CAPTAIN GARLAND FULTON, U.S.N. Ret.

HlJT’ORICAL NOTE RELATm

THE AUTHOR was born in University, Mississippi, graduated in the class of 1912 from the U. S. Naval Academy. After a two-year tour of sea duty, he entered the Navy’s Construction Corps and pursued graduate work in Naval Architecture at M.I.T., from which he received a Master’s Degree in 1916. Upon graduation he served two years at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. In May 1918, he requested and was assigned to aeronaucical engineering duties as an assistant in the mushrooming Aviation Section of the Bu- reau of Construction and Repair. Until 1940, when Captain Fulton re- tired fmm naval service, he was continuously on a e m u t i c a l engineer- ing duties. Few men can claim such a record. During the 22 years of his intimate association with naval aviation, he witnessed the steady impact of engineering achievement and technological progress. It was a period of experimentation, frustration, success and failure. When the Navy endorsed lighter-than-air ships, he spent two years, 1922-1924, at the Zeppelin plant in Germany as representative during the construction of the “Los Angeles.” I n 1935 he was transferred from the status of the Naval Constructor to that of “Aeronautical Duty Only,” one of the first oficers to be so designated. A t the end of 1940, he voluntarily retired with the rank of Captain and became associated with shipbuildiw, con- cerned primarily with ship rehabilitation far service during World War I I . An author of various articles and a member of distinguished pmfes- sional organizations, not least among them, a Fellow of the Institute of Aerospace Sciences, he has seen in his life the growth of naval aviation from a minor beginning to the wonders of space-age aeronautics. Half of the history of naval aviation coincides with his service, 1918-1940. He was an active participant; he lived it. And he knows, as few &, the history of those early and formative years.

THE SEPTEMBER 1902 issue of The Aeronautical World, a fleeting early aeronautical publication out of Glenville, Ohio, carried this item:

“NEW U.S. GOVERNMENT BALLOONS

An order was recently given for ten captive balloons by the U.S. Government, to be chiefly used in naval demonstrations off the Atlantic coast. Major Rober and a detachment of the Sig- nal Service Balloon Corps under First Lieut. Clifton and Sergeant Bledsoe, of Fort Myer are now stationed at Frankfort x x x supervising the construction of eleven captive hydrogen gas balloons being made by Prof. Carl Meyers, for use in the Naval demonstration to be made by Rear Admiral Higginson with the squadron off the Atlantic coast, late in August. The first bal-

loon has been practically completed and a SUC- cessful test has been made by the Government officials. x x x Controlled by a kerosene oil mo- tor or windlass, the balloon made flights of nearly a quarter of a mile in 30-40 seconds, and then was slowed, checked and reversed and was brought to the ground in 3-4 minutes with two or four passengers each time none of whom could im- mediately detect the stop or reversed movement at the top, though the wind was brisk and at times quite severe. x x x x The captive war balloon used in the test was practically completed last month and the remaining ten silk balloons will be finished this month. 98 hydrogen gas bal- loons have previously been built at F’rankfort for the Signal Service and the Weather Bureau of the Agriculture Dept.”

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Diagram Indicating Balloon Operations near Newport, R.I. September 1902. Archives 111-AGE-1

The implications of the foregoing were intriguing but not having run across this bit of early aero- nautical history previously it seemed advisable to run a check as to the verities of the situation.

Frankfort (N.Y.) was the site of Prof. Carl Mey- ers “balloon farm” and had served as a base of operations from which the sixty year old gentleman had camed on his balloon adventures with con- siderable success-and showmanshipfor some thirty years. His expertese with balloons had been utilized by both the Weather Bureau and the Sig- nal Service and he was then engaged as a consult- ant in the matter of setting up a “balloon train” unit at Fort Myer, Va. He had dealt with General A. W. Greely, formerly Chief of Weather Bureau, in experiments with rain making balloons. He and Greely seem to have become cronies. So it seemed that Creely, by now Chief Signal Officer for the

Army, faced with the problem of providing a sophis- ticated Service of Information and Security for the upcoming Joint Exercises quite naturally turned to Meyers for help.

The summer of 1902 saw two exercises involving the Navy. One, at mid-August, was a simple search problem camed out in Massachusetts Bay by Com- modore Pillsbury’s group of vessels. The “invader” vessel was detected trying to enter Salem harbour. The other exercise took place in the Narvagansett Bay vicinity August 29-September 8. This exercise sometimes referred to as “Navy-Coast Defense” joint maneuvers appears to have originated early in the year with the Coast Artillery people. Nine months of planning effort were put into the problem, and it was widely publicized in contemporary peri- odicals. Writers, photographers, and artists were allowed on board certain vessels and at key shore

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locations. Their writings are choice reading for one interested in the “Old Navy.”

Withal, the affair appears to have been handled as an Army show in which the Navy, represented by Rear Admiral F. J. Higginson’s Squadron of a dozen assorted vessels, acted as the “enemy” partici- pants. Maj.-Gen. Arthur MacArthur USA. Com- mander of Third Corps Area was in command of the “defending forces” (shore) with headquarters at Fort Trumbull.

The problem chosen was an attempted penetra- tion of our coastal defenses in that area by a small number of “enemy” destroyers. Night operations were included and the functioning of searchlights was emphasized. The rules for the exercise had been worked up by the War Colleges and were com- plained of even before the start, but much seems to have been learned by all hands. Accuracy of gun fue was tested, as was the vital matter of communi- cations.

The service of security and information was large- ly in the hands of the Signal Corps and the Chief Signal Officer, Maj.-Gen. Greely, left his desk to serve temporarily on the staff of Gen. MacArthur.

From the start- the communications network was regarded as vital and was as complete as the state of the technology would allow. The aforementioned balloons were part of the network. Whether they were primarily observation posts or a means of elevating grounded aerial of suitable length to fa- cilitate the functioning of the embryonic “wireless” sets that were being tried out, is not clear. Doubt- less they performed a dual role, or an alternate role at different locales. Marconi, Fessenden, and DeForest type “sets” were all employed, apparently somewhat in a competition.

The general scheme was to set up three major communication stations, viz.

Narragansett Dist. (Marconi) ; including a station on the scouting boat of the Signal Corps in this Dist.

Montauk Point- (Fessenden) ; including a sec- ond station on the scouting boat cruising be- tween Montauk Point and Fisher’s Island.

At Stonington- (DeForest system) ; with an out- lying station on the scouting boat cruising be- tween that point and Block Island.

In addition there were signal stations---about a dozen in a l l -a t prominent points such as Woods Hole, Gay Head, Point Judith, etc.

The records thus far uncovered do not disclose much with reference to the Navy’s participation, if any, in the communication arrangements and tests. Whether or not there were wireless sets on any of the Naval vessels is not known.

One nostalgic note for many Naval personnel was disclosed by a contemporary article by Admiral Bradley Fiske on his “Fiske Semaphore System” examples of which were installed in Kearszrge and Alabamu and received their try outs at the 1902

maneuvers. They were hand operating type but still capable of signalling ten characters per minute. By way of apology he stated “In deference to the prejudice against electrical apparatus, and in accord with advice of all the officers to whom the writer spoke, hand operation was provided although it slowed operations.” (U.S.Nav. Inst. Roc. 1903, pp 679-690)

As regards the balloons and their utilization dur- ing the exercises there is very little to be found in papers that are readily accessible, Harper’s Weekly for September 1902 carries a number of photographs showing “bombardment” of Forts around Newport and in three of the pictures one can discern two small dots at different altitudes and those are be- lieved to be balloons. This belief is strengthened by the recent finding in National Archives of a photo- graph album from the Greely collection containing about 25 photographs of the “Balloon Operations of the Signal Corps at Point Judith, RI., September 1902” together with a map showing locations. Ap- parently Point Judith was used as a staging area for at least a few of the balloons.

Knowledge that European armies had used bal- loons to facilitate transmission of messages by means of wireless telegraphy during 1902 maneu- vers lends color to the thesis that elevating one end of an antenna was the prime usage of our balloons off Long Island.

Reports on the Joint Maneuvers from Army authorities are extensive and carry the promise that full details may be traced through letter reports from subordinates.

Reports from the Navy side were less volumi- nous. Higginson’s official report was factual and

BALLOON & COMMUNICATION HISTORY FULTON

US. Slg. Cwpa Archivea Ill-AGE-9 Point Judith, R.I.

Lower-Balloon about to be moved to shed. Upper-Balloon ascending with two observers.

brief. The consensus opinion seemed to be that the Navy “won.” Some of the contemporary periodicals were unkind enough to suggest that the whole thing was framed to show up weaknesses in our strug- gling-to-be-completed coastal defenses and thereby gain increased appropriations.

Admiral Higginson is quoted in Literary Digest as saying the maneuvers “showed the absolute need of wireless telegraph service on the ships of the U.S. Navy. x x Its value to me would have been incalculable. x x I could have spoken to my ships at sea day or night, x x whereas, while all were in

touch with me, they have been f a r beyond signal- ling distance, and, as it were, beyond my reach. x x x This one need of wireless telegraph x x is all-absorbing in its importance to my mind.”

Several Annual Reports from Army Chiefs of Branches carry references to the Joint Maneuvers and attest the maximum effort that went towards participation. The Annual Report of the Secretary of War carries in full a very complete report from General MacArthur and a couple of excerpts are of interest:

“The organization of the service of information was exceedingly satisfactory in every particular x x x (performed by) such a thoroughly efficient organization as the Signal Corps x x . In this con- nection especial attention is invited to the reports which describe the experimental employment of wireless telegraphy the success of which in this instance suggests x x further practical investiga- tion, which, perhaps would be more readily accom- plished by the Navy than by the Army, as the most favorable field for such work is afloat rather than on shore.”

And this concluding paragraph in which he philosophizes about national defense:

“It is a matter of regret that this report is so largely devoted to representations in behalf of in- creased military expenditures-a policy especially distasteful to a self-governing people who impose their own taxes. In support of the contention, how- ever, that the necessity for such a policy is not entirely the result of military vagaries, reference is respectfully made to the views of an eminent phil- osophical writer who investigated the subject of national defense more than a century ago, and who, in effect, declared that in ancient times the opulent and civilized found it difficult to defend themselves against the poor and barbarous nations; whereas in modem times by reason of the expense attending military organizations, the poor and barbarous h d it impossible to defend themselves against the opu- lent and civilized.

By free interpretation of ideas this may be ac- cepted the same as a declaration to the effect that a nation that has money and won’t spend it for proper purposes of national defense is in precisely the same position in this particular as though it did not have it. In other words, if our seacoast defenses, by reason of inadequate appropriations, are not or- ganized, manned, and equipped so as to insure abundant protection, it may happen as the result of possibilities well within the scope of the near fu- ture that we shall, as a nation, have to accept all the consequences that would naturally arise from national poverty.” Very respectfully, Arthur Mac- Arthur, Major Gen. Comdg.”

The following quotation from a booklet which advertised the World Fair in St. Louis, Mo., in 1904 was an additional note. The names of Marconi and deForest, pioneer contributors to naval communica-

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tions and pioneer Naval Engineers in today’s sense of the term are of interest to ASNE.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY

At the opening of the Twentieth Century the question was proposed to fifty of the leading minds of American Scientists, Authors, Statesmen, Or- ganizers of Industry: “What Has Been the Greatest Achievement of Human Endeavor in Recent Years?” Over forty replied: “The Discovery and Application of Wireless Telegraphy.” A C O ~ ~ U S

of opinion of all who visit the World’s Fair would lead to the same answer. More interest is evidenced by the public today in the new and marvelous art of wireless telegraphy than in any other single ex- hibit at the Exposition. No art has made such mar- velous strides in the few years of its history, as has this, the latest development of that mysterious power, electricity.

Although Dr. Hertz, of Germany, discovered in the ’80’s the existence of the ether waves, which have since borne his name; and although Branley, of Paris, discovered in ’91 the first sensitive detector of these vibrations, the actual, practical development of wireless telegraphy can hardly be said to have began longer than four years ago. In that brief space more has been accomplished in development, in study of the principles involved, in actual appli- cation to commercial needs than the telephone can show in the first ten years of its existence.

The first successful automatic receiver (one re- quiring no tapping-back device, or mechanism to restore it to its sensitive state after receipt of a signal) was developed in 1900-’01 by Dr. Lee de Forest, an Iowan by birth, and graduate of Yale University. This “Responder” as it is called, is elec- trolytic in nature, and proved itself not only capable of unlimited speed of word-transmission, but far more sensitive than a coherer or any other form of receiver known.

De Forest was also first to employ the alternating current transmitter, in place of the ancient induction coil and current-interrupter, and thus be established the first speed record in wireless transmission40 words per minute. It is well-known that simultane- ous transmission of several messages is possible only by means of syntonising, or tuning a certain re- ceiving instrument to a certain transmitter, enabling it to pick up signals from one, and remain deaf to those from all other transmitters. The De Forest system, as exhibited at some eight different stations on the Exposition Grounds, demonstrates that in its own case the claims made as to freedom from inter- ferences are founded in fact. In the Palace of Elec- tricity are such tremendous disturbances, by way

of Static Machines, high tension transformers, X- Ray Instruments, etc., as to supply a far more severe test of the ability of the American System to operate despite interference, than will be ever offered in practice.

A 30-horse power, long distance station is located on Art Hill, and from there press bulletins are sent to far distant cities proving the capabilities of the De Forest System for over-land work. The fact that the US. Patent Oflice selected seven out of some 780,000 patents to be represented at the World‘s Fair, and that the De Forest System was one of these, speaks for the position the system of wire- less telegraphy holds with the U.S. Government and the public it represents. The U.S. Army has today some dozen sets of this apparatus and is in- stalling the system in Alaska, for regular cable work. But perhaps the most striking proof of the value of wireless telegraphy today, is furnished by the case of the famous war correspondent of the London Times, who equipped his dispatch steamer with the De Forest apparatus. He has kept the world in touch with every move of the Japanese fleet around Port Arthur, though 170 miles away from the cable station at Wei-Hai-Wei. Not long befor3 the Japanese bottled up Port Arthur’s harbor, this little dispatch boat Haiman was overtaken by the Russian cruiser, Buyan, far out at sea. Capt. James, knowing the temper of the Russians towards the London Times, appreciated full well what might result to him and his party-but he had with him a weapon more powerful than guns or armament. In- visible, following wherever his boat sailed, was an etheric call, an intangible news-channel, linking them with the very heart of London, on the other side of the world, and keeping him in touch with the might of Great Britain’s power. So, as the Bayan drew nigh he aerographed to Wei-Hai-Wei, “I am about to be boarded by the Bayan. If you don’t hear from me within three hours, notify the Times and British Consul.” It was a moment of dramatic inter- est and suspense. Perhaps the peace or war of Europe hung on the outcome of the Bayan’s visit. Which would it be? Would the world and England know his fate? Prompt and faithful as on a wire came back the reply from Wei-Hai-Wei, 85 miles across the sea, “0. K., will notify as requested.” The BayLn’s officers approached and boarded the

boat. They read the message and its reply. They knew they were at that instant watched by the eye of London, and they departed, leaving the plucky correspondent and his wireless boat unharmed. It is safe to say that nowhere in the annuals of tele- graphy has any =Nice performed a more faithful work at a critical time, than did the De Forest Sys- tem on board the Times’ boat ffaimun on that morn- ing far out in the Yellow Sea.