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INDIAN ARCHITECTURE PRESENTED BY: KIM MOLINA MAISIE RIVERA

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Page 1: HISTORY: INDIAN ARCHITECTURE 2.0

INDIAN ARCHITECTUR

EPRESENTED BY:

KIM MOLINAMAISIE RIVERA

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HINDU ARCHITECTU

RE

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began with humble caves and squat flat-roofed temples

evolved over the centuries standard arrangement involved a huge

walled complex with massive decorative gateway entrances to a sacred space of lesser shrines surrounded by the main temple and its monumental series of towers

HINDU ARCHITECTURE

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design is popular in temples across the world from New Delhi to Malibu, California.

essential elements of the style: precise and harmonious geometry when

viewed from all four sides and above the square form and grid ground plans soaring towers elaborate decorate sculpture which includes

gods, worshippers, erotic scenes, animals, and floral and geometric patterns

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1st century CE: a new type of worship known as Bhakti or

devotional Hinduism spread across the Indian sub-continent

old Vedic gods were replaced by deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna,Brahma, and Devi

worship required temples

BEGINNINGS:

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temples housed a sacred symbol of a particular god, which could be decorated with sculptural figures of them so recalling episodes from their mythological adventures,

provided a space for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals such as bathing and dancing by professional female dancers (devadasi).  

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temple  considered the dwelling place of a particular god

(devalaya) a sacred place (tirtha) where heaven and earth meet as a god’s home, it must be a suitably splendid

palace (prasada) needs of the god would, additionally, be supervised

by a dedicated body of priests (pujaris) who attended the temple.

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Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as the stupa, the first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut caves and repeated the idea of relief panels and the decorative gavaska window form. Then, with the arrival of Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu temples were constructed with features such as towers and projecting niches.

EARLY INFLUENCES:

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The first materials used were wood and terracotta, but architects gradually moved on to brick and stone, especially sandstone, granite, schist, and marble.

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Udaigiri Cave Temples (5th Century CE)

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Dasavatara Temple (6th Century CE)

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The Hindu temple (mandir) • laid out according to the eight cardinal

directions• a god representing each one (dikpala) may

sometimes be represented in sculpture on the temple’s exterior

• built on an elaborately carved platform (adhisthana), the temple is often referred to in ancient Hindu texts on architecture (the Vastu Shastras) as the sacred mountain Meru or Kailasa, the dwelling of Shiva in the Himalayas

HINDU TEMPLE FEATURES:

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The Dome and Steeple: The steeple of the dome is called ‘shikhara’ (summit) that represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. The shape of the dome varies from region to region and the steeple is often in the form of the trident of Shiva.

The Inner Chamber: The inner chamber of the temple called ‘garbhagriha’ or ‘womb-chamber’ is where the image or idol of the deity (‘murti’) is placed. In most temples, the visitors cannot enter the garbhagriha, and only the temple priests are allowed inside.

The 6 parts of a Hindu Temple:

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Worshippers consider that energy flows out in all directions from the garbhagriha, and this is reflected in the architecture of the surrounding parts of the temple. For example, on three sides temples have blind doors which symbolically allow the deity’s energy to leave the inner garbhagriha. (ghana dvara) .

The Temple Hall: Most large temples have a hall meant for the audience to sit. This is also called the ‘nata-mandira’ (hall for temple-dancing) where, in days of yore, women dancers or ‘devadasis’ used to perform dance rituals.

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Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or watch the priests perform the rituals. The hall is usually decorated with paintings of gods and goddesses.

The Front Porch: This area of the temples usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from the ceiling. Devotees entering and leaving the porch ring this bell to declare their arrival and departure.

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The Reservoir: If the temple is not in the vicinity of a natural water body, a reservoir of fresh water is built on the temple premises. The water is used for rituals as well as to keep the temple floor clean or even for a ritual bath before entering the holy abode.

The Walkway: Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for circum- ambulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to the temples god or goddess.

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Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, 11th Century CE Rajarani Temple, 11th Century CE

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Durma Temple, 8th Century

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Gopura & Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, 12th Century CE

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Architecture evolved slightly differently in different regions, such as the distinct features of Orissa, Kashmir and Bengal temples, but two general types are identified as the Nagara (North) and Dravida (South) styles.

NAGARA & DRAVIDA TEMPLES

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• sikhara tower in Nagara temples have a sloping curve as they rise• have decorative arches known

as gavakshas and are topped by an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk – and also a small pot and finial• walls of Nagara temples present a

complex exterior of projections (ratha), with seven on each side which create many recesses.

NAGARA:

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• towers (known separately as vimana) are more dome-like with cornices, and they are topped by another smaller dome.

• exterior walls have regular entablatures which often contain sculpture.

• temples can also have: ritual bathing tank or pool (nandi mandapa) barrel-vaulted (shala) roof enclosed within a walled courtyard with a gate (gopura)

DRAVIDA:

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Brihadishvara Temple, Tanjavur Annamalaiyar Temple

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BUDDHIST ARCHITECTU

RE

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developed in the Indian Subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE.

has it roots deeply implanted in the Indian Soil-the birthplace of Buddha’s teachings.

Began with the development of various symbols representing Buddha’s life.

Indian emperor Ashoka opted for the architectural monuments to spread Buddhism in different places.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE

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STUPASa mound-like or hemispherical structure

containing relics typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns), and used as a place of meditation. Also known in Thailand as a chedi.

The initial function of a stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha. The earliest surviving example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).

MAJOR FEATURES OF THIS STYLE INCLUDES:

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Types of Stupas:

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function into five types: Relic stupa, in which the relics or remains of the

Buddha, his disciples and lay saints are interred. Object stupa, in which the items interred are

objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.

Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.

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Symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobuddur is considered to be the symbol of "the Three Worlds (dhatu) and the spiritual stages (bhumi) in a Mahayana bodhisattva'scharacter."[11]

Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

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Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements: The square base represents earth The hemispherical dome/vase represents water The conical spire represents fire The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon

represents air The sun and the dissolving point represents the

element of space

Five purified elements:

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There are mainly 3 main stupas on the top of the Sanchi Hill which rise about

100 m above the plain

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THE GREAT STUPA SANCHI located at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the

state of Madhya Pradesh, India, it is 46 km north-east of Bhopal.

the oldest stone structure in India[1] and was originally commissioned by the emperor Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE.

 Its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha. It was crowned by the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank, which was intended to honour and shelter the relics. 

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Amravati Stupa

The Amravati stupa, which is also known as Mahachaitya Stupa, has the privilege of being the largest stupa(95 feet high) in India - the birthplace of Buddhism. Built during the 2nd century BCE, the stupa was discovered by a British archaeologist, Colonel Colin Mackenzie in 1797. The stupa was earlier a simple structure with limestone crossbars and simple carvings, but when renovated by the Satavahana rulers, became a highly marked architectural monument. 

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VIHARASis the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist

monastery. It originally meant "a secluded place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering monks during the rainy season.

initially were only temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but later were developed to accommodate the growing and increasingly formalised Buddhist monasticism. An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).

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Nalanda

was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large Buddhistmonastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Bihar) in India. The site is located about 95 kilometres southeast of Patna near the town of Bihar Sharif, and was a centre of learning from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE.

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CHAITYASis a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at

one end. In modern texts on Indian architecture, the term chaitya-griha is often used to denote an assembly or prayer hall that houses a stupa.

constructed to hold large numbers of devotees and to provide shelter for them.

show similarities to ancient Roman architectural concepts of column and arch. 

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Worship hall (chaitya) in India

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Stupa in chaitya at Bhaja

Caves.

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ISLAMIC (MUGHAL)

ARCHITECTURE

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was established in India when Babur Shah defeated Ibrahim, Sultan of Delhi

1526: the golden age of Muslim architecture began Babur took considerable interest in erecting

buildings, though few have survived style: amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkic, and Indian

architecture Mughal buildings pattern of structure:

large bulbous domes slender minarets at the corners massive halls large vaulted gateways delicate ornamentation

ISLAMIC (MUGHAL) ARCHITECTURE

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Variety of buildings

The Mughal rulers built magnificent gates, forts, mausoleums, mosques, palaces, public buildings and tombs etc.Synthesis of Persian and Indian style

The specimens of architecture created under the Mughals have become the common heritage of both the Hindus and the Muslims. It is a happy blend of Hindu and Muslim architecture.

MAIN FEATURES OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE:

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Specific characteristic

A common characteristic of the Mughal buildings is “the pronounced domes, the slender turrets at the corners, the palace halls supported on pillars and the broad/gateways.”Costly decorations:

The Mughal emperors in general but Shah Jahan in particular decorated his buildings with costly articles.

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One of the important distinguishing features of the Mughal buildings is their ornamentation as compared with the simple buildings of the previous Muslim rulers of India.Building material

During the Mughal period, buildings were constructed mostly of red sandstone and white marble.

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BABUR (1526-1530)

Babur was not impressed by Indian architecture. He was unhappy to find no gardens in India like the ones he had known in Kabul. As soon as Babur arrived in Agra, he selected a site across the river, had a well dug and constructed a bath-house. This was followed by a tank and a pavilion. And soon a Persian garden was laid out that reminded Babur of his northern home.

ARCHITECTS

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Nevertheless he sent for the pupils of Sinan the noted Albanian architect to work with Indian craftsmen whose skills he had appreciated. As Babur recorded in his ‘Memories’, he employed 680 workmen and 1491 stone cutters daily on his various buildings in India. He constructed several buildings but only two mosques—one at Panipat and the other at Sambhal have survived.

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Gardens of Babur

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Gardens of Babur

The Gardens of Babur is a historic park in Kabul, Afghanistan, and also the last resting-place of the first Mughal emperor Babur. The gardens are thought to have been developed around 1528 AD when Babur gave orders for the construction of an ‘avenue garden’ in Kabul, described in some detail in his memoirs, the Baburnama.

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It was the tradition of Moghul princes to develop sites for recreation and pleasure during their lifetime, and choose one of these as a last resting-place. The site continued to be of significance to Babur’s successors, and Jehangir made a pilgrimage to the site in 1607 AD when he ordered that all gardens in Kabul be surrounded by walls, that a prayer platform be laid in front of Babur’s grave, and an inscribed headstone placed at its head.

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AKBAR (1556-1605)

The history of Mughal architecture really starts with Akbar, Babur’s grandson. Just as Akbar built up an extensive empire on the goodwill of the Hindus, in the same way he utilised local talent and took inspiration from Indian architecture. One of the earliest buildings built is the Tomb of Humayun, in Delhi. It was built after Humayun’s death. This splendid tomb is a fine example of the synthesis of Indian-Persian traditions. Other structures created during Akbar’s reign were Fatehpuri Sikri and the Panch Mahal.

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Tomb of Humayun

Humayun's tomb is the tomb of the Mughal Emperor Humayun in Delhi, India. The tomb was commissioned by Humayun's son Akbar in 1569-70, and designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a Persian architect. It was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent, and is located in Nizamuddin East, Delhi, India, close to the Dina-panah citadel also known as Purana Qila (Old Fort) that Humayun founded in 1533. 

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The tomb is a massive structure, built out of red sandstone and detailed with white marble. Also known as the Taj Mahal’s predecessor, it too has a dome, which rises from a drum between four octagonal towers, which stand on a red, arcaded podium. Inside, the structure is quite empty, the cavernous spaces magnifying the power of the architecture. Besides the main tomb enclosure of Humayun, several smaller monuments dot the pathway leading up to it, from the main entrance in the West.

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 It represented a leap in Mughal architecture, and together with its accomplished Charbagh garden, typical of Persian gardens, but never seen before in India, it set a precedent for subsequent Mughal architecture. It is seen as a clear departure from the fairly modest mausoleum of his father, the first Mughal Emperor, Babur, called Bagh

-e Babur (Gardens of Babur) in Kabul (Afghanistan).

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Fatehpur Sikri

Fatehpur Sikri is located in Agra District in the State of Uttar Pradesh in the North East of India. It was constructed at south-east of an artificial lake, on the slopping levels of the outcrops of the Vindhyan hill ranges. Known as the “city of victory”, it was made capital by the Mughal emperor Akbar (1556-1605 AD) and constructed between 1571 and 1573 AD. Fatehpur Sikri was the first planned city of the Mughals marked by magnificent administrative, residential and religious buildings comprised of palaces, public buildings, mosques, living areas for the court, the army, the servants of the king and an entire city.

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Upon moving the capital to Lahore in 1585 AD, Fatehpur Sikri remained as an area for temporary visits by the Mughal emperors.  

The inscribed property covers 60.735 ha, with a buffer zone of 475.542 ha. It is bounded on three sides by a wall of 6 km, fortified by towers and pierced by 9 gates, in which a number of impressive edifices of secular and religious nature, which exhibit a fusion of prolific and versatile Indo-Islamic styles, exist. The city was originally rectangular in plan, with a grid pattern of roads and by-lanes which cut at right angles.

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The well defined administrative block, royal palaces and Jami Mosque are located in the centre of the city. There was an efficient drainage and water management system existing in the city. The buildings are constructed in red sandstone with little use of marble.

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Diwan-i-Am (the hall of public audience) Diwan-i-Khas (hall of private audience) also

known as ‘Jewel house’ Panch Mahal- an extraordinary entirely columnar

five storied structure disposed asymmetrically on the pattern of Persian badgir or wind-catcher

Palace of Jodha Bai- the largest building of the residential complex, the interior has richly carved pillars, balconies, perforated stone windows and azure-blue ribbed roof on the north and south sides

Buland Darwaza- the greatest monumental structure of the Akbar’s entire reign and also one of the most perfect architectural achievements in India

Other famed structures:

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Buland Darwaza Panch Mahal

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Palace of Jodha Bai

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SHAH JAHAN (1628-1658)Shah Jahan’s period is usually called the

‘Golden Age of Mughal Architecture’ and he is given the titles of ‘Prince among the Builders’ and ‘Engineer King’. His most important and impressive buildings are the Taj Mahal, Red Fort and Jama Masjid. These buildings are extremely beautiful and soft.

Shah Jahan mostly made use of marble in place of red stone. With a view to enhance the beauty and effect of the ceilings, he made full use of gold, silver, precious and coloured stones. At several places, the pictures of trees, animal scenes and other flora and fauna have been depicted. 

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The Red Fort

The planning and design of the Red Fort represents a culmination of architectural development initiated in 1526 AD by the first Mughal Emperor and brought to a splendid refinement by Shah Jahan with a fusion of traditions: Islamic, Persian, Timurid and Hindu. The innovative planning arrangements and architectural style of building components as well as garden design developed in the Red Fort strongly influenced later buildings and gardens in Rajasthan, Delhi, Agra and further afield.

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The fort is surrounded by high, red walls interspersed with tapering towers. Upon entrance, visitors are led to a glorious bazaar then to the palace gardens and pavilions. The buildings are a meeting of enclosed, semi-enclosed, and open spaces set between arcades and colonnades under deep eaves that act like eyelids. These are ideal for Delhi’s climate which is hot in the summer months. All buildings feature sculptures through which water flows, while the gardens are lined with canals and adorned with fountains.

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Artist’s depiction of The Red Fort 

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The Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is located on the right bank of the Yamuna River in a vast Mughal garden that encompasses nearly 17 hectares, in the Agra District in Uttar Pradesh. It was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal with construction starting in 1632 AD and completed in 1648 AD, with the mosque, the guest house and the main gateway on the south. The outer courtyard and its cloisters were added subsequently and completed in 1653 AD. Ustad-Ahmad Lahori was the main architect of the Taj Mahal.

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The uniqueness of Taj Mahal lies in some truly remarkable innovations carried out by the horticulture planners and architects of Shah Jahan. One such genius planning is the placing of tomb at one end of the quadripartite garden rather than in the exact centre, which added rich depth and perspective to the distant view of the monument. It is also, one of the best examples of raised tomb variety.

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The tomb rests on a plinth surrounded by four minarets, scaled down to emphasize the dome. The towers are closely coupled to the core of the building, increasing the sense of unity and oneness that Shah Jahan felt for his wife. The top of the platform is reached through a lateral flight of steps provided in the centre of the southern side. The ground plan of the Taj Mahal is in perfect balance of composition, the octagonal tomb chamber in the centre, encompassed by the portal halls and the four corner rooms.

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The plan is repeated on the upper floor. The exterior of the tomb is square in plan, with chamfered corners.

The building material used is brick-in-lime mortar veneered with red sandstone and marble and inlay work of precious/semi precious stones. The mosque and the guest house in the Taj Mahal complex are built of red sandstone in contrast to the marble tomb in the centre.

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SIKHARCHITECTUR

E

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a world-renowned style of architecture that is characterized with values of progressiveness, exquisite intricacy, austere beauty and logical flowing lines.

was initially developed within Sikhism but its style is used in many non-religious building due its beauty. 

distinguished for its many curves and straight linesare known the world over for their characteristic

vigor, valor, versatility, above all their distinct physical, moral and spiritual identity, their architecture should have remained so abjectly unidentified.

SIKH ARCHITECTURE

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Style and design of building conspicuously popular among the Sikhs, is owed primarily to their religious monuments. Their secular edifices such as fortresses, palaces, samadhs (mausoleums built over places of cremation), havelis (fortified houses), bungas (residential cum educational houses ), educational institutions, etc, are no different from the contemporary style which is generally a mixture of Mughal and Rajput architecture, or as Percy Browne, an art historian, has described, a late form of the Mughal style of architecture.

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more spacious haveentrance from all four sides not oriented to any set direction as the Muslim

mosques are. Guru ka Langar (common kitchen and dining hall most gurdwaras have sarovars (bathing tanks)

in close proximity recognizable from afar by the nishan sahib, the

Sikh penant in yellow or blue flying atop a high flagpost

TEMPLE FEATURES:

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devoid of any sculptured images in or around them

do not have to conform to any set architectural design

only established requirement is the installation of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Holy Sikh Scripture, in a building under a canopy or in a canopied seat, usually on a platform higher than the floor on which the devotees sit

some imitate the pattern of the Harimandar, the most sacred shrine of the Sikhs located in the walled city of Amritsar.

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Religious buildings of the Sikhs, the gurdwaras, also display the essentially eclectic nature of their architectural design, but they at the same time possess some special features, and present an identifiable picture of a style which can doubtlessly be called Sikh Architecture.

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square rectangular octagonal cruciform (rarely used) the one notable example

is Gurdwara NanakJhira at Bidar in Karnataka. Among the octagonal, the best known is Gurdwara Baba Atal in Amritsar. Many a gurdwara has octagonal sanctum sanctorum within its square or rectangular hall. A covered circumambulate passage usually runs around the sanctum.

FOUR BASIC PLAN FORMS:

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The Samadhi of Ranjit Singh is a building housing the funerary urns of the Sikh

ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

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Khalsa College is an historic educational institution in the northern Indian city of Amritsar in the state of Punjab, India.

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JAIN ARCHITECTU

RE

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Once the Indo-Aryans had settled in India, and produced the corpus of works collectively known as the Vedas and Puranas, we witness a slow stratification of religion in the Indian subcontinent. It was to challenge this stratification that two of the world’s major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, took root in north India in the 5th century BC.

JAIN ARCHITECTURE

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While Buddhism went on to become a major religion across much of Asia, Jainism stayed close to its roots and flowered in the fertile soil of the Indian subcontinent’s intellectual and cultural ferment of the time. Indeed, one of Jainism’s central tenets, the principle of ‘Anantekavada’ or ‘many truths’, meshed well with Hinduism’s ‘polymorphous’ character and thus the two religions never came into open conflict but co-existed well with each other.

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The architecture of Jainism, however, is less easy to define. While its temples are based originally on the Hindu temple plan, the difference lies in the deities placed inside, Jainism preferring to situate images of the tirthankaras within the precincts of the temple.

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Jain architecture is an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles. Initially these temples were mainly carved out of rock faces and the use of bricks was almost negligible. Pillars

Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming squares. From these pillars, there are richly carved brackets that emerge at about two thirds of their height.

FEATURES OF JAIN TEMPLES :

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The squares thus formed create chambers, used as small chapels and contains the image of a deity. Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming squares.

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RoofsThe roofs have pointy domes and wherever

there is a dome, the pillars are omitted to create an octagonal space within.

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Chamuhk DesignThe only variation in architecture specific to Jain temples

is the frequently seen four-faced or chaumukh design. In these four faced temples, the image of a Tirthankar faces back to back to face four cardinal directions. Entry into these temples is also from four doors that face the cardinal directions.

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An important aspect to be noted is that Hindus and Buddhists built temples, Jains built temple- cities on hills. In later years when Jains discovered the concept of mountains of immortality, they proceeded to deviate from Hindu and Buddhist sites and build on their own. To put it in their own words, they "ornamented these holy hills with a crown of eternal Arhat chaityas (tabernacles of saints) shining with the splendor of jewels”.

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Compared to the number of Hindu temples in India, Jain temples are few and spaced out. The latter used to tear down their older, decaying temples and build new ones at the same site. On the other hand Jain temples had a certain militant aura around them, probably because of plunderers who may have carried away riches. Surrounded by embattled walls, the Jain temples are divided into wards in a manner similar to fortified cities. The reason being that Jain temples are the richest temples in the world, surpassing even Mughal buildings in terms of grandeur and material wealth.

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The temple-cities were not built on a specific plan; instead they were the results of sporadic construction. Natural levels of the hill on which the `city’ was being built accommodated various levels so that as one goes higher so does the architecture and grandeur increases. Each temple, though, followed a set pattern, styles, designed on principles of architecture in use during the period. The only variation was in the form of frequent Chamukhs or four-faced temples.

TEMPLE LAYOUT:

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In these the image of a Tirthankar (fordmaker) would face four sides, or four Tirthankars would be placed back to back to face four cardinal points. Entry into this temple would be from four doors.

The leading idea of the plan of the Jain temple is that of a number of columns arranged in squares. Wherever it was intended to have a dome, pillars were omitted, so as to leave spaces in the form of octagons. By corbelling over the pendentives in level courses, the dome was gradually formed.

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Usually the exits lead into a series of columned chambers into the central halls of the temple. These columns, standing around for no apparent purpose, might make the place seem like a mindless labyrinth, but on closer scrutiny it becomes evident that there is a style and method in it. 

Simply put, these are temples within a temple, divided into sanctums and surrounded by a range of chapels and shrines, and the maze of columns act as a defense against plunderers.

INTERIOR LAYOUT:

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FAMOUS JAIN TEMPLES:

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Adinath Temple, Ranakpur

Local legend has it that Dharma Shah, a local Jain businessperson, started construction of the temple in the 15th century following a divine vision. The temple honors Adinath, the first Tirthankar and founder of the Jain religion. The town of Ranakpur and the temple are named after the provincial ruler monarch, Rana Kumbha who supported the construction of the temple.

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Light colored marble has been used for the construction of this grand temple which occupies an area of approximately 60 x 62 meters. The temple, with its distinctive domes, shikhara, turrets and cupolas rises majestically from the slope of a hill. Over 1444 marble pillars, carved in exquisite detail, support the temple. The pillars are all differently carved and no two pillars are the same. It is also said that it is impossible to count the pillars. Also all the statues face one or the other statue.

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There is one beautiful carving made out of a single marble rock where there 108 heads of snakes and numerous tails. One cannot find the end of the tails. The image faces all four cardinal directions. In the axis of the main entrance, on the western side, is the largest image.

The temple is designed as chaumukha—with four faces. The construction of the temple and quadrupled image symbolize the Tirthankara's conquest of the four cardinal directions and hence the cosmos.

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Lal Mandir

Shri Digambar Jain Lal Mandir is the oldest and best-known Jain temple in Delhi, India. It is known for an avian veterinary hospital in a second building behind the main temple. It is known as the Jain Birds Hospital.

Located just opposite the massive Red Fort at the intersection of Netaji Subhas Marg and Chandni Chowk, Digambar Jain Temple is the oldest Jain temple in the capital, originally built in 1656. 

The main devotional area of the temple is on the first floor.

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It is reached by ascending to the terrace after crossing the small courtyard of the temple, surrounded by a colonnade. There are a number of shrines in this area but the main shrine is of Lord Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara. The statue of Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara is also present here, along with the shrine of Lord Parshvanath, the immediate predecessor of Lord Mahavira. The temple is popular among the Jains. The place is very peaceful and the ambience is really soothing especially due to the shining of the gilded paintwork of the shrine area under the lights of butter lamps and candles.

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Palitana Temples

The Palitana temples are considered to be the most sacred tirtha (pilgrimage place) by the Jain community. There are hundreds of temples, with estimates ranging between 863 and 1,008. They are arranged in systematic groupings with variation in height and space. The buildings are carved in marble and are considered to be prayers in stone. They are grouped in nine separate wings ortuks, each wing having a separate central shrine or temple with minor shrines surrounding it.

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They have the unique features of the Chaumukh temple which is stated to be their creative preoccupation for large halls for holding discourses. This was prompted by their first tirthanakara’s discourse. It is an ensemble involving four sided buildings with doors so that images would be visible from all four sides or directions. The four sides are called the caturbimba (four sided views), which is considered auspicious from all directions. Their religious texts also are oriented towards building "cities of temples" like Palitana and Ranakpur, a particular feature in Jainism.

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The larger temples have considerable marble halls with columns and towers, and plenty of openings, unlike Hindu temples. They are situated in separate enclosures, surrounded by high fortified walls. Many of the temples are very small buildings only about 3 square feet (0.28 m2), with Jain emblems, and sacred to Mahavira. The marble floors have tesselated patterns. The interiors are intricately carved, with carved ceilings with geometrical lace designs, clustered together to form a canopy.

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BAHAI ARCHITECTUR

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successfully incorporates spiritual, artistic, and cultural influences within its eight Houses of Worship around the world.

the edifices attempt to create an atmosphere where people of all beliefs, cultures, and traditions can come to pray, meditate, or simply enjoy the tranquility and artistry.

is very different from the sacred architecture of any other era, because its goals are to unify the people of many different races, backgrounds, and religions into one central area where peaceful and harmonious thoughts prevail.

BAHAI ARCHITECTURE

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The Houses of Worship were erected in Turkestan, India, Uganda, Panama, Samoa, Australia, Germany, and North America. In each location, the surrounding indigenous culture is restated within the temple's architectural form and sacred symbolic decorations. 

 

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Other religions have used architectural designs that reflect cultural influences. However, the Bahá'í Faith takes a "grass roots" approach to constructing a House of Worship. Consultation with the native people is an integral part of the decision process when designs are selected.

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The Bahá'í House of Worship is an architectural and spiritual attempt to balance modern and traditional designs in an aesthetically pleasing environment. The designs include the symbolism of the divine circle, the reflection of heaven on earth, and the spirituality of sacred borders.

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The Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois,

The Lotus Temple, located in New Delhi, India, is a Bahá'í House of Worship

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Baha'i House of Worship, Kampala, Uganda

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Bahá'í House of Worship, Langenhain, Germany

Bahá'í House of Worship, Sydney, Australia.

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The success of Bahá'í architecture in including the elements of spirituality, artistry, and cultural heritage within the Houses of Worship can be measured by several criteria, which include their architectural soundness and strength; the universal appeal among visitors and experts; and the approval of the indigenous people. On the basis of these measures, the Houses are artistic examples of cultural beauty that represent the world's great religious traditions.

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END OFPRESENTATIO

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