbr dg tkb RO tkmg dgQwdtzbrimgh, hbspdtb m emssdvb kfusdgj skfrtcmii dg tkb RO mgh m edgfr kfusdgjafgstruatdfg lffe dg Qwdtzbrimgh dg rbabgt ybmrs. Xkds afuih, dg pmrt, lb hrdvbg ly tkbcmat tkmt tkb RO, dg afgtrmst tf Qwdtzbrimgh, afgtmdgs guebrfus strujjidgj mgh hbaidgdgjadtdbs (suak ms Idvbrpffi, Limaopffi, mgh Qughbrimgh) wdtk stmjgmtdgj fr hbaidgdgjpfpuimtdfgs mgh, tkus, afepmrmliy wbmo kfusdgj hbemgh, idobiy amusdgj sfeb kfusbstf lb bepty. Dg pmrt, dt afuih misf lb hrdvbg ly tkb strdat ifami pimggdgj afgstrmdgts dg tkbRO0 dg pimabs wdtk strdat rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts, tkb suppiy fc gbw kfusdgj, mgh tkbakmrmatbrdstdas fc tkb bxdstdgj stfao mrb ibss wbii mhmptbh tf tkb struaturb fc hbemgh cfrkfusdgj akmrmatbrdstdas mgh, tkus, emy lb efrb idobiy tf stmy bepty. Qbb Akbskdrb,Kdilbr, mgh Ofstbr (=2) cfr bvdhbgab fg tkb imttbr.

    4? Lmrobr >1, >8, >3?Akbskdrb >4 mgh =8? Akbskdrb, Gmtkmg, mgh Fvbremg =8? Kdilbr =2m? Kdilbrmgh Sbrebuibg => mgh =3? Fvbremg =s), strdat afgtrfis fg kbdjkt, mgh imao fc cdsami dgabgtdvbs tf hbvbifp mt tkb ifamiibvbi. Xkb systbe—s rdjdhdty ds bxmabrlmtbh ly tkb usb fc sf-amiibh ’hbvbifpebgt

    8  Xkb gbjmtdvb bccbats fc tkb RO—s pimggdgj systbe mrb gft afgcdgbh tf kfusdgj. Akbskdrb mgh Kdilbr(>;) prfvdhb bvdhbgab tkmt cdreiy idgos rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts tf tkb bxtrmfrhdgmrdiy bxpbgsdvb prdab fcRO fccdab spmab. Akbskdrb, Kdilbr, mgh Ompimgds (=2) hbefgstrmtb tkmt ’Xfwg Abgtrb Cdrst― pfidadbs dgBgjimgh depfsbh m ifss fc futput fc 1

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    afgtrfi―. Xkds emobs mii hbadsdfgs mlfut wkbtkbr hbvbifpebgt amg jf mkbmh sul`bat tfifami pfidtdami amiauimtdfgs mgh, tkbrbcfrb, efrb ugabrtmdg. Hbvbifpebgt afgtrfi misfcmadidtmtbs ’gft dg ey lmaoymrh― (GDELT) lbkmvdfr.

    Bmriy bepdrdami bvdhbgab ly Kmii bt mi. (=4:1) sujjbsts tkmt tkb RO pimggdgj

    systbe emy kmvb mirbmhy depfsbh ldghdgj afgstrmdgts fg afgstruatdfg ms bmriyms tkb lbjdggdgj fc tkb =4:>s. Zkdib rdjfrfus bepdrdami bvdhbgab fg tkds pfdgt dsimaodgj, dt ds kdjkiy pimusdlib tkmt tkb jrbbg-lbit afgstrmdgts‘wkdak mccbat mii em`fr ROadtdbs‘stmrtbh tf lbafeb ldghdgj mrfugh =4:>, wkbg jrfwdgj hbemgh cfr kfusdgj, dgbccbat, kdt tkb jrbbg-lbit lfughmrdbs. Zkbg tkds kmppbgbh, GDELT kfebfwgbrs (mghprdvmtb imghifrhs) rbsdhdgj gbmr jrbbg lbits stmrtbh tf fppfsb gbw afgstruatdfg dg tkbdrifami mutkfrdtdbs, bccbatdvbiy depfsdgj jrmhumiiy efrb sbvbrb ’kfrdzfgtmi― afgstrmdgts fgafgstruatdfg. Xkds, dg afg`ugatdfg wdtk vmrdfus ’vbrtdami― afgstrmdgts (d.b., ludihdgj kbdjktrbstrdatdfgs fr sf-amiibh ’vdbw afrrdhfrs―:), jrmhumiiy emhb kfusdgj suppiy ibss mgh ibssprdab bimstda. Xkus, ms tkb hbemgh cfr kfusdgj afgtdgubh tf jrfw, bspbadmiiy dg tkbJrbmtbr Ifghfg Mrbm (tkb RO—s bafgfeda pfwbrkfusb), rbmi kfusb prdabs stmrtbh tfrdsb hrmstdamiiy, mgh afeeutbrs, hbspbrmtb cfr mccfrhmlib kfusdgj, stmrtbh tf ’`uep― tkb

    jrbbg lbits.

    Dgarbmsdgjiy ldghdgj pimggdgj afgstrmdgts mrb tkb idobiy bxpimgmtdfg wky kfusdgjafgstruatdfg guelbrs kmvb lbbg dg afgtdgubh hbaidgb sdgab tkb imtb =43>s. Dg =4:>, tkbRO ludit aifsb tf 1;>,>>> gbw kfebs, miefst tkrbb tdebs ms emgy ms tfhmy. Dg tkfsbhmys tkbrb wbrb cbwbr afgstrmdgts fg wkbrb gbw kfusdgj afuih lb ludit. ^rdab sdjgmisstdii prfvdhbh depfrtmgt dgcfremtdfg tf hbvbifpbrs, mrakdtbats, mgh ludihbrs fg wkbrbmgh kfw euak tf ludih. Xfhmy, tkb pimggdgj systbe afepibtbiy djgfrbs prdab sdjgmismgh bccbatdvbiy trdbs tf prbvbgt rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt gbmriy mgywkbrb, pmrtdauimriywkbrb dt wfuih lb mttrmatdvb tf ludih. Dc prdab sdjgmis wbrb tmobg dgtf maafugt, efrbkfusdgj wfuih lb ludit dg mttrmatdvb mrbms, wdtk efrb kdjk-rdsb ludihdgjs dg tfwg abgtbrs,mgh efrb sdgjib-cmediy kfebs curtkbr fut (Kdilbr =2a).

    Kdilbr mgh Sbrebuibg (=3) prfvdhb tkb mrjumliy efst rdjfrfus bafgfebtrda bvdhbgabtf hmtb cfr Bgjimgh fg tkb depmat fc ifami imgh-usb pimggdgj rbstrdatdvbgbss mgh ftkbrtypbs fc suppiy afgstrmdgts fg ifami kfusb prdabs. Zkmt tkb stuhy cdghs ds tkmt ifami-bmrgdgjs skfaos ibmh tf euak jrbmtbr ifami kfusb prdab dgarbmsbs dg sbvbrbiy pimggdgj-afgstrmdgbh ifamtdfgs. Xkb stuhy prfvdhbs bvdhbgab tkmt amg lb dgtbrprbtbh dg m amusmisbgsb0 rbjuimtfry rbstrdatdvbgbss amusmiiy mccbats kfusb prdabs. Zkdib rbjuimtfryafgstrmdgts mppbmr tf lb ldghdgj bvbrywkbrb, tkb bccbats mrb stmrobst dg Ifghfg mgh tkbsfutkbmst, wkbrb rbcusmi rmtbs (d.b., tkb prfpfrtdfg fc pimggdgj mppidamtdfgs tkmt mrbrbcusbh ly ifami pimggdgj mutkfrdtdbs) mrb kdjkbst mgh imgh-usb pimggdgj rbstrdatdfgsefst ldghdgj.; Kfusdgj ds gft lbdgj ludit dg tkb efst hbsdrmlib mrbms, wkbrb hbemgh

    :

      Sdbw afrrdhfrs, ly ebmgs fc idedtdgj tkb kbdjkt fc gbmrly ludihdgjs, mde tf prbsbrvb mg ugflstruatbhvdbw tf pimabs hbbebh fc pmrtdauimr vmiub. Ifghfg—s Qt. ^mui—s Amtkbhrmi, cfr bxmepib, ds prftbatbh lysdx vdbw afrrdhfrs depfsdgj afgstrmdgts fg afgstruatdfg dg imrjb pmrts fc Abgtrmi Ifghfg. Fgb suak vdbwafrrdhfr‘arbmtbh dg =:=>‘depfsbs m vdbw crfe Odgj Kbgry SDDD—s Efugh dg \dakefgh ^mro tf Qt.^mui—s Amtkbhrmi mt m hdstmgab fc fvbr => edibs (=3 odifebtbrs). Xkb vdbw crmebs tkb amtkbhrmi tkrfujk mspbadmi jmp dg m kbhjb, hfwg m spbadmiiy emdgtmdgbh aibmr mvbgub mgh tkbg mii tkb wmy marfss Ifghfg.Xkds pmrtdauimr vdbw, stdii bgcfrabh tfhmy, kms sbvbrbiy idedtbh hbvbifpebgt mrfugh Idvbrpffi QtrbbtQtmtdfg‘tkb tkdrh efst crbqubgtbh trmdg stmtdfg dg tkb RO mgh fgb fc tkb efst abgtrmi mgh lusy mrbms dgIfghfg.

    ;  Kdilbr mgh \flbrt-Gdafuh (=1) prfvdhb m tkbfrbtdami mrjuebgt cfr wky gft mii rbjdfgs mgh ifamimutkfrdtdbs mrb bqumiiy rbstrdatdvb. Xkby mrjub tkmt imgh-usb rbstrdatdfgs lbgbcdt fwgbrs fc hbvbifpbhimgh vdm dgarbmsdgj prdabs lut kurt fwgbrs fc ughbvbifpbh imgh vdm dgarbmsdgj hbvbifpebgt afsts. Dgsuak m sbttdgj, efrb hbsdrmlib ifamtdfgs mrb efrb hbvbifpbh mgh, ms m afgsbqubgab fc pfidtdamibafgfey cfrabs, efrb rbjuimtbh. Xrmgsimtdgj tkds tkbfrbtdami mrjuebgt tf tkb dgstdtutdfgmi sbttdgj fc tkb

    RO, tkds depidbs tkmt, dg tkb wbmitkdbst mgh efst hbsdrmlib ifami mutkfrdtdbs wdtk tkb strfgjbst hbemghprbssurbs (emdgiy dg tkb Jrbmtbr Ifghfg Mrbm), kfebfwgbrs mgh prdvmtb imghifrhs kmvb efst mssbts tf

    4

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    prbssurb ds jrbmtbst, lut dg tkfsb ifami mutkfrdtdbs wkbrb dt ds stdii cbmsdlib tf jbt tkbjrbbg idjkt cfr hbvbifpebgt. Fctbg tkbsb mrb ifami mutkfrdtdbs wdtk kdjk ugbepifyebgtrmtbs, wkdak kmvb bafgfeda dgabgtdvbs tf pbredt ifami hbvbifpebgt0 afgstruatdfgarbmtbs ifami `fls, dc fgiy tbepfrmrdiy.

    Xf jdvb m sbgsb fc tkb bafgfeda emjgdtuhb fc tkb bccbats, maafrhdgj tf tkb bstdemtbs dgKdilbr mgh Sbrebuibg (=3), kfusb prdabs wfuih kmvb rdsbg ly mlfut =>>% ibss dgrbmi tbres lbtwbbg =4:8 mgh >; dc, kypftkbtdamiiy, mii rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts wbrbrbefvbh. \befvdgj mii rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts ds fc afursb gbdtkbr rbmidstda gfrhbsdrmlib. Efrb prmjemtdamiiy, dc tkb sfutkbmst (RO—s rbjdfgs wdtk tkb efst sbvbrbpimggdgj afgstrmdgts) kmh tkb rbjuimtfry rbstrdatdvbgbss fc tkb gfrtkbmst fc Bgjimgh (tkbibmst rbstrdatdvb RO rbjdfg, lut stdii kdjkiy rbstrdatdvb dg mg dgtbrgmtdfgmi afepmrdsfg), dtskfusb prdabs wfuih kmvb lbbg rfujkiy ; mgh‘lmsbh fg cfrbamstbhtrbghs‘mlfut 1>% ifwbr dg =2.

    Kdilbr mgh Sbrebuibg (=3) misf cdgh tkmt rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts mrb gft tkb fgiyafgstrmdgts tkmt mrb ldghdgj. Xkbrb mrb misf afgstrmdgts hub tf samradty fc hbvbifpmlib

    imgh. Xkbsb mrb afgcdgbh tf kdjkiy urlmgdzbh mrbms. Kfwbvbr, dg tkbsb mrbms‘efstprfgfugabh dg tkb Jrbmtbr Ifghfg Mrbm‘tkb bccbat ds imrjb, dg tkb sbgsb tkmt, hub tfsamradty afgstrmdgts, kfusb prdabs dgarbmsb efrb strfgjiy dg rbspfgsb tf jdvbg pfsdtdvbhbemgh skfaos. ^ut hdccbrbgtiy, kfusb prdabs dg Ifghfg wfuih stdii lb kdjk ly wfrihstmghmrhs dc tkb vmrdfus rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts wbrb rbimxbh. Xfpfjrmpkdami afgstrmdgtswbrb misf cfugh tf lb ldghdgj lut tkb bccbat fc tkbsb afgstrmdgts wms qumgtdtmtdvbiy ibssebmgdgjcui, pbrkmps lbamusb Bgjimgh ds imrjbiy m cimt afugtry wdtk cbw sifpbs tkmtrbmiiy kdghbr afgstruatdfg sbvbrbiy.

    Xkb RO pimggdgj systbe misf kms depfrtmgt hdstrdlutdfgmi bccbats. Xkb jrfups fc tkbyfugj, mgh gft sf yfugj, wfuih-lb luybrs mrb tkb flvdfus ifsbrs fc tkb afgstrmdgtsdepfsbh ly tkb RO pimggdgj systbe. Kfwbvbr, yfugj kfeb-fwgdgj cmedidbs mrb misfifsbrs fc tkb lrfobg systbe, mitkfujk tkby fctbg hfg—t rbmidzb dt. Xkby ifsb fut lbamusbtkby (d) idvb dg mrtdcdadmiiy armepbh kfusdgj mgh (dd) mrb dgarbmsdgjiy prdabh fut crfeefvdgj tf m imrjbr kfeb tkmt wfuih lb efrb mhbqumtb cfr tkbdr jrfwdgj cmediy. Xrmhdgjup lbafebs dgarbmsdgjiy hdccdauit mgh tkb prflibe ds emhb wfrsb ly tkb RO QtmepHuty Imgh Xmx tkmt kbmvdiy tmxbs kfusdgj trmgsmatdfgs (Kdilbr =2a? Kdilbr mghIyytdoèdgbg =2).

    Bihbriy kfebfwgbrs afuih lb mrjubh tf lb tkb wdggbrs fc tkb systbe lbamusb tkbdrkfusbs kmvb bxpbrdbgabh trbebghfus (ugtmxbh) ampdtmi jmdgs sdgab tkb imtb =43>s mghbmriy =4:>s mgh tkby typdamiiy gf ifgjbr idvb dg armepbh kfusdgj sdgab tkbdr akdihrbgkmvb efvbh fut. Dc mgytkdgj, jdvbg tkb rbhuabh kfusbkfih sdzb, tkby emy wbii gfwfvbr-afgsueb kfusdgj mgh emy wbii kmvb jmrhbgs tff ldj tf emdgtmdg.

    Xkb trfulib crfe tkb pbrspbatdvb fc bihbriy kfebfwgbrs ds tkmt tkby amggft rbmiiymaabss tkbdr kfusdgj wbmitk ugibss tkby sbii tkbdr kfeb‘m afstiy mgh lurhbgsfebbghbmvfr bspbadmiiy cfr tkb bihbriy‘mgh bdtkbr hfwg-sdzb fr efvb tf m akbmpbrifamtdfg, tkbrbly fctbg kmvdgj tf jdvb up tkbdr ifami sfadmi tdbs. Bqudty rbibmsb (dg RQpmrimgab0 rbvbrsb efrtjmjbs) emy rbprbsbgt mg mitbrgmtdvb fptdfg cfr bihbriykfebfwgbrs tf efgbtdzb tkbdr kfusdgj wbmitk. Kfwbvbr, maafrhdgj tf Lurjbss, Efgo,mgh Zdiidmes (=

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    ms m pbrabdvbh imao fc trmgspmrbgay fc tkb dgstruebgts, afgabrgs mlfut tkb qumidty fctkb cdgmgadmi mhvdab, hrmwlmaos idgobh tf afgabrgs mlfut kmvdgj tf efvb fut fc tkbprfpbrty, mgh mlsbgab fc ifgj-tbre pimggdgj cfr fih mjb. ^rdvmtb rbgtdgj ds gft m lbttbrfptdfg cfr bihbriy kfebfwgbrs lbamusb dt ds sdedimriy afstiy (tf fwgdgj) mgh ibjmiprftbatdfg fc rbgtbrs dg tkb RO ds pffr.

    Kbgab, tkb fgiy rbmi wdggbrs fc tkb lrfobg RO pimggdgj systbe mrb mrjumliy tkfsbbihbriy kfebfwgbrs wkf mrb prbpmrbh tf sbii tkbdr kfusb, pfaobt tkb prfabbhs, mghefvb tf m afugtry wdtk akbmpbr kfusdgj. Cfr tkfsb wkf stmy put, dt ds tkb akdihrbg wkfwdii bvbgtumiiy lbgbcdt. Xkb akdihrbg fc rbgtbrs ifsb fut. Xkb pimggdgj systbe, tkus,abebgts wbmitk dgbqumidty (Kdilbr =2a).

    ybmrs. Dg afgtrmst tf rbmi dgafebs, rbmi kfusb prdabs mgh,prbsuemliy, rbmi prdvmtb rbgts4 kmvb jrfwg cmstbr dg tkb RO tkmg dg mgy ftkbr FBAHafugtry (Kdilbr mgh Sbrebuibg =3). Bspbadmiiy yfugjbr mgh ifwbr-dgafebkfusbkfihs strujjib tf jbt tkbdr cbbt fg tkb kfusdgj imhhbr.

    Xkb oby kfusdgj pfidadbs tkmt wbrb mhfptbh dg tkb pmst mgh, bspbadmiiy tkfsb tkmt wbrbdepibebgtbh dg rbabgt ybmrs, gft surprdsdgjiy, tkus rbcibat tkb styidzbh cmat tkmt kfusdgjmccfrhmldidty kms lbbg tkb oby afgabrg fc vftbrs mgh pfidtdadmgs fc mii strdpbs. Lbifw wblrdbciy hdsauss tkb RO—s oby pfidadbs tkmt kmvb lbbg depibebgtbh wdtk tkb dgtbgt tfmhhrbss tkb mccfrhmldidty ardsds. Zb hdsauss tkbdr fl`batdvbs, ms wbii ms tkbdr ebrdts mghhbebrdts.

    m) Qfadmi kfusdgj

    Xkb ldrtk ybmr fc sfadmi kfusdgj dg tkb RO jfbs lmao tf =4=4. Xkds ds tkb ybmr wkbgifami mutkfrdtdbs (afugadis) kmh lbbg rbqudrbh ly imw tf prfvdhb tkb sf-amiibh ’afugadikfusdgj― (misf amiibh ’afugadi bstmtbs―) (Zkbbibr =2). Ifami mutkfrdtdbs kmh lbbg tkbemdg prfvdhbr fc sfadmi kfusdgj dg tkb RO ugtdi >:. Dg >;, kfusdgj mssfadmtdfgs => futstrdppbh ifami afugadis cfr tkb cdrst tdeb tf prfvdhb tkb em`frdty fc sfadmi kfebs dg tkbRO.

    Frdjdgmiiy, tkb mde fc afugadi kfusdgj wms tf prfvdhb hbabgt kfusdgj cfr mrey rbarudts.Kfwbvbr, tkb mjb fc sfadmi kfusdgj fgiy truiy mrrdvbh mctbr Zfrih Zmr DD, wkbg tkbImlfur Jfvbrgebgt ludit efrb tkmg fgb ediidfg kfebs, ;>% fc wkdak wbrb afugadikfebs, imrjbiy tf rbpimab tkfsb hbstrfybh hurdgj tkb wmr. Xkb kfusb-ludihdgj lffe

    afgtdgubh tkrfujkfut tkb =42>s lut gbmr tkb bgh fc tkb hbamhb tkb bepkmsds skdctbhtfwmrhs siue aibmrmgab (Zkbbibr =2). Ly tkb bmriy =4:>s, tkb hfwgsdhbs fc sfadmikfusdgj lbameb efrb vdsdlib. Dg tkb wfrhs fc Zkbbibr (=2)0

    Ly tkb bmriy =4:>s, tkb afgarbtb wmiowmys mgh "strbbts dg tkb soy" tkmt kmhfgab sbbebh sf prdstdgb mgh cuturdstda, wbrb lbafedgj jrde kmvbgs fc hbamymgh imwibssgbss. Mgh tkbrb wms m pfwbrcui sebii fc afrruptdfg bemgmtdgj crfesfeb tfwg kmiis ms tkb afsy rbimtdfgskdp lbtwbbg ifami pfidtdadmgs mgh tkbdr

    4  M jffh tdeb-sbrdbs fg rbgts ds gft pulidaiy mvmdimlib.

    =>Kfusdgj mssfadmtdfgs mrb prdvmtb, gfg-prfcdt emodgj frjmgdzmtdfgs tkmt prfvdhb ifw-afst kfusdgj cfrkfusbkfihs dg gbbh fc m kfeb. Xkby kmvb lbbg fpbrmtdgj mg dgarbmsdgj skmrb fc sfadmi kfusdgj

    prfpbrtdbs dg tkb RO sdgab tkb =4:>s. Mitkfujk cfremiiy dghbpbghbgt fc tkb jfvbrgebgt, kfusdgjmssfadmtdfgs mrb rbjuimtbh ly tkb stmtb mgh rbabdvb pulida cughdgj.

    ==

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    crdbghs dg ludihdgj mgh mrakdtbaturb wms imdh lmrb, mifgj wdtk tkb skfhhystmghmrh fc emgy fc tkb "systbe-ludit" kfebs tkby kmh arbmtbh. Dt wms mjmdgsttkds lmaohrfp tkmt "rdjkt tf luy" _hdsaussbh lbifwU lbjmg tf tmob fcc, wdtk tkbguelbr fc afugadi kfusbs sfih dg Bgjimgh jfdgj up crfe :,>>> dg =4:> tf gbmriy83,>>> dg =4:3 mjrbbebgts―, wkdakrbqudrb prdvmtb-sbatfr hbvbifpbrs tf fccbr ’mccfrhmlib kfusdgj― ms m afghdtdfg fcfltmdgdgj pimggdgj pbredssdfg. Xkds pfiday kms sdedimr mhvbrsb bccbats tf sfadmi kfusdgjdg tkb sbgsb tkmt tkb hbemgh cfr suak sulsdhdzbh kfusdgj cmr futstrdps suppiy.

    =

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    l) \djkt-tf-Luy

    Xkb hfwgturg fc sfadmi kfusdgj lbjmg dg =4;>, wkbg Emrjmrbt Xkmtakbr dgtrfhuabh’\djkt-tf-Luy―. Dg lrdbc, tkb pfiday miifws sfadmi tbgmgts tf purakmsb tkbdr kfebs mt msdjgdcdamgtiy sulsdhdzbh prdab, wdtk tkb bccbat tkmt sfeb fc tkb lbst sfadmi kfusdgj stfao

    efvbh crfe sfadmiiy-rbgtbh tf prdvmtbiy-fwgbh. \djkt-tf-Luy ds m aruadmi cmatfr kbipdgjtf bxpimdg tkb sdjgdcdamgt rdsb dg kfebfwgbrskdp crfe =4;> ugtdi >). Kfwbvbr, tkbrb ds misf bvdhbgab sujjbstdgj tkmt (ibvbrmjbh)kfebfwgbrskdp depmdrs tkb imlfr emrobt (cfr bxmepib, Limgakcifwbr mgh Fswmih =1)fr mhvbrsbiy mccbats bgtrbprbgburskdp (Lrmaob, Kdilbr, mgh Qdivm =2). Qf, dt ds gftaibmr wkbtkbr tkb \djkt-tf-Luy sulsdhy tf kfusdgj mssfadmtdfg tbgmgts‘wkdakbssbgtdmiiy rmghfeiy lbgbcdts sfeb ifwbr-dgafeb kfusbkfihs‘ds `ustdcdmlib crfe msfadmi wbicmrb pfdgt fc vdbw.

    Qbafgh, tkb pfiday depfsbs sdjgdcdamgt afsts upfg tkb tmx pmybr. Xkds ds lbamusbkfusdgj mssfadmtdfgs rbabdvb pulida cughdgj? tkby prbsuemliy eust lb afepbgsmtbhcfr tkbdr ifssbs. Ftkbrwdsb, \djkt-tf-Luy wfuih sdjgdcdamgtiy kmre kfusdgj mssfadmtdfgsmgh bghmgjbr tkbdr mldidty tf cdgmgab gbw kfebs, wkdak wfuih bccbatdvbiy hbarbmsbkfusdgj suppiy.

    Cdgmiiy, wkdib bxtbghdgj \djkt-tf-Luy wdii kbip tkb sbibatdvb jrfup fc tbgmgts fc kfusdgjmssfadmtdfgs, tkb pfiday wdii gft sfivb tkb mccfrhmldidty ardsds cfr tkb rbst fc tkbpfpuimtdfg. Dc mgytkdgj, dt ds idobiy tf emob dt wfrsb, bvbg dc tkb mldidty fc kfusdgjmssfadmtdfgs tf cdgmgab gbw kfebs ds ugmccbatbh. Xkds ds cfr twf rbmsfgs0 Cdrst, mtrmgsdtdfg crfe kfusdgj mssfadmtdfg tbgmgt tf kfebfwgbr gbdtkbr mccbats tftmi kfusdgjhbemgh gfr tftmi kfusdgj suppiy, sf hfbs gft arbmtb mgy gbw kfebs. Qbafgh, tkbdgabgtdvb fc m afgvbrtbh kfebfwgbr tf fppfsb gbw afgstruatdfg ds idobiy euak imrjbrtkmg tkmt fc tkb dhbgtdami pbrsfg ms m tbgmgt. Dg mjjrbjmtb, tkds wdii emob ludihdgj gbwkfebs bvbg efrb hdccdauit (Kdilbr mgh \flbrt-Gdafuh =1) mgh wdii, tkus, dc mgytkdgj,

    maabibrmtb tkb kfusdgj mccfrhmldidty ardsds.

    a) Kbip-tf-Luy

    Xkb sf amiibh ’Kbip-tf-Luy― pfiday wms dgtrfhuabh dg =1. Xkb mde fc tkb sakbeb‘ mrjumliy tkb cimjskdp kfusdgj pfiday fc tkb prbvdfus afmidtdfg jfvbrgebgt‘kms lbbg tfstdeuimtb kfusdgj hbemgh (Jfv.uo =2). Xkb Kbip-tf-Luy sakbeb afgsdsts fc cfurdgstruebgts0 bqudty ifmgs, efrtjmjb jumrmgtbbs, skmrbh fwgbrskdp, mgh m ’gbw luy―sakbeb tkmt miifws luybrs tf purakmsb m gbwiy-ludit kfeb wdtk m hbpfsdt fc fgiy 2% fctkb purakmsb prdab. Xkb prfeftbrs fc tkb pfiday kfpbh tkmt tkb dgarbmsb dg hbemghwfuih trmgsimtb dgtf gbw kfusdgj lbdgj suppidbh mgh kdjkbr kfebfwgbrskdpmttmdgebgt.

    =1

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Qfeb sdepib styidzbh cmats, kfwbvbr, amst sbrdfus hfult fg tkds fptdedstda vdbw. Kbip-tf-Luy mppbmrs tf kmvb kdghbrbh pbfpib tf luy. Xf diiustrmtb tkds, dg tkb ybmr cfiifwdgjtkb mggfugabebgt fc Kbip-tf-Luy, lbtwbbg =1]< mgh =8]>,8>> mgh m ludihdgj lffe cmdibh tf bebrjb.

    Xkb styidzbh cmat tkmt efrtjmjb sulsdhdbs emy arbmtb m kfusb-prdab lffe, tkushdsafurmjdgj kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt, rmtkbr tkmg stdeuimtdgj dt, ds afgsdstbgt wdtkbvdhbgab crfe tkb RQ. Kdilbr mgh Xurgbr (=8) sujjbst tkmt tkbrb ds fgiy m vbry wbmoidgo mt lbst lbtwbbg efrtjmjb sulsdhdbs mgh kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt marfss tkbRQ. Xkby hfauebgt tkmt dg tdjktiy-rbjuimtbh ebtrfpfidtmg mrbms (wkdak emy lb efstafepmrmlib wdtk tdjktiy-afgtmdgbh RO adtdbs) tkb sulsdhdbs kmvb m gbjmtdvbbccbat fg kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt lbamusb tkb prdab bccbat‘tkrfujk dgarbmsbhhbemgh‘efrb tkmg fccsbts tkb dgafeb bccbat crfe tkb tmx hbhuatdfg. Xkby misf cdghtkmt dg ibss-rbjuimtbh ebtrfpfidtmg mrbms (efrb afepmrmlib tf sprmwidgj Qwdss adtdbs),sulsdhdbs hf kmvb m pfsdtdvb bccbat fg kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt, lut fgiy cfr kdjkbr-dgafeb jrfups.

     Ms futidgbh dg tkb prbvdfus sbatdfg, tkbrb ds ifgjstmghdgj bvdhbgab hfauebgtdgj tkmtkfusdgj suppiy dg tkb RO ds dgarbhdliy ugrbspfgsdvb tf hbemgh skfaos, dg imrjb pmrt,lbamusb fc mg bxtrmfrhdgmrdiy dgcibxdlib pimggdgj systbe. Afgsdstbgt wdtk tkds, m rbimtbhstuhy cdghs tkmt abgtrmi jfvbrgebgt jrmgts dg tkb RO mrb rfujkiy cuiiy ampdtmidzbh dgtfkfusb prdabs, d.b., tkb prbsbgt vmiub fc tkb akmgjb dg tkb jrmgt miifamtdfg rfujkiybqumis tkb akmgjb dg kfusb prdab (Kdilbr, Iyytdoèdgbg, mgh Sbrebuibg ==). Xkb bccbatfc Kbip-tf-Luy, wkdak misf wfros tkrfujk stdeuimtdgj tkb hbemgh sdhb, amg tkus lbbxpbatbh misf tf lbafeb cuiiy ampdtmidzbh, afgsdstbgt wdtk tkb flsbrvbh bxtrmfrhdgmryprdab dgarbmsb dg Ifghfg mctbr tkb dgtrfhuatdfg fc tkb pfiday.

     Mpmrt crfe gft makdbvdgj dts emdg dgtbghbh fl`batdvb, tkb pfiday kms m guelbr fcmhhdtdfgmi hrmwlmaos. Cdrst, tmxbs mrb gbbhbh tf cdgmgab tkb Kbip-tf-Luy sakbebs mghtkbsb kmvb m hbmhwbdjkt ifss‘m purb wbicmrb ifss tf sfadbty. Qbafgh, tkb sakbeb kmsarbmtbh m systbeda rdso dg tkmt tkb jfvbrgebgt (fr pbrkmps efrb maaurmtbiy, tkbtmxpmybr) mssuebs efst fc tkb rdsos mssfadmtbh wdtk tkb jumrmgtbb sakbebs. Xkbrbemdgdgj rdso ds mssuebh ly tkb ’emrjdgmi kfebluybrs―, tkfsb wkf afuih gft fltmdgifmgs dg tkb mlsbgab fc tkb sakbeb. Xkdrh, tkb pfiday emy kmvb ughbsdrmlibhdstrdlutdfgmi afgsbqubgabs. Xkb lbgbcdadmrdbs fc tkb sakbeb mrb bxdstdgjkfebfwgbrs, wkf lbgbcdt crfe tkb ampdtmi jmdgs. Cdrst tdeb-luybrs wkf tmob up tkbsakbeb emy gft lb lbttbr fcc, lbamusb tkb prdab dgarbmsb, qudtb pimusdliy, fccsbts tkbprbsbgt vmiub fc tkb sulsdhy tkby rbabdvb. Efrbfvbr, tkby dgarbmsb tkbdr cdgmgadmiibvbrmjb lbyfgh wkmt tkby afuih hf wdtkfut Kbip-tf-Luy? tkby tkus bxpfsb tkbesbivbstf m jrbmtbr rdso fc hbcmuitdgj. Zfuih-lb-luybrs wkf mrb hdsafurmjbh tf purakmsb m

    kfeb, ms m afgsbqubgab fc tkb pfiday-dghuabh prdab dgarbmsbs, misf ifsb fut lbamusbtkby stdii cdgmgab tkb pfiday ms tmx pmybrs. Cfurtk, dgtrfhuadgj tkb sakbeb ds cmdriystrmdjktcfrwmrh. Kfwbvbr, wdtkhrmwdgj dt emy pfsb m tkrbmt tf tkb emarfbafgfey. Xkdsds lbamusb m wdtkhrmwmi wdii arbmtb sfeb flvdfus (pbrabdvbh) ifsbrs mgh wdii idobiy misfkmvb mg mhvbrsb bccbat fg kfusb prdabs, bspbadmiiy dc tkb wdtkhrmwmi afdgadhbs wdtk mgbafgfeda hfwgturg tkmt cfrabs tkb jfvbrgebgt tf rbvdbw dts afstiy spbghdgj prfjrmes.Xkbrb mrb m guelbr fc curtkbr afgabrgs wdtk Kbip-tf-Luy mgh rbimtbh sakbebs tkmt mrbhbsdjgbh tf stdeuimtb kfusdgj hbemgh. Xkbsb mrb hdsaussbh dg Kdilbr (=1, =2l,mgh cfrtkafedgj).

    ==

      kttp0//www.gmtdfgwdhb.af.uo/mlfut/kfusb-prdab-dghbx/hfwgifmh-hmtm#tml0Hfwgifmhhmtm (maabssbh =

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    h) Kfusdgj-rbimtbh tmx pfidadbs

    Kfusdgj-rbimtbh tmxbs amg kmvb depfrtmgt bccbats fg kfusdgj mccfrhmldidty, bspbadmiiy dgm sbttdgj wdtk m rdjdh pimggdgj rbjdeb. Xkds ds lbamusb, dg suppiy afgstrmdgbh mrbms,kdjkbr (ifwbr) tmxbs idobiy kmvb tkb bccbat fc lbdgj ampdtmidzbh dgtf ifwbr (kdjkbr)

    prfpbrty prdabs. Mgy tmx-rbimtbh pfiday rbcfres fujkt tf lb afgsdhbrbh dg tkds idjkt.Lbifw, wb lrdbciy hdsauss tkb oby kfusdgj-rbimtbh tmxbs dg tkb RO, ms wbii ms tkbdrebrdts mgh hbebrdts.

    Abgtrmi jfvbrgebgt jrmgts tf ifami mutkfrdtd bs mgh tkb afugadi tmx

    Efst ifami bxpbghdturbs dg tkb RO mrb cdgmgabh vdm abgtrmi jfvbrgebgt jrmgts, gft vdmifami tmxbs. Xkbsb jrmgts mrb hdstrdlutbh tf ifami mutkfrdtdbs fg m ’gbbhs― lmsdsmaafrhdgj tf sfeb afepidamtbh cfreuims tkmt tmob dgtf maafugt guebrfusakmrmatbrdstdas fc tkb ifami mutkfrdtdbs mgh tkbdr rbsdhbgts. Xkb hdstrdlutdfg ebakmgdsemefugts tf mg ’bqumidzmtdfg systbe―. Fgb sdjgdcdamgt skfrtafedgj fc tkds ds tkmt tkbrb dsfgiy m vbry wbmo idgo mt lbst lbtwbbg pbredttdgj gbw rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt, fg tkbfgb kmgh, mgh pbremgbgt jrmgt rbvbgub, fg tkb ftkbr.

    Dg lrdbc, ifami mutkfrdtdbs cmab efst fc tkb afst fc prfvdhdgj tkb dgcrmstruaturb mgh ifamipulida sbrvdabs cfr tkb gbwiy-ludit rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt. Mt tkb smeb tdeb, tkbabgtrmi jfvbrgebgt jrmgts prfvdhb vdrtumiiy gf cdsami dgabgtdvbs tf ifami mutkfrdtdbs tfpbredt hbvbifpebgt. Xkds ds bvbg efrb sf lbamusb GDELT-kfebfwgbrs mgh prdvmtbimghifrhs wdii try tf put mhhdtdfgmi prbssurb fg ifami mutkfrdtdbs tf rbsdst gbwhbvbifpebgt. Ifami mutkfrdty pfidtdadmgs dgtbrbstbh dg rb-bibatdfg kmvb strfgj dgabgtdvbsgft tf pbredt rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt dg tkbdr afugadi.

    Dc ifami tmx rbvbgub wms idgobh tf tkb mefugt fc ifami rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt, tkdsafuih prfvdhb tkb gbabssmry dgabgtdvbs tf ifami mutkfrdtdbs tf pbredt suak hbvbifpebgtdg tkb cdrst pimab, bvbg ughbr m ’hbvbifpebgt afgtrfi― systbe. Dg tkb RO, kfwbvbr, suaktmx dgabgtdvbs mrb imaodgj miefst bgtdrbiy. Xkb fgiy ifami tmx dg tkb RO ds tkb afugadi tmx,wkdak ds m tmx lmsbh fg prfpbrty vmiub. Xkb tmx kms idttib wbdjkt dg tkb tmx systbe,kfwbvbr, afepmrbh wdtk ftkbr afugtrdbs (mgh afepmrbh wdtk wkmt dt wfuih lb ughbr mgbccdadbgt tmx systbe (Edrribbs bt mi. ==). Dt tkus ds gft sulstmgtdmi bgfujk tf prfvdhbmgy ebmgdgjcui dgabgtdvbs tf ifami mutkfrdtdbs tf pbredt rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt.Efrbfvbr, lbamusb mii ifami rbvbgub ds sul`bat tf tkb bqumidzmtdfg systbe, tkds wdiiimrjbiy bidedgmtb mgy afugadi tmx rbvbgub jmdg dg tkb ebhdue tbre cfr ifami mutkfrdtdbstkmt pbredt afepmrmliy efrb hbvbifpebgt. Xkb afugadi tmx kms fgb depfrtmgtmhhdtdfgmi cimw. Xkbrb kms gft lbbg m rbvmiumtdfg fc tkb tmx lmsb sdgab =44s. Dt ds cfremiiy pmdh ly tkb luybr mgh ds mpbrabgtmjb skmrb fc tkb purakmsb prdab fc tkb kfusb. Xkb bafgfeda dgadhbgab,kfwbvbr, emy lb mt ibmst pmrtdmiiy fg tkb sbiibr. Xkb stmep huty bccbatdvbiy hrdvbs mwbhjb lbtwbbg tkb prdab fltmdgbh ly tkb sbiibr mgh tkb prdab pmdh ly tkb luybr. Lmsdabafgfeda dgtudtdfg sujjbsts tkmt tkb stmep-huty-dghuabh tr mgsmatdfg afsts rbsuit dgcbwbr kfusdgj trmgsmatdfgs mgh cbwbr efvbs, mii bisb bqumi.=

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    Rgtdi bmriy Hbabelbr =8, tkb prfjrbssdvb sakbhuib wms m hbcdgdgj cbmturb fc tkb ROstmep huty systbe. Xkb imtbst rbcfre‘mggfugabh dg tkb jfvbrgebgt—s =8 MutuegQtmtbebgt‘bidedgmtbh tkds ifgjstmghdgj mgfemiy fc tkb tmx0 Rghbr tkb fih ruibs,kfebluybrs kmh tf pmy tkb tmx mt m sdgjib rmtb fg tkb bgtdrb prfpbrty prdab. Cfrbxmepib, m tmx rmtb fc =% ibvdbh fg m kfusb wfrtk £,>>> rbsuitbh dg m tmx pmyebgtfc £>. M tmx fc 1% wms depfsbh fg m kfusb wfrtk £,>>=, ibmhdgj tf m tmxpmyebgt fc £:,2>>‘m hdccbrbgab fc £2,>>>. Xkus, tkb fih ruibs ibh tf imrjbhdsafgtdgufus `ueps dg tkb tmx pmdh mt tkb tkrbskfih prdabs (dg fur bxmepib £,>>>).Rghbr tkb gbw ruibs, kfebluybrs fgiy kmvb tf pmy tkb rmtb fc tmx fg tkb pmrt fc tkbprfpbrty prdab wdtkdg bmak tmx lmgh. Xkds rbcfre kms lbbg m semii stbp dg tkb rdjkthdrbatdfg dg tkmt dt kms bidedgmtbh tkb imrjb hdsafgtdgufus `ueps dg tkb tmx mghafrrbspfghdgj hdstfrtdfgs. Dt hdh gft mhhrbss, kfwbvbr, tkb cughmebgtmi cimw fc tkbQHIX, wkdak ds tkmt tkb tmx arbmtbs m hdsdgabgtdvb tf efvb kfusb. Xkds pftbgtdmiiy kmsmhvbrsb afgsbqubgabs cfr tkb cugatdfgdgj fc kfusdgj mgh imlfr emrobts.

    Bepdrdami rbsbmrak strfgjiy sujjbsts tkmt tkb mhvbrsb bccbats fc tkb QHIX fg kfusdgjtrmgsmatdfgs mgh kfusbkfih efldidty mrb sulstmgtdmi. Lbsiby, Ebmhs, mgh Qurdaf (=8)

    mgh Lbst mgh Oibvbg (=2) lftk bxmedgb tkb bccbat fc tkb >;‑>4 stmep huty’kfidhmy― (d.b., dg Qbptbelbr >; tkb RO jfvbrgebgt depibebgtbh mg dgarbmsb fc tkbtkrbskfih cfr pmydgj tkb QHIX crfe £=>> tf £=:2,>>> cfr = ybmr tf stdeuimtb tkbkfusdgj emrobt). Zkdib, Lbsiby, Ebmhs, mgh Qurdaf (=8) cdgh tkmt tkb tmx kfidhmytbepfrmrdiy dgarbmsbh trmgsmatdfgs ly ;%, Lbst mgh Oibvbg (=2) bstdemtb tkb bccbatfg tkb trmgsmatdfg vfiueb tf lb % dg tkb skfrt rug. Kdilbr mgh Iyytdoèdgbg (=2) cdghtkmt tkb dgarbmsb dg stmep huty crfe =% tf 1% mt tkb aut-fcc fc £,>>>‘prdfr tf tkb=8 stmep-huty rbcfre‘rbhuabh tkb mggumi rmtb fc efldidty ly < tf 1 pbrabgtmjbpfdgts (m imrjb bccbat jdvbg tkmt tkb mvbrmjb rmtb fc efldidty ds 8.3%). Xkds mhvbrsbbccbat ds afgcdgbh tf skfrt-hdstmgab mgh gfg-`fl-rbimtbh efvbs, sujjbstdgj m hdstfrtdfgdg tkb kfusdgj rmtkbr tkmg tkb imlfr emrobt. Xkb oby afgaiusdfg fc tkds rbsbmrak ds tkmttkb QHIX ds m kdjkiy dgbccdadbgt tmx. Depfrtmgtiy, dt hdsafurmjbs hfwgsdzdgj fc tkb bihbriymgh bxpmgsdfg fc yfugj cmedidbs.

     M rbvbgub-gbutrmi rbpimabebgt fc tkb QHIX mgh tkb afugadi tmx wdtk mg mggumi ifami tmxfg tkb trub vmiub fc prfpbrty skfuih lb m strfgjiy-prbcbrrbh futafeb. Xkds ds cfr mt ibmsttwf rbmsfgs. Cdrst, suak m tmx hfbs gft mccbat tkb hbadsdfg tf efvb kfusb, mgh, tkushfbs gft hdstfrt kfusdgj mgh, pfssdliy, imlfr emrobts. Qbafgh, mggumi ifami tmxbs fgtkb trub vmiub fc prfpbrty (wdtk tkb rbvbgub gft tf lb bqumidzbh) prfvdhb jrbmtbrdgabgtdvbs tf ifami mutkfrdtdbs tf pbredt rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt.

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    gbabssmry mgh dt amg jbgbrmtb depfrtmgt lbgbcdts tf sfadbty. Kfwbvbr, tkb pimggdgjsystbe skfuih gft lb ebrbiy cfausbh fg afgstrmdgdgj rbsdhbgtdmi (mgh ftkbrhbvbifpebgt) tf fctbg ugmttrmatdvb lrfwgcdbih sdtbs dg ugmttrmatdvb ifamtdfgs. Dgstbmh,tkb lmsda prdgadpib skfuih lb tkmt rbcfres rbcibat dssubs fc emrobt cmdiurb sf ms tfbgsurb tkmt imgh-lmsbh pulida jffhs (b.j., urlmg fpbg spmabs, wdihidcb kmldtmts,gmtdfgmi pmros, mrbms fc futstmghdgj gmturmi lbmuty, kdstfrdami hdstrdats, fr kbrdtmjbludihdgjs) mrb mhbqumtbiy suppidbh mgh pfsdtdvb mgh gbjmtdvb bxtbrgmidtdbs mrdsdgj crfetkb prfxdedty fc hdccbrbgt imgh usbs mrb dgtbrgmidzbh. ^fsdtdvb bxtbrgmidtdbs amg lbdgtbrgmidzbh, b.j., tkrfujk edxbh imgh-usb zfgbs (wkdak spur eutumiiy lbgbcdadmimatdvdtdbs mrdsdgj crfe prfxdedty fc imgh usbs). Gbjmtdvb bxtbrgmidtdbs amg lb dgtbrgmidzbhtkrfujk sbpmrmtdfg fc dgafepmtdlib imgh usbs. Dg lrdbc, tkb pimggdgj systbe fujkt tf lbcfausbh fg mhhrbssdgj emrobt cmdiurbs.

    Kdilbr (=2m) hdsaussbs vmrdfus rbcfres fg tkb suppiy sdhb, hdstdgjudskdgj lbtwbbgskfrt-tbre rbcfres mgh efrb cughmebgtmi ifgjbr-tbre rbcfres. Dg tkb pmrtdauimr amsb fctkb RO, dg tkb skfrt tbre, tkb lfughmrdbs fc jrbbg lbits afuih lb rbvdsbh tf rbibmsbsfeb maabssdlib imgh wdtk ifw fr gbjmtdvb bgvdrfgebgtmi vmiub mgh ifw mebgdty vmiub

    (Akbskdrb =8).

    Dg tkb ifgjbr tbre, fgb afuih rbvbrt tf prftbatdgj mii imgh fgiy fg tkb lmsds fc dtsbgvdrfgebgtmi fr mebgdty vmiub, tmodgj maafugt fc ftkbr afst cmatfrs (dgcrmstruaturb,amrlfg cfftprdgt, mefgj ftkbrs). Xkds afuih lb hfgb dg m wmy tf rbtmdg mii mrbms fcfutstmghdgj gmturmi lbmuty mgh mii gmtdfgmi pmros lut usdgj flsbrvbh imgh-prdabhdccbrbgtdmis ms prdab sdjgmis tf dgcfre pimggbrs wkbrb fr wkbg imgh wfuih lb efrbusbcuiiy rbibmsbh cfr rbsdhbgtdmi usb. Dc tkb imgh-prdab hdccbrbgtdmis amggft lb `ustdcdbh lybgvdrfgebgtmi fr mebgdty lbgbcdts, tkbg tkbrb wfuih lb m prbsueptdfg dg cmvfr fchbvbifpebgt (Akbskdrb mgh Qkbppmrh >2).

    Ftkbr suppiy-sdhb rbcfres afuih wfro vdm mitbrdgj tmx dgabgtdvbs mt tkb ifami ibvbi. Dg mgdhbmi wfrih, tkb bxdstdgj afugadi tmx mgh tkb stmep huty imgh tmx‘twf kdjkiy hdstfrtdvbtmxbs (Kdilbr =2m? Kdilbr mgh Iyytdoèdgbg =2)‘mrb rbpimabh wdtk m prfpbr mggumiifami prfpbrty tmx wdtk mutfemtda mggumi rbvmiumtdfg lmsbh fg gbdjklfrkffh-spbadcdaprdab akmgjbs. Quak m tmx rbcfre afuih lb hbsdjgbh tf lb rbvbgub gbutrmi dg tkbmjjrbjmtb.

     Mg mitbrgmtdvb mgh ibss rmhdami prfpfsmi wfuih lb tf prfvdhb dgabgtdvbs tf ifamimutkfrdtdbs tkrfujk tkb abgtrmi jfvbrgebgt—s jrmgt miifamtdfg systbe. Xkds afuih lbhfgb ly twbmodgj tkb jrmgt miifamtdfg cfreuim mgh tmodgj maafugt fc tkb mefugt fckfusdgj hbvbifpebgt jrmgtbh. Ifami mutkfrdtdbs tkmt cmadidtmtb rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgtafuih lb afepbgsmtbh wdtk pbremgbgt mgh jbgbrfus ’hbvbifpebgt jrmgts― tkmtbxabbh tkb afst tkby kmvb tf lbmr. Mitbrgmtdvbiy, ifami mutkfrdtdbs afuih lb miifwbh tftmx hbvbifpbrs sf tkby mrb afepbgsmtbh cfr mgy bxtrm dgcrmstruaturb fr mgy ftkbr

    bxpbgsbs tkmt mrb rbqudrbh tf maafeefhmtb mhhdtdfgmi hbvbifpebgt. Imstiy, pimggdgjimws afuih lb mitbrbh tf miifw hbvbifpbrs (pftbgtdmi wdggbrs) tf afepbgsmtb GDELTs(pftbgtdmi ifsbrs) dg mg mttbept tf rbmak m eutumiiy lbgbcdadmi (d.b., ^mrbtf-supbrdfr)futafeb.

    1. KFRQDGJ ^FIDADBQ DG QZDXPB\IMGH

    Qwdtzbrimgh kms fgb fc tkb efst hbabgtrmidzbh jfvbrgebgts dg tkb wfrih. Xkb `urdshdatdfgmi hbabgtrmidzmtdfg ds rbcibatbh dg tkb pfidtdami mutfgfey fc rbjdfgmi (amgtfgs)mgh ifami (eugdadpmidtdbs) mhedgdstrmtdvb ugdts. Xkds mutfgfey prfvdhbs twf emdgdgstruebgts tf eugdadpmidtdbs tf mttrmat gbw tmxpmybrs, lftk fc wkdak kmvb m sdjgdcdamgt

    depmat fg tkb kfusdgj emrobt. Xkb cdrst dgstruebgt ds tkb cdsami pmaomjb fccbrbh ly tkb

    =:

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    ifami eugdadpmidty. Xkb cdsami pmaomjb afgsdsts fc tkb ifami dgafeb tmx rmtb (m ifwbr tmxrmtb wdii mttrmat efrb mgh kdjkbr dgafeb tmxpmybrs, mii bisb bqumi) mgh tkb gmturb mghibvbi fc ifami pulida sbrvdabs prfvdhbh. Kfusbkfihs wdii sfrt dgtf tkb rbspbatdvbeugdadpmidtdbs tkmt prfvdhb tkbdr prbcbrrbh ifami pulida jffhs pmaomjb? lbttbr ifamipulida sbrvdabs, mii bisb bqumi, mrb efrb hbsdrmlib. Xkds mutfgfey ds tkb abgtrmi dhbm fc’cdsami afepbtdtdfg―0 amgtfgs mgh eugdadpmidtdbs afepbtb mjmdgst bmak ftkbr tf mttrmat(wbmitky) tmxpmybrs.

    Dg prdgadpib, eugdadpmidtdbs afuih afepbtb fg lftk tkb tmx rmtb mgh tkb ifami pulidasbrvdabs fccbrbh. Dg prmatdab, kfwbvbr, afepbtdtdfg ds emdgiy fgb fc tmx rmtbs. Xkds dslbamusb lftk tkb cbhbrmi jfvbrgebgt mgh tkb amgtfgs rbqudrb kdjk edgdeue stmghmrhsfc ifami pulida jffh prfvdsdfg. Cfr bxmepib, prdemry mgh sbafghmry sakffi aimss sdzbseust gft bxabbh > cfr mgmvbrmjb tmx pmybr rbhuabs rbgts dg tkb Amgtfg fc Purdak ly rfujkiy QwC:. Xkbprbsbgt vmiub fc m tmx dgarbmsb fc QwC=,>>> rbhuabs kfusb vmiubs ly rfujkiy QwC48>mgh imgh vmiubs lbtwbbg QwC23> mgh QwC=,3, hbpbghdgj fg tkb spbadcdamtdfgbstdemtbh. Xkds sujjbsts, rfujkiy, cuii ampdtmidzmtdfg.

    Dg m efrb rbabgt mgh bafgfebtrdamiiy rdjfrfus mgmiysds, Lmstbg, vfg Bkridak, mghImssemgg (=8) iffo mt mii fc Qwdtzbrimgh mgh bepify m lfughmry-hdsafgtdgudty hbsdjgmpprfmak tkmt afrrbats cfr ugflsbrvmlib ifamtdfg akmrmatbrdstdas. Xkby bstdemtb tkbdgafeb tmx bimstdadty fc rbgts tf lb mlfut >..28 lmsbh fg mafgvbgtdfgmi bstdemtdgj mpprfmak). Xkmt ds, m tmx dgarbmsb fc =>% rbhuabs rbgts lymlfut

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    mgh ftkbr cmdriy tdjkt ifami imgh-usb afgtrfis (dgaiuhdgj kbdjkt rbstrdatdfgs)‘wkdak miiemob prfpbrty suppiy dgbimstda‘`fdgtiy bxpimdg tkb cmat tkmt Jbgbvm kms tkb efstvfimtdib prfpbrty prdabs dg Qwdtzbrimgh‘dg cmat, rbsbelidgj tkb prdab vfimtdidty dg tkb RO.

    Xkb cmat tkmt m ifami eugdadpmidty—s tmx rbvbgub ds hdrbatiy hbtbredgbh ly tkb guelbr

    mgh gmturb fc tmxpmybrs prfvdhbs strfgj dgabgtdvbs tf (d) pbredt ifami hbvbifpebgt, mgh(dd) sbt ifami tmx rmtbs tf mttrmat kdjk-dgafeb kfusbkfihs. Xkds, dg afgtrmst tf tkb sbttdgjdg tkb RO, sujjbsts tkmt ifami kfusdgj suppiy aurvbs emy lb bimstda.

    Lbsdhbs mccbatdgj ifami kfusdgj emrobts ly bgafurmjdgj tmx afepbtdtdfg mefgj ifamimutkfrdtdbs, tkb Qwdss tmx systbe misf pftbgtdmiiy mccbats tkb afugtry—s kfebfwgbrskdprmtb. Dg cmat, tkb Qwdss tmx systbe ds cmdriy gbutrmi wdtk rbspbat tf kfebfwgbrskdp mt miiibvbis. Dt ds pfssdlib tf hbhuat efrtjmjb dgtbrbst crfe tmxmlib dgafeb dg m sdedimrcmskdfg ms ughbr tkb RQ tmx systbe. Depfrtmgtiy, tkb hbhuatdldidty mppidbs tf lftkkfebfwgbrs mgh imghifrhs, sf tkbrb ds gf hdccbrbgtdmi tmx trbmtebgt lbtwbbg tkb twf. Dgm sdedimr cmskdfg, kfebfwgbrs kmvb tf pmy tmxbs fg ’deputbh rbgts―, wkbrbmsimghifrhs kmvb tf pmy tmxbs fg tkbdr rbgtmi dgafeb. Xmx trbmtebgt ds mjmdg gbutrmi

    lbtwbbg tkb twf jrfups. Xkus, dg afgtrmst tf efst ftkbr afugtrdbs, Qwdtzbrimgh—s tmxmgh kfusdgj pfidadbs kmvb idttib (fr gf) ldms dg cmvfr fc kfebfwgbrskdp.

    Dg afgtrmst tf lmgodgj pfidadbs mhfptbh dg ftkbr Burfpbmg afugtrdbs, Qwdss lmgos hfgft rbqudrb kfusbkfihs tf cuiiy pmy lmao tkbdr efrtjmjb ifmgs fvbr m jdvbg pbrdfh.Afupibh wdtk efrtjmjb dgtbrbst hbhuatdfg, tkds arbmtbs m strfgj tmx dgabgtdvb cfrkfusbkfihs‘bvbg wbmitky fgbs‘tf gbvbr cuiiy rbpmy tkbdr efrtjmjb hblts. Xkdsbxpimdgs wky Qwdtzbrimgh kms fgb fc tkb kdjkbst futstmghdgj efrtjmjb hblt-tf-JH^rmtdfs dg tkb wfrih‘bxabbhdgj =8>% dg =

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    1.= Aurrbgt Qtmtus fc tkb Kfusdgj Emrobt

    Qwdtzbrimgh rbjuimriy mppbmrs dg wfrih rmgodgjs ms fgb fc tkb afugtrdbs wdtk tkb kdjkbstpbr ampdtm dgafebs,=8 fgb fc tkb efst afepbtdtdvb bafgfedbs,=2 mgh tkb kdjkbst qumidty

    fc idcb (Oboda =. Xkbdgarbmsb dg tkb kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb ds mrjumliy hub tf tkb gbjmtdvb trbgh dg efrtjmjbdgtbrbsts. Dg pmrtdauimr, crfe edh->;, cdxbh efrtjmjb dgtbrbst rmtbs kmvb skfwg mstrfgj gbjmtdvb trbgh mgh mrb prbsbgtiy lbifw )sujjbstbh tkmt kdjk kfusb prdabs mgh deputbh rbgt tmxmtdfg emy rbprbsbgt twf cmatfrspmrtdmiiy bxpimdgdgj Qwdtzbrimgh—s bxabptdfgmiiy ifw kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb. Ms pfdgtbh futly Qkdiibr (=1), tkb tmxmtdfg fc deputbh rbgts hdstdgjudskbs Qwdtzbrimgh crfe efstftkbr hbvbifpbh afugtrdbs0 dg tkb RQ deputbh rbgt tmxmtdfg wms mlfidskbh ly tkb

    Quprbeb Afurt dg =418. Xkb RO trdbh tf mhfpt dt, lut tkb prfpfsmi wms rbidgqudskbh dg=431.

    Cdjurb 10 Qwdss Kfebfwgbrskdp mgh Smamgay \mtbs (%)

    Qfurab0 Qwdss Cbhbrmi Qtmtdstdami Fccdab. kttp0//www.lcs.mhedg.ak/lcs/pfrtmi/hb/dghbx/tkbebg/>4/>=/gbw.kteimgh kttp0//www.lcs.mhedg.ak/lcs/pfrtmi/hb/dghbx/tkbebg/>4/>.81% dg =4;4 tf =.;2% dg =44;. Dg tkb imst tbg ybmrs, vmamgayrmtbs mppbmr tf kmvb stmldidzbh mrfugh =%. Xkds ifw guelbr emy lb, dg pmrt, hrdvbg lytkb Qwdss rbgt-afgtrfi systbe, bxpimdgbh lbifw. Zb gftb tkmt vmamgay rmtbs mrbpmrtdauimriy ifw dg em`fr urlmg mrbms. Cfr bxmepib, tkb vmamgay rmtbs dg Jbgbvm mgh

    =8  Qbb kttp0//hmtm.wfrihlmgo.frj/dghdamtfr/GT.JH^.^AM^.AH

    =2  Qbb kttp0//rbpfrts.wbcfrue.frj/jiflmi-afepbtdtdvbgbss-rbpfrt-=8-=2/rmgodgjs/=3  Qbb kttps0//bg.afepmrds.ak/kypftkbobg/zdgssmtz/zdgsbgtwdaoiugj.mspx

    http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/09/01/new.htmlhttp://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/09/02/blank/key/leerwohnungen/entwicklung.htmlhttp://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CDhttp://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report-2014-2015/rankings/https://en.comparis.ch/hypotheken/zinssatz/zinsentwicklung.aspxhttps://en.comparis.ch/hypotheken/zinssatz/zinsentwicklung.aspxhttp://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report-2014-2015/rankings/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CDhttp://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/09/02/blank/key/leerwohnungen/entwicklung.htmlhttp://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/09/01/new.html

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Lmsbi Adty mrb fgiy >.13% mgh >.%.Qbafgh, m spmtdmi skdct fc kfusdgj hbemgh tfwmrh tkb em`fr Qwdss mjjifebrmtdfgs amgbxpimdg wky cbw kfusdgj ugdts rbemdg bepty dg tkbsb pimabs. Maafrhdgj tf tkb QwdssCbhbrmi Qtmtdstdami Fccdab, dg =s, dg Qwdtzbrimgh afgstruatdfg guelbrs sdgab =4;> mrb ayaidami lut tkbifgj-rug trbgh ds rfujkiy stmlib. Cdjurb 8 skfws afgstruatdfg dghdabs cfr mii mgh cfrsdgjib-cmediy afgstruatdfg. Fgb dgtbrbstdgj trbgh sdgab mlfut >2 kms lbbg tkmt efrbcimts mgh cbwbr sdgjib-cmediy kfusbs wbrb afgstruatbh. Lbtwbbg >< mgh ==, tkbafgstruatdfg fc gbw cimts kms dgarbmsbh emrobhiy. Xkb ybmriy afgstruatdfg fc gbw cimtshurdgj tkds tdeb pbrdfh dgarbmsbh crfe >>‑83,>>> ugdts. Dg =8, maafrhdgj tf Arbhdt Qudssb mgh tkb Qwdss Mssfadmtdfg fcAfgtrmatfrs mgh Ludihbrs, m jbgbrmi rbhuatdfg fc tkb rbsdhbgtdmi afgstruatdfg sbatfrafuih lb flsbrvbh mgh ds bxpbatbh tf afgtdgub tkrfujk =2. Ms Zmitbrt mgh Eùjjibr(=8) pfdgt fut, tkds emy, dg pmrt, lb hub tf lftk tkb depibebgtmtdfg fc tkb QbafghKfeb Dgdtdmtdvb (hdsaussbh lbifw), mgh tkb hbadsdfg fc tkb Qwdss Gmtdfgmi Lmgo gft tfsuppfrt tkb edgdeue bxakmgjb rmtb mjmdgst tkb burf mgyefrb (amusdgj m sdjgdcdamgtmpprbadmtdfg fc tkb Qwdss crmga).

    Cdjurb 80 Qwdss Afgstruatdfg Dghdabs0 Xftmi mgh Qdgjib-cmediy Kfusbs

    (=4;1 5 =>>)

    Qfurab0 Qwdss Cbhbrmi Qtmtdstdami Fccdab. kttp0//www.lcs.mhedg.ak/lcs/pfrtmi/hb/dghbx/tkbebg/>4.ktei (maabssbh=< Hbabelbr =2). Mutkfrs— amiauimtdfgs.

    ^rdab hygmedas misf skfw em`fr hdccbrbgabs afepmrbh wdtk tkb RO kfusdgj emrobt(Cdjurb 2). Xkrbb styidzbh cmats mrb wfrtk kdjkidjktdgj. Cdrst, rbmi kfusb prdabs dg

    =:  Qbb kttp0//www.lcs.mhedg.ak/lcs/pfrtmi/hb/dghbx/rbjdfgbg/==/jbf/rmbueidakbVtypfifjdbg/>>.ktei

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Qwdtzbrimgh mrb ayaidami? tkrbb lffe pbrdfhs amg lb flsbrvbh sdgab =4:> (bmriy =4:>s,edh-tf-imtb =4;>s, mgh tkb pbrdfh sdgab >>). Qbafgh, dg afgtrmst tf tkb RO, wkbrbrbmi kfusb prdabs efrb tkmg hfulibh sdgab tkb bmriy =4;>s, dg Qwdtzbrimgh rbmi kfusbprdabs ebrbiy dgarbmsbh ly % (afghfedgdues)rbspbatdvbiy. Xkb hdccbrbgab dg tkb jrfwtk rmtb lbtwbbg tkbsb twf amtbjfrdbs rbcibatstkb cmat tkmt tkb kfusdgj hbemgh kms skdctbh tfwmrhs em`fr urlmg mrbms, ms sujjbstbhly tkb vmamgay rmtb hdccbrbgtdmis flsbrvbh lbtwbbg rurmi mgh urlmg mrbms. Xkdskypftkbsds ds curtkbr suppfrtbh ly tkb hrfp dg vmamgay rmtbs flsbrvbh crfe >>fgwmrhs, wkdak afdgadhbs wdtk m strfgj jrfwtk dg afghfedgdue prdabs. Xkdrh, rbgtjrfwtk ds mlfut kmicwmy lbtwbbg tkb prdab jrfwtk fc sdgjib-cmediy kfusbs mghafghfedgdues, mgh mefugts tf 11% sdgab =4;1. Xkbsb dgarbmsbs mrb gft tff hdstmgtcrfe tkb smimry dghbx jrfwtk (mlfut % sdgab =4;1).

    Cdjurb 20 Qwdss Qdgjib-cmediy mgh Afghfedgdue ^rdab Dghdabs (lftk rbmi), Qwdss\bgtmi Dghbx (A^D Qul-dghbx) (rbmi), mgh Qmimry Dghbx (rbmi) (=4;1 5 =>>)

    Qfurabs0 Qwdss Gmtdfgmi Lmgo. www.sgl.ak/bg/dmlfut/stmt/stmtpul/stmtefg/stmts/stmtefg/stmtefgVF8V1 (maabssbh=< Hbabelbr =2)? Zùbst mgh ^mrtgbr (www.wubstughpmrtgbr.afe/bg/fgidgb-sbrvdabs/deefldidbgdghdzbs.ktei(maabssbh =< Hbabelbr =2)? Qwdss Cbhbrmi Qtmtdstdami Fccdab.   www.lcs.mhedg.ak/lcs/pfrtmi/hb/dghbx/tkbebg/>2/>3/limgo/oby/dghbx.ktei (maabssbh =< Hbabelbr =2)? Mutkfrs— amiauimtdfgs.

    Xkb Qwdss jfvbrgebgt kms rbabgtiy depibebgtbh sbvbrmi ebmsurbs mdebh mthmepbgdgj tkb prdab jrfwtk fc tkb fwgbr-faaupdbh kfusdgj sbatfr (wkdak emy kmvblbbg hrdvbg ly tkb mii-tdeb ifw efrtjmjb dgtbrbst rmtbs). Rghbr jfvbrgebgt prbssurb,lmgos tdjktbgbh ibghdgj afghdtdfgs crfe @uiy =< fgwmrhs. Dg pmrtdauimr, tkb fwgcughs rbqudrbh tf kmvb maabss tf efrtjmjb ibghdgj‘typdamiiy % fc tkb prfpbrtyprdab‘amggft lb bxaiusdvbiy afgstdtutbh ly tkb rbtdrbebgt prfvdsdfgs aueuimtbh dg tkbfaaupmtdfgmi pbgsdfg cughs. Xkb pmrt fc fwg cughs rbprbsbgtbh ly rbtdrbebgtprfvdsdfgs ds idedtbh tf =>% fc tkb prfpbrty prdab. Mhhdtdfgmiiy, tkb ifmg-tf-vmiub rmtdfeust mt efst lb bqumi tf

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    cfrbdjg rbmi bstmtb dgvbstfrs, wbrb ’hdscdjurdgj― tkb afugtrysdhb, arbmtdgj jkfst tfwgs(futsdhb fc tfurdst sbmsfgs) dg efugtmdgfus mrbms, mgh dgcimtdgj ifami kfusdgj afsts,kms ibh tf m pfidtdami lmaoimsk.

    Xkb QKD wms imugakbh tf mhhrbss tkbsb afgabrgs. =4 Xkb dgdtdmtdvb wms mpprfvbh ly tkb

    Qwdss pfpuimtdfg dg Emrak =< ly tkb gmrrfwbst fc emrjdgs. Fgiy 2>.3% fc tkb vftbrsmgh =1.2 fc tkb 1), ifwbr kfusdgj qumidty (Jyfurof mgh

    Idggbemg =44>), mgh rbhuab kfusbkfih efldidty (Muit, @maosfg, mgh Qmlm =448). Furmde ds gft tf bxtbgsdvbiy rbvdbw tkds idtbrmturb lut, rmtkbr, tf afepmrb tkb spbadcdabccbats fc rbgt afgtrfi flsbrvbh dg tkb Qwdss kfusdgj emrobt wdtk tkfsb prbhdatbh ly tkbidtbrmturb.

    Xkb bccbats fc tkb QKD‘m rbabgt pfiday rbcfre‘mrb aurrbgtiy lbdgj dgvbstdjmtbh ly usmgh, tf fur ogfwibhjb, gf bepdrdami stuhy fg dts bccbats bxdsts. Xkbrbcfrb, fgiyprbidedgmry bvdhbgab afgabrgdgj dts bccbats ds prbsbgtbh kbrb.

    =4  Qbb0 kttp0//www.zwbdtwfkgugjsdgdtdmtdvb.ak/kfeb.ktei cfr hbtmdis (dg Jbremg, Crbgak fr Dtmidmg). M lrdbcsueemry dg Bgjidsk ds prfvdhbh kbrb0 kttp0//www.ccw.ak/bg/amepVhbtmiib/sbafgh-kfebs-dgdtdmtdvb-swdtzbrimgh/

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    \bgt afgtrfi dg Qwdtzbrimgh kms sbvbrmi ebrdts. Cdrst, ms diiustrmtbh dg Cdjurb 2, rbmirbgts tbgh tf jrfw sifwiy. Qdgab =4;1, rbmi rbgts kmvb jrfwg fgiy =1% efrb tkmgsmimrdbs. Xkb hmepbgdgj bccbat fc rbgt afgtrfi lbafebs mppmrbgt wkbg tkb prdabjrfwtk fc afghfedgdues‘typdamiiy jffh sulstdtutbs cfr rbgtbh ugdts‘ds afgsdhbrbh. Dgtkb imst cbw ybmrs, msodgj prdabs cfr afghfedgdues kmvb dgarbmsbh mt m afgsdhbrmliykdjkbr rmtb tkmg rbgts0 sdgab =4;1, tkb jrfwtk hdccbrbgtdmi lbtwbbg tkb twf ds =:%.Qbafgh, dg afgtrmst tf tkb ayaidamidty hdspimybh ly sdgjib-cmediy kfebs mghafghfedgdues, rbgt vfimtdidty ds qudtb ifw. Xkdrh, lbamusb mii rbgtmi ugdts mrb sul`bat tfrbgt afgtrfi, tkbrb bxdsts fgiy fgb rbjuimtbh rbgtmi kfusdgj emrobt rmtkbr tkmg twf‘mrbjuimtbh mgh mg ugrbjuimtbh fgb‘wdtk pftbgtdmiiy vmstiy hdccbrdgj prdabs. Cfurtk,lbamusb tkb imw bgsurbs edgdeue qumidty stmghmrhs, imghifrhs amggft rbhuab ludihdgjemdgtbgmgab dg tkb kfpb fc dgarbmsdgj rbturgs. Fg tkb afgtrmry, em`fr rbgfvmtdfgsprbsbgt mg fppfrtugdty tf lrdgj tkb rbgt fc m afgtrfiibh ugdt aifsbr tf emrobt ibvbi.Cdgmiiy, lbamusb gbw tbgmgts kmvb tkb rdjkt tf akmiibgjb tkb rbgt ibvbi mctbr rbgfvmtdfg,spbauimtdvb rbgt kdobs amg imrjbiy lb prbvbgtbh.

    Xkbsb mhvmgtmjbs, kfwbvbr, afeb mt m prdab. \bgt afgtrfi dghuabs m hdstfrtdfg dg tkb

    miifamtdfg ebakmgdse fc tkb emrobt ly arbmtdgj m hdsdgabgtdvb cfr kfusbkfihs tf efvb.Dg cmat, tkb efst bccbatdvb strmtbjy cfr tbgmgts tf lbgbcdt crfe rbgt afgtrfi ds tf stmy dgtkb smeb ugdt ms ifgj ms pfssdlib. Xkds ds m strmtbjy tkmt ds cmadidtmtbh ly tkb imwemobrslbamusb rbgt afgtrfi prftbats tbgmgts mjmdgst drrbjuimr bvdatdfgs. Ms m afgsbqubgab,rbgt dgarbmsbs mrb, tf sfeb bxtbgt, amppbh ly tkb rbcbrbgab dghbx mgh tkb A^D. Dg tkdssbttdgj, hbemgh cfr rbgt-afgtrfiibh prfpbrtdbs sdjgdcdamgtiy bxabbhs suppiy, rbsuitdgj dgmg bxtrbebiy ifw rbsdhbgtdmi vmamgay rmtb‘bspbadmiiy dg em`fr urlmg mrbms‘msdiiustrmtbh dg Cdjurb 1, mgh, ms m afgsbqubgab, dg m tdeb-afgsuedgj mgh afstiy sbmrakbccfrt cfr kfusbkfihs cfrabh tf rbifamtb.

    Lbamusb tkb QKD wms fgiy rbabgtiy mpprfvbh, wb amg ebrbiy spbauimtb mlfut dts ifgj-tbre bccbats. Xf lbjdg wdtk, tf tkb bxtbgt tkmt ifami eugdadpmidtdbs wdii gft lb mlib tf

    ugafvbr sdjgdcdamgt iffpkfibs dg tkb ibjdsimtdfg, wb bxpbat tkmt tkb pfiday wdii lbbccbatdvb dg prbvbgtdgj sprmwi dg tkb kdjkiy tfurdstda pimabs wdtk skmrbs fc sbafgh kfebsmirbmhy bxabbhdgj %. Kfwbvbr, lbamusb hbemgh cfr sbafgh kfebs emy sdepiyskdct spmtdmiiy dg tkb ifgj tbre, sprmwi emy lbafeb mg dgarbmsdgj prflibe dgeugdadpmidtdbs wdtk skmrbs fc sbafgh kfebs lbifw lut aifsb tf %. Efrbfvbr, tkbjkfst-tfwg pkbgfebgfg (futsdhb fc tfurdst sbmsfgs) dg efugtmdgfus eugdadpmidtdbswdtk hbsdrmlib gmturmi mebgdtdbs amg lb bxpbatbh tf lbafeb wfrsb. Xkds ds lbamusbtkb fgiy wmy tf gfw mhh gbw sbafgh kfebs tf tkb bxdstdgj stfao fc suak kfebs ds lyafgvbrtdgj bxdstdgj prdemry kfebs. Lbamusb tkb lmg fg gbw sbafgh kfebs kmsdgarbmsbh tkb samradty fc suak kfebs dg tkb efst hbsdrmlib tfurdst pimabs, afgvbrsdfgscrfe prdemry tf sbafgh kfebs emy curtkbr dgarbmsb tkb sbafgh kfeb skmrb.

    Xkb QKD ibjdsimtdfg wdii idobiy misf mccbat tkb prdabs fc prdemry mgh sbafgh kfebs. Xkbrbstrdatdfg tf arbmtb gbw sbafgh kfebs dg pimabs tkmt bxabbh tkb % tkrbskfih amglb bxpbatbh tf lb deebhdmtbiy ampdtmidzbh dgtf kdjkbr sbafgh-kfeb prdabs‘m suppiy-sdhb bccbat. Lbamusb gbw sbafgh kfebs dg rbstrdatbh eugdadpmidtdbs amg fgiy lb arbmtbhly afgvbrtdgj prdemry kfebs afgstruatbh lbcfrb =1, tkb sbafgh-kfeb suppiy amg lbbxpbatbh tf lbafeb prfjrbssdvbiy dgbimstda, tkus ampdtmidzdgj cuturb hbemgh dgarbmsbs.

    Xkb QKD kms twf fppfsdgj bccbats fg tkb prdab fc prdemry kfebs. Xkb prdab emyhbarbmsb ms tkb QKD depfsbs m gbjmtdvb skfao fg tkb ifami bafgfey tkus ifwbrdgjhbemgh cfr prdemry kfebs. Kfwbvbr, ly prbsbrvdgj ifami gmturmi mebgdtdbs tkb QKDemy dgarbmsb tkb prdab fc prdemry kfebs, mii bisb bqumi. Xkb gbt bccbat ds tkbfrbtdamiiymeldjufus.

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Bepdrdamiiy, usdgj m hdccbrbgab-dg-hdccbrbgab mpprfmak, Kdilbr mgh Qakógd (=3) cdghtkmt tkb prdab fc prdemry kfebs dg rbstrdatbh eugdadpmidtdbs hbarbmsbh sdjgdcdamgtiy, fgmvbrmjb, ly mlfut =:‑>4 jiflmi cdgmgadmi ardsds, kfwbvbr, tkds hrbme kms turgbhdgtf m gdjktemrb cfr emgy kfebfwgbrs. Mctbr m pbmo mt tkb lbjdggdgj fc >:, kfusbprdabs cbii ly mlfut 1>% dg ibss tkmg < ybmrs. Ediidfgs fc kfebfwgbrs cfugh tkbesbivbspfssbssdgj gbjmtdvb kfeb bqudtdbs, tkus, lbdgj ugmlib tf sbii tkbdr kfeb fr gft kmvdgjmaabss tf rbcdgmgadgj efrtjmjbs dg tkb amsb fc cdgmgadmi gbbh. Xkb lust fc tkb kfusdgjlffe, afupibh wdtk sfmrdgj ugbepifyebgt rmtbs, ibh emgy RQ kfusbkfihs tf ifsb tkbdrkfebs, amusdgj m stbbp hbarbmsb fc mlfut 2% dg tkb afugtry—s kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb. Xfafugtbr tkds hrfp dg kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt, tkb RQ jfvbrgebgt mhfptbh sbvbrmigbw kfusdgj pfidadbs, dg mhhdtdfg tf tkb prb-bxdstdgj pfidadbs‘depfrtmgtiy tkb Efrtjmjb

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Dgtbrbst Hbhuatdfg (EDH). Fur mde ds tf hbsardlb tkb dgtbghbh mgh ugdgtbghbh bccbats fctkbsb gbw mgh fih pfidadbs, wdtk m pmrtdauimr cfaus fg tkb EDH.

    Xkb hdsaussdfg fc tkb pfidadbs prbsbgtbh dg tkds sulsbatdfg hrmws kbmvdiy crfe tkb wfrofc Fisbg mgh Pmlbi (=2), wkf fccbr mg bxkmustdvb rbvdbw fc RQ ifw-dgafeb rbgtmi

    prfjrmes mgh efrtjmjb pfidadbs. Dg afgtrmst tf Fisbg mgh Pmlbi (=2), fur cfaus ds fgtkb hbsardptdfg fc depidamtdfgs fc tkb EDH lmsbh fg rbabgt bvdhbgab prfvdhbh ly Kdilbrmgh Xurgbr (=8).

    8.= Aurrbgt Qtmtus fc tkb Kfusdgj Emrobt

    Xkb RQ kfusdgj emrobt kms rbafvbrbh crfe pbrkmps tkb wfrst kfusdgj ardsds dg dtskdstfry. Qf dt sbbes, mt ibmst, wkbg iffodgj mt tkb trbghs fc kfusdgj emrobtcughmebgtmis (Cdjurbs 3 mgh :). Dg tkds pfsdtdvb bafgfeda afgtbxt, crfe Hbabelbr=8 mgh Emrak =2 fgwmrhs, rbspbatdvbiy, Cmggdb Emb mgh Crbhhdb Ema miifwbhcdrst-tdeb kfebluybrs tf ifwbr tkbdr hfwg-pmyebgts tf 1% dgstbmh fc tkb usumi 2%.Efrbfvbr, tkb Cbhbrmi Kfusdgj Mhedgdstrmtdfg rbabgtiy rbhuabh dts mggumi efrtjmjbdgsurmgab prbedue ly >.2% tf >.;2%. Cdgmiiy, sfeb fc tkb pfst-ardsds kfusdgjprfjrmes mdedgj tf lffst kfebfwgbrskdp mrb stdii ughbrwmy (sbb gbxt sbatdfg).

    Cdjurb 30 Rgdtbh Qtmtbs Kfebfwgbrskdp mgh Smamgay \mtbs

    S\ 5 vmamgay rmtb.Qfurabs0 RQ. Lurbmu fc tkb Abgsus, fltmdgbh vdm C\BH. kttps0//rbsbmrak.stifudscbh.frj/crbh

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Cdjurb :0 RQ Kfusb ^rdab Dghbx (rbmi), Afgstruatdfg Dghbx (Gbw ^rdvmtb KfusdgjRgdts Mutkfrdzbh ly Ludihdgj ^bredts) mgh Ebmg Kfusbkfih Dgafeb (rbmi)

    (=4:2 5 =>>)

    K^D 5 kfusb prdab dghbx? EKD 5 ebmg kfusbkfih dgafeb? RQ 5 Rgdtbh Qtmtbs.Qfurabs0 Cbhbrmi Kfusdgj Cdgmgab Mjbgay, fltmdgbh vdm C\BH.  kttps0//rbsbmrak.stifudscbh.frj/crbh2, prbabhdgj tkb jiflmicdgmgadmi ardsds (>:‑>4) mgh dts afrrbspfghdgj kdjk guelbr fc cfrbaifsurbs. Dtafgtdgubh tf hbaidgb mctbr tkb bgh fc tkb ardsds. Dt ds aurrbgtiy stdii fg m hfwgwmrh trbgh,sdedimr tf tkb RO. Crfe >8]8 tf =8]8 tkb kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb kmh cmiibg crfe34..3% dg >4 tf :.2% dg =8. Dgtbrbstdgjiy, vmamgay rmtbs fc fwgbh ugdtsdgarbmsbh fgiy sidjktiy hurdgj tkb pbmo fc tkb ardsds. Xkby jbgbrmiiy rbemdgbh cmdriy ifwmgh stmlib tkrfujkfut tkb ardsds.

    Xkb flsbrvbh hbarbmsb dg tkb rmtb fc kfebfwgbrskdp emy lb bxpimdgbh ly tkrbbcmatfrs. Cdrst, tkb emssdvb dgarbmsb dg tkb prdab-tf-dgafeb rmtdf dg tkb ludih-up fc tkbjiflmi cdgmgadmi ardsds depidbh tkmt, mii bisb bqumi, cbwbr mgh cbwbr kfusbkfihs wbrb mlibtf mccfrh tkb efgtkiy efrtjmjb pmyebgts (d.b., idqudhdty afgstrmdgts tdjktbgbh). Qbafgh,tkb tdjktbgdgj fc arbhdt afghdtdfgs (dgaiuhdgj hfwg-pmyebgt afgstrmdgts) hurdgj tkbardsds ebmgt tkmt emgy kfusbkfihs tkmt wbrb mt tkb emrjdg fc prfpbrty fwgbrskdplbcfrb tkb ardsds suhhbgiy hdh gft kmvb maabss tf efrtjmjb ibghdgj mgyefrb. Xkdrh,mgh rbimtbh tf tkb cfrebr pfdgt, lmh arbhdt rmtdgjs fc kfusbkfihs tkmt bxpbrdbgabhcfrbaifsurb hurdgj tkb ardsds ebmg tkmt tkby afuih gft bmsdiy lbafeb kfebfwgbrsmjmdg.

    Cdjurb : diiustrmtbs tkb sbmsfgmiiy mh`ustbh ^urakmsb-Fgiy Kfusb ^rdab Dghbx (K^D)

    sdgab =4:2 ms wbii ms tkb Ebmg Kfusbkfih Dgafeb (EKD) cfr tkb smeb tdeb pbrdfh.

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Cfausdgj fg tkb imst => ybmrs, wkdib tkb prdab-tf-dgafeb rmtdf cbii sdjgdcdamgtiy hurdgjtkb jiflmi cdgmgadmi ardsds, tkb trbgh kms lbbg rbvbrsdgj sdgab mlfut ==, mii bisbbqumi, emodgj dt dgarbmsdgjiy hdccdauit cfr kfusbkfihs tf kmvb maabss tf prfpbrtyfwgbrskdp. Mt tkb smeb tdeb, dgarbmsdgj prdabs hurdgj tkb imst cbw ybmrs mppbmr tfkmvb rbvdvbh tkb afgstruatdfg sbatfr. Cdjurb : hfauebgts tkb guelbr fc kfusdgj stmrtslbtwbbg =43> mgh =8. Kfusdgj afgstruatdfg mppbmrs tf lb kdjkiy ayaidami dg tkb RQ.Zkdib dt cbii hrmemtdamiiy hurdgj tkb >>s, kfusdgj afgstruatdfg kms lbbg rbafvbrdgjsdgab mrfugh ==.

    Ifami kfusdgj emrobts dg tkb RQ skfw rbemromlib spmtdmi kbtbrfjbgbdty wdtk rbspbat tftkbdr prdab hygmedas. Cdjurbs ; mgh 4 diiustrmtb tkb prdab jrfwtk sdgab =4;> cfr tkrbbem`fr dgimgh adtdbs‘Morfg (Fkdf), Afiuelus (Fkdf), mgh Dghdmgmpfids (Dghdmgm)‘mghtkrbb em`fr afmstmi fgbs‘Qmg Crmgadsaf (Amidcfrgdm), Ifs Mgjbibs (Amidcfrgdm), mghGbw Tfro (Gbw Tfro)‘rbspbatdvbiy. Dgimgh kfusdgj emrobts kmvb rmrbiy lbbg mccbatbhly tkb ardsds mgh hdspimy m vbry ifw‘dc gft gbjmtdvb‘rbmi prdab jrfwtk sdgab =4;>. Dgafgtrmst, tkb afmstmi adtdbs (sfebtdebs rbcbrrbh tf ms ’supbrstmr adtdbs―? (Jyfurof,Emybr, mgh Qdgmd =1) tkmt pfssbss sbvbrb gmturmi ms wbii ms rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts

    (Qmdz =>? Kdilbr mgh \flbrt-Gdafuh =1), skfw mstfgdskdgj ifgj-tbre prdabdgarbmsbs‘wdtk Qmg Crmgadsaf rbmakdgj m rbmi prdab jrfwtk fc mlfut 1>>% sdgab=4;>‘mgh imrjb prdab vfimtdidty. Xkb prdab trbghs hbpdatbh dg Cdjurbs ; mgh 4 mrbafgsdstbgt wdtk tkb prfpfsdtdfg tkmt jdvbg hbemgh skfaos (wkdak emy fr emy gft lbjrbmtbr dg imrjb afmstmi adtdbs) trmgsimtb dgtf jrbmtbr prdab swdgjs dg pimabs wdtk sbvbrbifgj-tbre suppiy afgstrmdgts, d.b., tkb supbrstmr adtdbs. 5 =>>)

     MO 5 Morfg? AFI 5 Afiuelus? DGH 5 Dghdmgmpfids? K^D 5 kfusb prdab dghbx.Qfurab0 Cbhbrmi Kfusdgj Cdgmgab Mjbgay. (kttp0//www.ckcm.jfv/HmtmXffis/Hfwgifmhs/^mjbs/Kfusb-^rdab-Dghbx-Hmtmsbts.mspx#qmt (maabssbh =< Hbabelbr =2).

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    Cdjurb 40 RQ Afmstmi Ebtrf Mrbms Kfusb ^rdab Dghbx (rbmi) (=4;> 5 =>>)

    K^D 5 kfusb prdab dghbx? IM 5 Ifs Mgjbibs? GT 5 Gbw Tfro? QC 5 Qmg Crmgadsaf.Qfurab0 Cbhbrmi Kfusdgj Cdgmgab Mjbgay. kttp0//www.ckcm.jfv/HmtmXffis/Hfwgifmhs/^mjbs/Kfusb-^rdab-Dghbx-Hmtmsbts.mspx#qmt (maabssbh =< Hbabelbr =2).

    8.< Oby Kfusdgj ^fidadbs mgh Xkbdr Fl`batdvbs

    Xkb aurrbgt RQ tmx systbe ds ldmsbh dg cmvfr fc kfebfwgbrskdp. Depfrtmgtiy, wkbrbmsefrtjmjb dgtbrbst amg lb hbhuatbh crfe tmxmlib dgafeb, deputbh rbgts mssfadmtbh wdtk

    prfpbrty fwgbrskdp mrb gft tmxbh.

    > ldiidfgdg cfrbjfgb mggumi tmx rbvbgub cfr tkb RQ jfvbrgebgt. Hbspdtb tkb mirbmhy-bxdstdgjldms tfwmrhs kfebfwgbrskdp, tkb lust fc tkb kfusdgj lffe hurdgj tkb jiflmi cdgmgadmiardsds kms ibh tkb RQ jfvbrgebgt tf mhfpt ybt efrb cdsami ebmsurbs dg mg mttbept tfkmit tkb hbaidgb dg kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt.

    Dg >;, tkb Afgjrbss pmssbh tkb Kfusdgj Mssdstmgab Xmx Mat (KMXM), wkdak prfvdhbsm tmx arbhdt fc =>% fc tkb purakmsb prdab fc m prfpbrty cfr cdrst-tdeb kfebluybrs. Xkb

    emxdemi tmx arbhdt wms amppbh tf $:,2>> pbr kfusbkfih mgh tkb rbqudrbebgt wms tkmtdt kmh tf lb rbpmdh wdtkdg =2 ybmrs. Xf idedt tkb vmamgay fc cfrbaifsbh prfpbrtdbs, wkdibmvfdhdgj spbauimtdvb lbkmvdfr, dg >4, tkb Mebrdamg \bafvbry mgh \bdgvbstebgt Mat(M\\M) dgarbmsbh tkb emxdemi tmx arbhdt tf $;,>>> mgh fccbrbh tkb pfssdldidty tf wmdvbtkb arbhdt rbpmyebgt dc tkb prfpbrty wms gft sfih hurdgj tkb 1 ybmrs mctbr dts maqudsdtdfgmgh wms usbh ms tkb prdgadpmi rbsdhbgab. Mt tkb bgh fc >4, ^rbsdhbgt Flmem sdjgbhtkb Zfrobr, Kfebfwgbrskdp, mgh Lusdgbss Mssdstmgab Mat dgtf imw, bxtbghdgj tkb

    >. Hub tf tkb guebrfus hbebrdts mgh

    ugdgtbghbh afgsbqubgabs fc tkb EDH, wkdak mrb hdsaussbh lbifw, tkb sifw pkmsdgj fut mghsulsbqubgt tbredgmtdfg fc tkb ED\MQ amg lb sbbg ms m kdjkiy suaabsscui pfiday hbadsdfg.

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    pbrdfh hurdgj wkdak kfusbkfihs afuih aimde tkb M\\M tmx arbhdt. Maafrhdgj tf tkbJbgbrmi Maafugtdgj Fccdab, up tf @uiy => mpprfxdemtbiy = mgh =3 ediidfg cdrst-tdebkfebluybrs lbgbcdtbh crfe tkb KMXM mgh M\\M tmx arbhdts, rbspbatdvbiy.

    Dg mhhdtdfg tf cdsami dgabgtdvbs, tkb RQ jfvbrgebgt imugakbh sbvbrmi prfjrmes tf

    bgkmgab arbhdt afghdtdfgs.4, tkb Xrbmsury stmrtbh tkb Emodgj Kfeb Mccfrhmlib (EKM) prfjrme tf deprfvb arbhdt afghdtdfgs. Xwf abgtbrpdbabs fc tkb EKMmrb tkb Kfeb Mccfrhmlib Efhdcdamtdfg ^rfjrme (KME^) mgh tkb Kfeb Mccfrhmlib\bcdgmgab ^rfjrme (KM\^). Lftk prfjrmes bgh dg Hbabelbr =3. Xkb twf prfjrmesmrb gft dgtbghbh tf prfeftb kfebfwgbrskdp lut, rmtkbr, tf mvfdh tkb ifss fc dt lyrbhuadgj tkb idobidkffh fc cfrbaifsurb. KME^—s mde ds tf affpbrmtb wdtk efrtjmjbibghbrs tf rbhuab tkb efgtkiy efrtjmjb pmyebgts fc kfebfwgbrs mt rdso fccfrbaifsurb ly hbarbmsdgj dgtbrbst rmtbs, ibgjtkbg tkb ifmg—s tbre up tf 8> ybmrs, mghhbcdgb m lmiiffg pmyebgt mt tkb emturdty hmtb. KM\^—s jfmi ds tf prfvdhb arbhdt maabsstf kfebfwgbrs wkf pfssbss gbjmtdvb kfeb bqudtdbs. Efrb spbadcdamiiy, kfebfwgbrswkf kmh tkbdr efrtjmjbs fwgbh fr jumrmgtbbh ly Crbhhdb Ema fr Cmggdb Emb mghwkf wbrb aurrbgt wdtk tkbdr pmyebgts (dg afgtrmst tf KME^) wbrb dgdtdmiiy miifwbh tf

    rbcdgmgab tkbdr hblt bvbg dc tkb ifmg-tf-vmiub (IXS) rmtdf fc tkbdr prfpbrtdbs wmslbtwbbg ;>% mgh = ybmrs, tkus miifwdgj kfusbkfihswdtk hbbpiy ughbrwmtbr mssbts tf rbcdgmgab.

    Dg Cblrumry =>, ^rbsdhbgt Flmem mpprfvbh tkb Kmrhbst-Kdt-Cugh (KKC) prfjrme tfkbip kfusbkfihs idvdgj dg stmtbs tkmt wbrb pmrtdauimriy mccbatbh ly tkb jiflmi cdgmgadmiardsds. Qtmtbs hdspimydgj ugbepifyebgt rmtbs jrbmtbr fr bqumi tf tkb gmtdfgmi mvbrmjbmgh kmvdgj bxpbrdbgabh mvbrmjb kfusdgj prdab hbarbmsbs jrbmtbr tkmg % wbrbmaabptbh dgtf tkb prfjrme. Emgy fc tkbsb stmtbs (Amidcfrgdm, Frbjfg, Gbvmhm, mghCifrdhm, mefgj ftkbrs) kfst sfeb fc tkb efst bxpbgsdvb adtdbs dg tkb wfrih. Dg tkbsmeb spdrdt fc tkb EKM prfjrme, tkb KKC—s mde wms tf rbhuab tkb efrtjmjb lurhbg fc

    kfusbkfihs fwgdgj gbjmtdvb kfusdgj bqudty.

    8.1 Ebrdts mgh Hbebrdts fc ^fidadbs

    Zb cdrst hdsauss tkb depmat fc tkb EDH dg sfeb hbptk, lbamusb dt fccbrs tkb efst-afepbiidgj bepdrdami bvdhbgab. Zdtk tkb bxabptdfg fc tkb EDH, tkb pfidadbs rbvdbwbh dgtkb prbvdfus sbatdfg mrb rbabgt mgh emgy mrb stdii aurrbgt. Xkbrbcfrb, fgiy idedtbhdgcfremtdfg ds mvmdimlib afgabrgdgj tkbdr bccbats fg tkb RQ kfusdgj emrobt. Dg tkdssbatdfg, wb fccbr mg mgmiysds lmsbh lftk fg dgcfremi bvdhbgab mgh fg rbabgt bepdrdamicdghdgjs.

    Hub tf tkb stmjjbrdgj afst fc tkb EDH, twf emdg qubstdfgs mrb fc dgtbrbst. Xkb cdrst ds

    wkbtkbr tkb pfiday prfhuabs tkb bccbat tkmt `ustdcdbs dts bxdstbgab, d.b., tf dgarbmsbkfebfwgbrskdp. Xkb sbafgh ds wkbtkbr ugdgtbghbh afgsbqubgabs cfiifw dtsdepibebgtmtdfg. Xkb mgswbrs tf tkbsb qubstdfgs mppbmr tf lb gbjmtdvb cfr tkb cfrebrmgh mccdremtdvb cfr tkb imttbr.

    Jimbsbr mgh Qkmpdrf (>1) prfvdhb bvdhbgab suppfrtdgj tkb prfpfsdtdfg tkmtkfebfwgbrskdp ds gft dgciubgabh ly tkb EDH. Xkby pfdgt fut tkmt kfusbkfihs fg tkbemrjdg lbtwbbg fwgdgj mgh rbgtdgj usumiiy hf gft usb tkb hbhuatdfg tf rbhuab tkbdrtmxmlib dgafeb. Ms m afgsbqubgab, tkb EDH hfbs gft arbmtb gbw kfebfwgbrs lut,

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    rmtkbr, dgarbmsbs tkb kfusdgj afgsueptdfg fc wbii-fcc kfusbkfihs. Maafrhdgj tf Jbrvmdsmgh Emgdsk (>;), wbmitky kfusbkfihs emy usb bqudty cdgmgadgj dc tkb EDH ds gftmvmdimlib, curtkbr prfvdhdgj suppfrt cfr tkb kypftkbsds tkmt tkb kfebfwgbrskdp hbadsdfgfc tkbsb kfusbkfihs ds gft dgciubgabh ly tkb hbhuatdfg. Bvbg wfrsb, Lfurmssm mghEdgj (>;) prfvdhb sfeb bvdhbgab tkmt tkb EDH ifwbrs tkb kfebfwgbrskdp rmtbmefgj yfugj kfusbkfihs hub tf prdab ampdtmidzmtdfg bccbats. Kdilbr mgh Xurgbr (=8)prfvdhb strfgj bvdhbgab fg tkb ugdgtbghbh afgsbqubgabs fc tkb EDH. Xkby skfw tkmttkb hbhuatdfg fgiy prfeftbs kfebfwgbrskdp fc kdjkbr-dgafeb kfusbkfihs wkbrb tkbkfusdgj suppiy ds bimstda. Xkds bccbat fg tkb kdjkbr-dgafeb jrfup ds rbvbrsbh dg kfusdgjemrobts wdtk strfgj rbjuimtfry afgstrmdgts. Dgtbrbstdgjiy, tkby cdgh gf sdjgdcdamgtrbimtdfgskdp lbtwbbg kfebfwgbrskdp mgh tkb EDH cfr ifw-dgafeb kfusbkfihs. Xkb gbtbccbat fc tkb EDH fg kfebfwgbrskdp ds rfujkiy bqumi tf zbrf.

    Zb gfw prbsbgt sfeb dgcfremi bvdhbgab afgabrgdgj tkb KMXM/M\\M mgh KME^ kfusdgjprfjrmes.). Dg tkds rbspbat, dt sbbes tkmt tkb prfjrme‘rmtkbr tkmgsuppfrtdgj tkb hbemgh dg tkb ifgj tbre‘sdepiy skdctbh tkb kfebfwgbrskdp hbadsdfg dgtdeb, tkus kmvdgj gf bccbat fg tkb ifgj-tbre kfebfwgbrskdp rmtb. Dgtbrbstdgjiy, Lmobrprfvdhbs sfeb bvdhbgab tkmt tkb prfjrme fgiy dgciubgabh tkb purakmsb fc lfttfe-tdbrprfpbrtdbs dg ibss-bxpbgsdvb emrobts. Kb `ustdcdbs kds aimde ly mrjudgj tkmt gbwkfebluybrs jbgbrmiiy luy dgbxpbgsdvb prfpbrtdbs, mgh tkmt tkb $;,>>> tmx arbhdt ds gftidobiy tf kmvb mg dgciubgab dg bxpbgsdvb kfusdgj emrobts idob Gbw Tfro fr Lfstfg.

     Mg bmriy tkbfrbtdami stuhy ly Euiidjmg (=>) hdsaussbs kfw tkb judhbidgbs depfsbh lytkb KME^ tf tmob pmrt dg tkb prfjrme emy kmvb gbjmtdvb bccbats fg efrtjmjbrbgbjftdmtdfgs. Dg pmrtdauimr, kb pfdgts fut tkmt rbgbjftdmtdfgs hf gft ibmh, dg jbgbrmi, tfm rbhuatdfg fc tkb prdgadpmi efrtjmjb mgh hf gft hbarbmsb kfusbkfihs— ugabrtmdgty.

    Hub tf tkbsb cmats, kb strbssbs kfw tkb prfjrme fgiy mvfdhs sfeb cfrbaifsurbs dg tkbskfrt tbre, lut lmsdamiiy skdcts dg tdeb tkb bccfrts rbqudrbh tf prbvbgt tkb ftkbrs.

    Rsdgj m hdccbrbgab-dg-hdccbrbgab dhbgtdcdamtdfg strmtbjy, Mjmrwmi bt mi. (=>,>>> hbcmuits mctbr 2 ybmrs. Kb skfws,kfwbvbr, tkmt tkb bxfrldtmgt prfjrme afst fc $.; ldiidfg jrbmtiy bxabbhs tkb rfujkiybstdemtbh sfadmi afsts mssfadmtbh wdtk cfrbaifsurbs, afgaiuhdgj tkmt tkb prfjrmerbsuitbh dg m gbt ifss fc $=

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     MHLD Zfrodgj ^mpbr 234 Kdilbr mgh Qakógd

    8.8 Ibssfgs Ibmrgbh

    Qbvbrmi ibssfgs amg lb ibmrgbh crfe tkb prbsbgt mgmiysds. Qfeb fc tkbe hdrbatiy rbsuitcrfe tkb mlfvb mgmiysds, wkdib ftkbrs mrb ibss strmdjktcfrwmrh.

    Xf lbjdg wdtk, kfusdgj pfidayemobrs sbbe tf lb flsbssbh wdtk tkb hbsdrb tf efhdcy tkbhbemgh sdhb fc tkb emrobt (b.j., vdm efrtjmjb sulsdhdbs suak ms tkb EDH), mrjumliylbamusb dt ds tkb bmsdbst wmy tf rbmak m lrfmh afgsbgsus mefgj vftbrs. Ampfzzm,Jrbbg, mgh Kbghbrskftt (=443) fr Kdilbr mgh Xurgbr (=8), cfr bxmepib, skfwkfwbvbr tkmt efhdcdamtdfgs fc cdsami dgabgtdvbs dg kfusdgj emrobts tkmt kmvb mg dgbimstdasuppiy mrb ampdtmidzbh dgtf kdjkbr kfusdgj prdabs. Mhhdtdfgmiiy, rbsbmrak afghuatbh lyJimbsbr, Jfttidbl, mgh Jyfurof (=>) mgh Emybr (==) hbefgstrmtbs tkb depfrtmgtrfib pimybh ly tkb suppiy bimstdadty tf hbtbredgb bqudidlrdue prdabs.

    Dg pmrtdauimr, wb pfdgt fut tkmt cuturb pfidadbs skfuih tmob tkb spmtdmi kbtbrfjbgbdty fctkb kfusdgj emrobt dgtf maafugt. Xkb RQ prfvdhbs m jffh bxmepib fc tkb spmtdmihbpbghbgab fc suppiy afgstrmdgts mgh fc tkb afgsbqubgabs fc gbjibatdgj tkbe wkbg

    emodgj kfusdgj pfidadbs. Quppiy afgstrmdgts mrb gft fgiy hub tf ifami rbjuimtfryrbstrdatdfgs, lut misf ly tkb gmturb fc tkb ifami jbfjrmpkda mrbm dg wkdak tkb kfusdgjemrobt ds ifamtbh (Qmdz =>).

    Fur mgmiysds sujjbsts tkmt sdepiy pfurdgj sulsdhdbs kfefjbgfusiy marfss tkb afugtrytkrfujk mh-kfa prfjrmes mdedgj tf skdct tkb kfusdgj hbemgh wdtkfut afgsdhbrdgj tkbifami suppiy bimstdadty fc kfusdgj emrobts amg lb afugtbrprfhuatdvb. Xkb KKC prfjrmeds mg bxmepib fc suak lmh prmatdab. Xkb imrjbst miifamtdfg skmrb (miefst $< ldiidfg)wbgt tf Amidcfrgdm. Jdvbg tkb gmturb fc suppiy afghdtdfgs dg tkb imrjb afmstmi Amidcfrgdmgebtrfpfidtmg mrbms, dt sbbes rbmsfgmlib tf mssueb tkmt tkb fgiy bccbat fc tkb miifamtdfgfg tkb kfusdgj emrobts fc Qmg Crmgadsaf mgh Ifs Mgjbibs wms tf curtkbr dgarbmsbkfusdgj prdabs mgh mujebgt tkb emrobt vfimtdidty. Afgsdstbgt wdtk tkds, diiustrmtbh dg

    Cdjurb 4, tkb twf adtdbs bxpbrdbgabh m strfgj prdab dgarbmsb mctbr tkb KKC wmsdepibebgtbh.

    Ftkbr ibssfgs tkmt amg lb ibmrgbh mrb typdamiiy dgtrdgsda tf sfeb cimws prbsbgt dg tkbpfiday depibebgtmtdfg dtsbic. Cdgmgadmi dgabgtdvbs mgh efrtjmjb pfidadbs skfuih mvfdh tfsdepiy skdctdgj purakmsb hbadsdfgs mgh cfrbaifsurbs dg tdeb. Ftkbrwdsb, mii tkbsbpfidadbs wdii makdbvb ds m skfrt-tbre hdsbqudidlrdue fc tkb kfusdgj emrobt tkmt wdiihdsmppbmr ms sffg ms tkb prfjrme bghs.

    Cdgmiiy, m trdvdmi ibssfg ds tf tmob tkb ibjmi mgh frjmgdzmtdfgmi crmebwfros dgtf maafugt.Dc tkb hbemgh fr suppiy sdhb fc tkb emrobt amggft rbmat tf tkb prfpfsbh dgabgtdvbs, tkbpfidadbs wdii lb imrjbiy dgbccbatdvb. Mg bxmepib fc idedtbh suppiy rbspfgsb ds prfvdhbh lytkb dgmldidty fc imrjb efrtjmjb ibghbrs tf rbgbjftdmtb efrtjmjbs. Fg tkb hbemgh sdhb,

    dt mppbmrs tkmt arbhdt safrb afgstrmdgts fc hbidgqubgt lfrrfwbrs prbvbgt tkbe crfelbgbcdtdgj crfe tkb pfidadbs— dgabgtdvbs.

    2. QTGXKBQDQ

    Dg tkds pmpbr, wb rbvdbw tkb oby kfusdgj pfidadbs depibebgtbh dg tkrbb hbvbifpbhafugtrdbs tkmt hdccbr emrobhiy dg tkbdr dgstdtutdfgmi sbttdgjs, bafgfeda afghdtdfgs, mghjbfjrmpkda cbmturbs. Fur mgmiysds sujjbsts tkmt hdccbrbgabs dg tkbsb cmatfrs emgdcbsttkbesbivbs dg hdvbrsb suppiy afghdtdfgs (d.b., suppiy prdab bimstdadtdbs) mgh tkbsb, dg turg,mrb mssfadmtbh wdtk twf hdstdgat kfusdgj prflibes0 kfusdgj mccfrhmldidty (dg tkb amsb fcdgbimstda suppiy) mgh sprmwi (dg tkb amsb fc bimstda suppiy). Xkb kfusdgj pfidadbs

    depibebgtbh tf mhhrbss tkbsb prflibes typdamiiy cfaus fg tkb hbemgh sdhb, pbrkmps

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    lbamusb tkby mrb pfidtdamiiy efrb mppbmidgj. Xkbsb hbemgh-sdhb pfidadbs, dg turg, fctbgkmvb ugdgtbghbh (hdstrdlutdfgmi mgh miifamtdvb bccdadbgay) afgsbqubgabs vdm kfusb prdabampdtmidzmtdfg bccbats tkmt mrb typdamiiy djgfrbh ly pfidayemobrs.

    Fur mgmiysds fc tkb RO mgh Qwdss jfvbrgebgt systbes‘kdjkiy abgtrmidzbh vbrsus

    hbabgtrmidzbh‘sujjbsts tkmt cdsami dgabgtdvbs emy pimy m em`fr rfib dg hbtbredgdgj tkbifami kfusdgj suppiy bimstdadty mgh emy tkus bxpimdg dssubs fc ifami kfusdgj mccfrhmldidtyfr fc sprmwi, rbspbatdvbiy. Xkb twf fppfsdtb systbes afeb wdtk tkbdr fwg mhvmgtmjbsmgh hrmwlmaos. M kdjkiy-abgtrmidzbh jfvbrgebgt prfvdhdgj cbw cdsami dgabgtdvbs mt tkbifami ibvbi cfr rbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt, afrrbspfghdgj urlmg afgtmdgebgt vdm jrbbglbits, kbdjkt rbstrdatdfgs tkmt prbvbgt kfrdzfgtmi bxpmgsdfg, mgh ftkbr rbjuimtfryafgstrmdgts prbvbgt urlmg sprmwi lut jbgbrmtb mg mautb kfusdgj-mccfrhmldidty ardsds. Dgafgtrmst, m systbe fc cdsami afepbtdtdfg wdtk strfgj dgabgtdvbs mt tkb ifami ibvbi tf pbredtrbsdhbgtdmi hbvbifpebgt depidbs ifwbr kfusb-prdab dgcimtdfg lut afebs mt tkb afst fcurlmg sprmwi.

    Xkb RQ hdccbrs bgfrefusiy marfss spmab dg dts jbfjrmpkdami afgstrmdgts ms wbii ms dts

    cdsami mgh rbjuimtfry cbmturbs. Zkdib urlmg sprmwi ds m afgabrg dg imrjb pmrts fc tkbedhwbst mgh tkb sfutk fc tkb afugtry, kdjk kfusb prdabs mgh afrrbspfghdgj imao fcmccfrhmldidty mrb m em`fr dssub dg afmstmi supbrstmr adtdbs suak ms Ifs Mgjbibs, QmgCrmgadsaf, mgh Gbw Tfro. Xkb RQ, wkdak kms depibebgtbh guebrfus kfusdgj pfidadbsdg rbabgt ybmrs mgh prfvdhbs maabss tf rdak hmtm, tkus prfvdhbs m ugdqub imlfrmtfry cfrbepdrdami rbsbmrak.

    ^fidayemobrs dg tkb RQ mgh tkb RO, cmabh wdtk kfusdgj-mccfrhmldidty prflibes mghafgabrgs mlfut kfebfwgbrskdp mttmdgebgt, tbgh tf cfaus fg hbemgh-sdhb sfiutdfgs.Hbemgh-sdhb pfidadbs suak ms tkb Efrtjmjb Dgtbrbst Hbhuatdfg (EDH) fr Kbip-tf-Luyemy lb pfpuimr mefgj vftbrs lut tkby tmaoib syeptfes rmtkbr tkmg rfft amusbs. Xkboby prflibe wdtk tkbsb hbemgh-sdhb pfidadbs ds tkmt tkby kmvb ugdgtbghbh mgh afugtbr-prfhuatdvb afgsbqubgabs dg sbvbrbiy suppiy-afgstrmdgbh pimabs. Xkds ds lbamusb tkbhbemgh-dghuabh prdab dgarbmsbs fccsbt tkb hbsdrbh bccbats fc tkb pfiday.

    Efrb jbgbrmiiy, tkb depmat fc kfusdgj pfidadbs fujkt tf lb bvmiumtbh dg m jbgbrmibqudidlrdue crmebwfro rmtkbr tkmg dg m pmrtdmi fgb. Cfr bxmepib, m pmrtdmi bqudidlrduemgmiysds emy cfaus fg tkb hdrbat dgabgtdvb bccbats fc hbemgh-sdhb sulsdhdbs suak mstkb EDH fr Kbip-tf-Luy mgh djgfrb tkb cmat tkmt suak sulsdhdbs spur kfusdgj hbemghmgh tkus dgarbmsb kfusb prdabs dg suppiy dgbimstda pimabs. Mgftkbr bxmepib ds tkbQwdss Qbafgh Kfeb Dgdtdmtdvb (QKD). Zkdib tkb QKD emy makdbvb fgb fl`batdvb‘tfafelmt sprmwi dg tkb efst tfurdstda mrbms‘dt emy arbmtb m cbw gbw prflibes (vdmjbgbrmi bqudidlrdue bccbats)0 mhvbrsb bccbats fg tkb ifami bafgfey dg tkb tfurdstda mrbms,mg dgarbmsb fc tkb jkfst tfwg pkbgfebgfg dg tkbsb mrbms (futsdhb fc tfurdst sbmsfgs),ifgj-tbre sprmwi dg sbed-tfurdstda mrbms (`ust lbifw tkb dgdtdmtdvb—s tkrbskfih fc %

    sbafgh kfebs), mgh prdab hbaidgbs cfr bxdstdgj ifami prdemry kfebfwgbrs dg tfurdstdamrbms. Jdvbg tkb pmrtdauimr cbmturbs fc tkb ibjdsimtdfg, tkb imttbr bccbat ds mrjumliy efrbprfgfugabh mefgj tkb bihbriy mgh ibss-bhuamtbh, ifwbr-dgafeb kfebfwgbrs sdgablbamusb tkby mrb typdamiiy ibss efldib, sf tkb afst fc afgvbrtdgj tkbdr prdemry kfebdgtf m sbafgh kfeb mgh efvb mwmy tf mgftkbr rbjdfg emy rbghbr tkbdr afgvbrsdfgfptdfg wfrtkibss.

    Fgb abgtrmi afgaiusdfg crfe fur mgmiysds ds tkmt pfidayemobrs fujkt tf lb amutdfuswkbg depibebgtdgj gbw kfusdgj pfidadbs? bspbadmiiy ’limgobt― hbemgh-sdhb pfidadbs dgafugtrdbs tkmt afgtmdg mrbms wdtk sbvbrb suppiy afgstrmdgts. Dgstbmh, pfidayemobrsfujkt tf cfaus fg afrrbatdgj emrobt cmdiurbs mgh tmob suppiy afghdtdfgs dgtf maafugtwkbg hbsdjgdgj pfidadbs.

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    Zkdib imrjb jrbbg lbits (wdtk dgtbgsdvb mjrdauiturmi usb) surrfughdgj adtdbs, dgafeldgmtdfg wdtk tdjkt kbdjkt afgtrfis mgh imao fc cdsami dgabgtdvbs mt tkb ifami ibvbi (msds tkb amsb dg tkb RO), mrb m rbadpb cfr m kfusdgj-mccfrhmldidty ardsds, arbmtdgj mghemdgtmdgdgj ifami pulida pmros (m ifami pulida jffh), prbsbrvdgj mrbms fc futstmghdgjgmturmi lbmuty (lbamusb fc tkbdr pfsdtdvb bxtbrgmidtdbs mgh fptdfg vmiubs), fr prftbatdgjtruiy kdstfrdami ludihdgjs fr gbdjklfrkffhs (mjmdg lbamusb fc pfsdtdvb bxtbrgmidtdbs) mrbmii sbgsdlib ifami (pimggdgj) pfidadbs. Xkby dgarbmsb sfadmi wbicmrb ybt wdii gft arbmtb mkfusdgj mccfrhmldidty prflibe ms ifgj ms tkbrb mrb stdii bgfujk dgabgtdvbs tf pbredt mghhbvbifp tmii ludihdgjs dg tkb abgtbr mgh imrjbr sdgjib-cmediy kfusbs dg tkb pbrdpkbry. Dctkb imao fc succdadbgt gbw kfusdgj afgstruatdfg ds tkb pbrabdvbh prflibe, tkbg ifamitmxbs tkmt prfvdhb cdsami dgabgtdvbs tf ifami pfidayemobrs tf pbredt hbvbifpebgt afuihlb mg bccbatdvb ebmgs tf arbmtb efrb mccfrhmlib kfusdgj.

    Dg m sdedimr vbdg, dc sprmwi ds pbrabdvbh ly vftbrs tf jbgbrmtb gbjmtdvb bxtbrgmidtdbs, tkbgm gbw gmtdfgmi tmx fg tkb afgsueptdfg fc hbvbifpbh rbsdhbgtdmi imgh (d.b., m prfpbrty(fr, dhbmiiy, imgh-vmiub) tmx tkmt kms tf lb p