history and fiction in walter scott's novels

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BORIS G. REIZOV HISTORY AND FICTION IN WALTER SCOTT'S NOVELS In creating a new genre of historical novel, Walter Scott also introduced a new type of literary work, a new type of artistic conception, which tremendously influenced the development of the artistic, philosophical and historical thought of his time. His novels were an answer to the problems that European thought had to face in those revolutionary times; upon this rests Scott's fame and the unusual popularity of his novels with the readers of several successive decades. This discovery, like any other discovery, results from many years' careful work of generations engaged in building a new Europe, and defend- ing it in continuous battles, and thinking over their victories and mistakes. Scott himself had long nursed this discovery before it was realized in his novels: he had to have experienced youthful passions which manifested themselves in his translations, dra- matic studies and his long poems which won him the name of a great poet. Analysis of an historical novel used to be based on proving or denying its historical authenticity. For that purpose, one had to distinguish between 'truth' and 'fiction', that is, between the facts borrowed by the author from 'genuine' documents and the facts invented by him and not found in historical re- cords. But to perform such an operation on the novels of Walter Scott was basically impossible, because truth and fic- tion, history and novel form an inseparable unity in them. It could be maintained that Richard I really existed while the jest- er Wamba, the swineherd Gurth, Lady Rowena and the others

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BORIS G. REIZOV

HISTORY AND FICTION IN WALTER SCOTT'S NOVELS

In creating a new genre of historical novel, Walter Scott also introduced a new type of literary work, a new type of artistic conception, which tremendously influenced the development of the artistic, philosophical and historical thought of his time. His novels were an answer to the problems that European thought had to face in those revolutionary times; upon this rests Scott's fame and the unusual popularity of his novels with the readers of several successive decades. This discovery, like any other discovery, results from many years' careful work of generations engaged in building a new Europe, and defend- ing it in continuous battles, and thinking over their victories and mistakes.

Scott himself had long nursed this discovery before it was realized in his novels: he had to have experienced youthful passions which manifested themselves in his translations, dra- matic studies and his long poems which won him the name of a great poet.

Analysis of an historical novel used to be based on proving or denying its historical authenticity. For that purpose, one had to distinguish between 'truth' and 'fiction', that is, between the facts borrowed by the author from 'genuine' documents and the facts invented by him and not found in historical re- cords. But to perform such an operation on the novels of Walter Scott was basically impossible, because truth and fic- tion, history and novel form an inseparable unity in them. I t could be maintained that Richard I really existed while the jest- er Wamba, the swineherd Gurth, Lady Rowena and the others

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were invented by the author. But one could only find it out by taking the novel to pieces and forming from them some abstraction which Scott as an historian ~ and a novelist was unable to do.

This abstraction exerted a strong influence upon all critics of the old classical school of Scott's day. They maintained that an historical novel is a dangerous pack of lies, the more so, as the author puts on his fiction an air of genuine history, whereas in any novel not claiming to be historical, fiction is not dis- guised as truth. This point of view was shared even by those who had been strongly influenced by Waker Scott, for example the French historians Augustin Thierry and his younger con- temporary Jules Michelet.

Those critics who admired Scott said something seemingly different. They maintained that Scott was not only a novelist but also an historian, that in his novels truth and fiction had equal standing and could exist without disturbing each other; and this constituted the novelist's greatness: otherwise, he would be 'deceiving', the reader making him take real facts for lies and his fiction for real facts. That was their way to justify the very genre of historical novel which immediately became a dominating form of contemporary literature.

However, neither approach had any relation to Scott's artistic technique. Both of them were a kind of vivisection a- mounting to the murder of the living body of Walter Scott's aaovels, giving no explanation to the problem set up by him. In his novels Scott did away with the traditional distinction between history and fiction, the distinction which was only possible in pre-Walter Scott period.

Let us try and follow this approach: let us make an attempt to separate truth from fiction in, say, his most popular, and most discussed, novel, Ivanhoe.

In Ivanhoe there are several historical characters, the prin- cipal one being Richard I. But Richard's actions described in the novel are not to be found in any historical documents and Scott doesn't seem to be much worried about it. He showed

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Richard as seen by him through the pages of genuine docu- ments. By making Richard visit Friar Tuck's hut and set up a merry feast there, Scott reproduced Richard's character welcoming all the unexpected things in life and utterly consist- ent with the knights' tradition of 'seeking adventure'. In addi- tion, Scott made use of the old ballads with an analogous motif that was widely spread not only in England and Scotland but also over all of Europe, Africa and Asia, and echoed in 'The Lady of the Lake' and also in Lermontov's 'Ismail-Bei'. As depicted in the novel, Richard's character is even truer to life than it would have been, had the author known the real person.

One can maintain that the two tall gypsies, Jane and Madge Gordon, who served as prototype for Meg Merrilies, are hardly convincing while Meg is the very truth or rather history itself. Scott had to 'complete' these two gypsies and to 'invent' his heroine as explained by her environment, morals and circum- stances, thus making her express an historical and, therefore, a human truth. There have existed such persons as John Balfour Burley and Claverhouse, but history cannot tell us what reality was connected with those names. Describing these shadows of the past Scott created riving people in all probability of real life like an historian creates or 'imagines' his heroes from the dim memories of the past, in accordance with the law of suffi- cient reason.

Apparently, Scott invented both his historical and non- historical characters. A novelist certainly needs documents and other information of the epoch for his work, but he often has to free himself from their despotism which might easily spoil historical work of an artist. The same reasons made Scott try and avoid historical names and introduce a multitude of invented characters, so that he could freely search for, and create, the truth. An imaginative character can represent a greater historical truth than an historical person introduced in the novel; in creating and explaining an imaginative charac- ter, the author can make use of more evidence on morals, every-

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day life, life of the people, that is, of the evidence not recorded in the documents but essential for the character of the epoch.

We are not trying to manipulate with the words or to trans- late the artistic impression into the language of history, Scott's characters are both artistic and historic revelation. Scott him- self, as well as his readers, treated his characters as produced by history and not by his own fantasy. To have discovered the regularities which have produced this or that character, meant an historical study of the epoch, of its customs and manners, national traditions, everyday life and social relations. By put- ting his characters in historical context, justifying their existence by the laws of history and thus making them historically 'essen- tial', Scott performed a complicated task of historical research, which could only have been realized because at the same time it was artistic research.

If fiction is something opposed to historical fact, then we shall have to assume that in Scott's novels there is no fiction whatsoever. If history is something opposed to fiction, then we shall have to accept the fact that in Scott's novels there is no history at all. Neither of these assumptions would be cor- rect since they would both disagree with the obvious truth. Walter Scott has created a combination of historical knowledge and art. He was an artist because he wrote truth, and an histo- rian because he wrote fiction. This peculiarity is not charac- teristic of Scott alone; it is also shared by other European historical novelists.

Sometimes, however, when speaking of the origin of his novels Walter Scott made a distinction between the notions of history and art. He wanted to justify the extraordinary character of the events and customs described, to prove ' the truth' of his work by using a reason which, at that time, was considered most important: he referred the~reader to 'a source'. When he used the current phraseology of contemporary critics, Scott condescended, as it were, to the traditional conception of artistic work. This satisfied the curiosity of the ordinary reader, explained the origin of the plot or of an episode, but

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nothing was said about the meaning of the characters or the novel - the reader had to look for the meaning in the novel itself.

It is the essence of Walter Scott's work that accounts for his role in European civilization, which is not limited by liter- ature proper. It was under his influence that in Europe there developed a new conception of history, a new historiography, historical thought in general. The lessons of the French revo- lution which Scott disliked but accepted, were later considered by historians and critics largely in the light of his understand- ing of history. In his novels, class struggle was shown as an historical necessity, he treated it with such great sympathy towards the suppressed and depicted it in such vivid colours that this helped to realize many things in the past and the pres- ent and to find arguments in the struggle for a better future. His historical and social standpoint may be defined as pro- gressive traditionalism fully in accordance with the so-called Walter Scott's toryism. In literature, as well as in history, Scott's historic conception gave rise to new methods of creating characters, composition, constructing the plot, artistic and moral emotion.

As an historian, Scott sees man in the context of his epoch. In Ivanhoe he reflected the medieval knighthood and its laws, oaths and ideals. In Brian de Bois-Guilbert - the life and customs of templars resulting from their special position and the history of the order. In Front-de-Boeuf -- the psychology of a Norman baron who had erected his castle on the land of the conquered people to be at once a castle and a prison. All Scott's characters in all their variety reflect the variety and contradictions of historical epochs on all social levels.

For his plot Scott usually takes a major or minor historical event, such as an uprising, civil war, a plot, since, as he himself put it, it is at such crucial moments that the contradictions tearing apart the society manifest themselves most clearly. The fates of his characters are closely connected with the poli- tical event described, not only because the person is over-

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powered by the event like a grain of sand moving in a whirl. Scott's hero takes part in the battle on this or that side, takes in the situation and chooses his own way. Even those who stand apart from the battle, keeping to their private interests, are nevertheless involved in the political life of the country, for example, the abbot who had left his monastery for his garden trodden by Queen Mary's followers ('The Abbot'). In their tranquility and isolation from their environment, in their pur- poseful alienation from their epoch, they are still its products since it is the epoch that makes them alienate themselves from reality and act in the way they do.

Any of Scott's characters, be he an active participant of the events or be he hiding in his habitat as a snail, still enjoys his own point of view, his moral freedom which Scott considered most essential for man. The historical determinism into which Scott had so deeply penetrated and which had been elaborately realized in all his novels, does not eliminate freedom and, con- sequently, moral responsibility for one's actions and ideas. This accounts for Scott's struggle against misanthropy and fatalism personified in some of his novels. His characters med- itate on their duties, search for moral truth and feel pangs of remorse, since Scott considered the feeling of duty and jus- tice to be determinant in political and private life. Cromwell in 'Woodstock', Elspeth in 'The Antiquary', Burley in 'Old Mortality' express most vividly this conception solving this difficult, moral and political, problem.

The idea of historical development, in Scott's kind, is linked with the idea of justice and, consequently, morality. The moral meaning of the events is most clearly understood by the people, the peasants to whom no author before Scott had ever given an opportunity to speak their minds. Common people pro- nounce their judgements and give their opinions of the events and their meaning in a concrete and, at the same time, a gener- alized way. Of special value for Scott is the opinion of the people suffering from social calamities and therefore justified in their judgements. This opinion is also expressed in folk

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ballads composed by Scott for his novels in order to express the people's attitude towards events, moral problems and ne- cessities of the epoch. In 'Guy Mannering' an ancient ballad helps the lawful heir to get back his estate and exposes the rogue. In 'The Antiquary' the ballad shows the feudal devo- tion of a servant to his lord, thus explaining the plot of the novel and unveiling its mystery. This is another problem of the new historiography which takes an interest in the people, the true creator of history, rather than in monarchs. In this respect 'Anne of Geierstein' is most exemplary.

Scott's novels open with the beginning of a political event and close with its ending. The limits are the beginning and the end of an historical epoch which, as well as the sense of the epoch, are defined by the action of the novel. Scott's notion of epoch not infrequently disagrees with that in 'royal' histo- riography. An epoch for Scott is a dynamic system of social contradictions and, at the same time, a solution for the histor- ical problem facing the society of the time. History is a number of catastrophes which, like a blessed thunderstorm, disperse a rotten atmosphere and refresh the air. This is how the an- tiquary Oldbuck characterizes the French revolution.

It was necessary to understand the causes of these conflicts and crises, as well as their results. Scott succeeded in doing it with a depth of sociological analysis which was outstanding for his time. Having realized the causes of the events one can foresee the perspectives in the time to come, and such perspec- tives are revealed in nearly every novel -- Waverley, Ivanhoe, Quentin Durward, Anne of Geierstein and, above all, in Old Mortality. In this book describing the events which occurred ten years after the uprising of 1679, a 'bloodless revolution' caused by the uprising takes place. The revolution resolves the contradictions on which the novel is based and makes it pos- sible for the true lovers to be happily married at last.

Readers of Scott's novels always expect an event to occur because the situation itself demands it, and the readers' con- cern for the fate of the lhero develops into a concern for the

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fate of the country. Attention is so concentrated on dramatis personae and on historical events, that it is often impossible to split it. In any case, that is what the author wanted, and the readers dazzled by the extraordinary pictures exposed before them understand the author's intention perfectly well.

Sometimes complaints were expressed, especially in France, because of the 'duality of attention' which prevented concen- trating on a single intrigue, either amorous or political, but still the reader managed to control all lines of the story, which were closely interwoven by the law of cause and result, and Scott maintained the unity of private and social necessary for a complete historical truth.

The very notion of history assumes a change in time, what- ever our conception of the change. For Scott, this notion meant a continuous development realized in the clash of contradictions implying retreats, routines and explosions which are followed by a new rush forward. Each step on this way means over- coming a new quality; therefore, things in the past do not re- semble things in the future and, consequently, do not resemble the present.

The notion of regularity assumes certain reasons for each stage and excludes accident in the literal meaning of this word. Things that might seem accidental are, in fact, manifestations of some regularity - that is how the problem is solved in Scott's novels.

Accident is inconceivable: it cannot be explained; it can only be stated. On the other hand, regularity is conceivable and therefore must be perceived. It is a reality which not only eliminates man's interference with an historical process but also implies a sensible interference since this regularity is con- ceivable.

Man is not able to make up regularities at will, turn history to his liking, ignoring the necessities of social evolution. Man cannot set his will against this evolution. As an historian,

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Scott rejects the rational method of learning reality or perform- ing operations upon it, which was characteristic of the epoch of Eniightment. Obviously, Scott drew this conclusion from the experience of the French revolution which, as was agreed upon by both its opponents and supporters, did not take into account historical reality and made an attempt to create a new society in accordance with its rationalistic constructive theories.

Scott's novels abound in characters trying to impose their conceptions of man's happiness, social welfare and justice upon history, society, individuals. They all make mistakes, suffer defeat and repent their actions. Such characters are Norna in The Pirate, Alberick Mortemar in The Talisman, Christian in Peveril of the Peak, Touchwood in Saint Ronan's Well and many others. One should act in accordance with the necessities of the epoch and other more particular regularities of certain environment or period and only in that case, an action will be successful and fruitful. As, for example, with Meg Merrilies in Old Mortality and Saladin in The Talisman.

But the system of causes determining the events changes with the epoch and therefore the author of historical novels has to penetrate the mystery of the epoch, to uncover the sys- tem of regularities. He has to reject the absolute truths of the rationalists and to accept relative truths relevant to each epoch. He has to put himself in his characters' place, to adapt himself to the characters'feelings and ideas, lest the individuals' actions and the epoch should seem strange and ridiculous.

The relativity of truth is expressed in all Scott's novelg. Without it, there can be no sympathy for his heroes and the very existence of the new type of novel created by Scott must be impossible. When Rob Roy is speaking with his wealthy relative the Justice, two quite different conceptions are revealed and we understand, and sympathize with, both of them. Re- becca's and Ivanhoe's attitudes towards the battle of Torquil- stone are different; we may still fully agree with both, though each of them considers the other's opinion foolish. We under- stand Burley, Claverhouse, Morton, Tompkins, the rogue

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who has no doubts about his being in the right, and Cromwel who analyses his conscience as political leader ('Woodstock').

The author's identification with the character does not ex- clude his criticism, but this criticism is not of the strictest char- acter: it agrees with the epoch depicted, with the system of circumstances, because nothing could be understood or con- sidered without them.

But the reader and the author are only able to identify them- selves with the heroes, due to the fact that in all epochs, tem- peraments and conceptions there is something stable; namely, there are certain human "dominant passions", as Walter Scott called them, and moral awareness. Emphasizing these constants, Scott insists on the unity of mankind triumphing over all dif- ferences between epochs, classes and circumstances. This leads Scott who had so deeply understood psychology of classes in various centuries to the conclusion that class limitations and contradictions are but historical categories which can be over- come in the development of historical progress, that class in- terests may be replaced by a common interest of society as a whole. He thought this might occur under a just social sys- tem. 'Anne of Geierstein', one of his last novels, depicts such an idyllic state of socie ty- a shepherds' Switzerland where there are no classes as former feudal lords have abandoned their priviledges and have become shepherds who take to arms only to defend their country. But the perspectives as shown in the end of the novel suggest evil.

In most cases this future unity without conflict is foreseen in the marriage between representatives of two different social groups, two classes, two political parties or two nations. Such marriages occur in many of Scott's novels dealing with various historical environment and different levels. Their historical meaning is particularly obvious in OM Mortality, Peveril of the Peak, lvanhoe, Quentin Durward, The Monastery, The Abbot.

This idea or, rather, dream, resembling Fourier's utopia is always present in Scott's work, and the happy endings of his novels indicate a possibility of some solution to the problem

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which has been attracting public opinion since the beginning of the 19th century, the solution to which Scott saw but vaguely.

Thus the artistic work of the 'Scottish warlock' turns out to be an historical and philosophical study, lyricism in his novels - an historical system, fiction is truth, and truth is fiction. The further development of fiction and history supplies proofs for this seemingly paradoxical unity. Authors of histor- ical and contemporary novels follow Scott's method and adapt it to other epochs facing new problems. Having assimilated Scott's method and made it their own, they began to move beyond it, but this was an essential form of his influence. Those who accepted and overcame his method were greatly indebted to him, and above all, to his conception of society as a unity of contradictions and an ever developing system of regularities.

When Balzac, one of those who introduced a new epoch in the history of the novel, declared that he was not a novelist but an historian of his day, a secretary of his society writing from its dictation, he was only quoting Walter Scott. Pushkin saw 'the greatest charm' of Scott's novels in his method which showed the past 'from a modern point of view', as it was done by the founders of new literature. Stendhal who, resisting Scott's influence, turned to him again and again, called him, in his letter to Balzac, 'our father'. These words were no exaggeration or false praise for those who began to write in the first half of the 19th century. For them it was truth.