helpful tips for writing a thesis

8/14/2019 Helpful Tips for Writing a Thesis

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Helpful Tips for Writing a Thesis

Part I Introduction

The following pages are written assuming that you have already selected a topic,

designed your study, and had your proposal accepted. You now face the writing. Writing

is not the insurmountable obstacle you imagine if you will use the following suggested

guidelines. There is no easy way to overcome inadequacies in logic or language control.

But, if you will read this set of instructions carefully, you will find a step-by-step process

whereby you can begin with the raw idea of your design and terminate with an

acceptable copy for your thesis committee.

To Whom Do You Write?

While writing, you must remember that you are directing your remarks to a broader

audience than your own discipline. You must meet not only your advisor's requirements,

but also the requirements of a second reader. Furthermore, your thesis will be available

in the library and may be read by people of other disciplines. Therefore, the thesis must

be able to communicate to a broad audience.

Your particular style of writing will emerge in the initial chapters of your rough draft. Your

advisor will try as much as possible to let you retain your style, but at the same time

directs you toward good expository writing. For some of you this process will be most

difficult because you are used to writing in high abstraction with absence of operational

definitions. For others, the writing will be difficult because you insist upon using

elaborate constructions, which confuse the reader. However, for a happy few of you,

writing will be no trouble at all because you have already acquired the habit of scientific

exposition, and a simple and straightforward writing style.


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How to Get Started

Writing a thesis can have the same overwhelming effect on the future author that writing

a book can have. If you sit down to write a thesis you will probably be "immobilized."

Instead, consider approaching the task by deciding to write chapters. If you set small

goals for yourself around the chapter production and use the detailed outline in the

following section, you will find that the task readily begins to fall into place.. (In fact, it

might help you to start if you expand or adopt the suggested outline into a table of

contents, realizing that as you progress you will put your own stamp of creativity and

originality on the skeleton.)

The point of writing in smaller units needs to be examined further. Generally, in one

sitting, it is more efficient to write a complete section--such as a chapter--and then go

back and rewrite the rough spots. If you write in too small a unit, you will find that your

writing begins to degenerate in creative quality and become filled with "dead"

vocabulary. The experience of seasoned writers has been that writing progresses most

rapidly when they write a section, let it "set" for two or three days, edit it carefully,

looking for particular weaknesses, and then let it "set" for two or three days more,

editing again where necessary. At the end of this time, the copy may be ready to showto some sympathetic friend or editor for critical analysis.

Getting started on thesis writing has more to it than just developing an outline.

When you have determined your topic and design, you might try writing the outline from

the sections which are described in the following pages. Immediately thereafter, label a

file folder for each chapter with the outline of that chapter inked on the face of the folder.

On the back of the folder, list the types of information that have to be included for your

final writing in that chapter. In this way, as you progress through your study - whether it

be descriptive, predictive, experimental or literature review - you will find that you will be

accumulating the necessary information for the final stage of assimilation. Without

taking such precaution, you can find yourself in the embarrassing position of needing a

particular bit of information, such as a current reference, and not having it. The chapter-


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by-chapter file folders are convenient for keeping notes to remind yourself of necessary

processes and incidental kinds of information which is accumulated as you go through

the research experience. Then you will find that when you finally start to write the

chapter the basic relevant material will be there and your task of writing a meaningful

thesis is simplified.

Part II Outline of the Thesis

The format of a thesis has become fairly standardized. It is not necessary for you to

"invent the wheel" all over again. Each chapter has its usual content and if you will

examine the following sections carefully, you will find a way to organize your own

particular thesis. It should be stressed that this outline is a flexible one and is subject to

alteration as your needs dictate. Note: Please see Appendix B for an outline of the

chapter of a thesis.

The number of chapters a thesis should have depends on what you care to emphasize.

Remember that a chapter designation is used to highlight a particularly important

subject or concept. Most theses in Criminal Justice will have five chapters; (1)

Introduction: statement of the problem, (2) review of literature, (3) design of study or

methodology, (4) analysis of results and (5) summary, conclusions, and

recommendations.

In some cases it may be necessary to expand to six and even seven chapters. For

example, chapters are added when: (a) a new research instrument is produced as part

of the study, (b) the findings are distinctly divisible into two or more sections, or (c) the

theory needs separate and extensive development. You will have to make such

decisions as you progress. The following is assuming your thesis has five chapters.

Please note that the titles of each chapter are as they should be in the actual thesis.


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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Chapter I is sub-divided into the statement of the problem, need, purpose, hypothesis,

theory (if used), terms and definitions, and over-view of thesis. (Theory may be

developed in a separate chapter if it is highly original or sufficiently elaborate.)

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is a succinct and clear explanation of what is broken that

needs fixing. Is there an absence of literature on the topic that the student is writing

about? Is the study a replication of a previous study? What is this student going to do that

other studies have not done?Need

For some reason many students find this section one of the most difficult of the entire

thesis. You might fall back on the old high school and college English theme trick -force

yourself to start to write while you think your problem is important and look carefully to

see if the second or third paragraph might be a better beginning than the one with which

you started.

This section need not be long but should clearly focus on why your particular study

should be done. It is difficult for a reader to distinguish between what you specifically

are doing and what is in the realm of a generalized approach when you commit yourself

to the salvation of the criminal justice system. Try to modestly relate what your research

might contribute, either to theory building or to understanding about the problem under

study or as a positive contribution to the literature. Purpose Here you need a distinct,

direct, short paragraph that explicitly states what your study is about. You cannot

wander and ramble for four or five paragraphs, weaving the ideas hither and yon, and

expect your readers to acquire the main intent of your writing. Somewhere in this

section you should write, preferably the first sentence, "The purpose of this study is .... .

There should be no question as to you are about.


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Hypothesis

As out of keeping as it may seem, tradition has it that the hypotheses appear in Chapter

1. Many students protest that they cannot write the hypotheses in the first chapter

because they generate them from the theory and the particular design of study. As

pertinent as this argument is, we suggest that you capitulate to the conservatives' point

of view and view the solution to the problem as follows: If you will state your hypotheses

in broad research form you will not encounter the internal resistance that comes as a

reaction to this apparent "jumping of the gun." Initially, your hypothesis should be a

succinct statement of the broad implications which you expect to find in your study. It

might make you feel a little better if you put a footnote to the effect that the hypotheses

are restated in testable form in Chapter 3.

Examine the following examples of a good first-chapter research hypothesis:

1. A positive relationship exists between unemployment and the increase in armed

robberies in the United States. Or,

2. Students who are taught following procedures 'Y' will achieve higher scores atthe end of treatment and one year later than will students who are taught

following the traditional "y" approach.

If you have difficulty in formulating hypotheses or your thesis design does not require a

hypothesis statement you may substitute, "General Research Questions." (See your

advisor for clarification.)

Theory

The elaboration of theory in the first chapter begins the tie-in with the Summary and

Conclusion chapter of your thesis. In this regard, it is similar to the first statement of the

hypothesis (above) which links the first chapter with your Design chapter and you

Analysis-of-Results chapter. The selection of theory is always difficult, particularly


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because theories in criminal justice and the behavioral sciences tend to be extremely

broad and difficult to operationalize. You may select only some of the assumptions of a

broad theory, but remember that in this section you must bring your conceptualizations

down the hierarchy of abstraction to a point where they make sense for your study.

Remember also that a theory is not just "tacked" into the first chapter and then wantonly

forgotten. You must formulate this section so that you satisfactorily operationalize what

it is that you are trying to describe, predict, or control.

Terms and Definitions

To ensure clear understanding of your thesis, ambiguous terms must be defined in the

context of your writing, e.g., terms such as terrorism, criminal, corruption, aggression,

etc., must be specifically defined by the writer. You can begin this section with the

sentence "To ensure a clear understanding of this thesis, terms used throughout the

study are here defined".

Overview

You will note that the first and last chapters do not have summaries. Instead, by

tradition, you tell the reader how you are going to treat him in the middle sections of

your "magnum opus" by including an overview of the thesis in the last section of the first

chapter. You start by describing what you will do in Chapter 2, then 3, stopping short of

the final chapter, which is, itself, a summary and conclusion,

Beware! A most common error is to animate chapters. That is, do not write, "Chapter 2

reviews the literature ...... Chapters do nothing! You do things in chapters! Therefore,

the statement should read, "In Chapter 2, the pertinent literature is reviewed." (The

above is meant only as an example--not a dictum to have all students use this phrase in

their writings. Put it into your own style.)

Finally, the overview should end with a transitional phrase or statement which will lead

from Chapter I into Chapter 2.


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CHAPTER 2

Review of the Literature

When you begin the review of the literature, you should give the reader a basic idea of

how you intend to treat him. You are not writing a mystery. Tell the reader who "done" it!

Show your plot! Reviewing literature may be particularly difficult because for some

topics you will have a hard time "hedging" in the beginning and ending of your review.

The more extensive the previous work, the more difficult the preparation of the

Literature chapter becomes. Following are some suggestions which may be of help to

you. (If you have chosen a topic on which there has been little previous research, do not

panic.) It is acceptable for you to review two or three closely related studies and no

more.

You may find, on the other hand, two or three areas of investigation that relate to what

you are doing. Then you face the question of which of these to review in depth, or

whether it is necessary for you to review all of them. Generally, the solution is worked

out as follows:

1. You review in depth those studies which are similar to yours, indicating their

strengths and weaknesses and how their findings might be incorporated orimproved upon in your research design;

2. and , you put those aspects which have a bearing on your problem but are not

directly related into a general review of several paragraphs or pages to bring the

reader closer to your particular problem.

In such a case, you may cite summaries that others have pulled together on the topic. It

is highly unlikely that any area of high "investigatory saturation" has not, somewhere

along the line, been reviewed in either a professional journal or a doctoral dissertation.

Remember that you are responsible for the authenticity of the summary, so you should

read the original accounts of investigation that are particularly germane to your study, in

other words, go directly to the original source, avoid secondary sources.


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It is especially desirable to include a discussion section at the end of the literature

review, in which the implications of the previous studies are pulled together and the

direction you will be taking in the third chapter is pointed out. Some of you will find that a

separate section labeled "Discussion of Previous Research" is a comfortable way to go

about this articulation. Others will prefer to put their overall observations in the

"Summary" section. Other times a table or figure in which you summarize the major

research components and findings can serve as a useful device to help your reader

comprehend the various elements of the studies you reviewed.

The summary section of the review of the literature should include some of the major

findings of your review. You must remember that committee members may only havetime to read the summaries of some of your chapters. Therefore, give the committee

facts, data, and the important information. Then, too, since you will have read other

peoples' theses, you should begin to feel some compassion for those who follow you

and will have to figure out what you were doing! The summary is where you give a

succinct account of your contributions.

CHAPTER 3

Design of the Study or Methodology

The third chapter is your "map of operation" in which you describe your sample,

operational measures, testable hypotheses, design, and analysis. For many of you it will

be a "rewrite" of the proposal, which you prepared for earlier courses. Check with your

advisor before making any major "detours."

Sample

Specify the nature of your sample, indicating the population from which it came. Give

the sex, age, range, geographical location and all other vital demographic data you can

accumulate on your particular group. This is important because future researchers may

want to replicate your study (when you become famous for your discoveries).


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Remember, unnecessary arguments can be forestalled if you have adequately defined

the sample.

Measures

Specify the nature of the devices you have used for measuring the characteristics you

are studying. Also, include yourreliability estimates for your particular sample. Many

of you express an inclination to move reliability findings into the analysis of results

chapter. This is an inappropriate move because when you calculate the reliability for the

particular group you studied, you are merely trying to establish the soundness of your

independent variable; therefore, what you find cannot, in all honesty, be classified as a

result.

The fact that it is necessary for you to establish the reliability of your instruments on

your samples cannot be emphasized too much! The figures reported in the

standardization manual are not sufficient to explain or define the reliability of your own

samples. Low reliability might be one explanation for negative or "flip flop" results.

As stated previously, if you have developed a new instrument and you think it should be

seen as a particular contribution, you may want to write a separate chapter on

instrumentation.

DesignTell your reader what plan you will follow in arriving at probability statements about the

nature of the variables you incorporate into your study. If you do an experimental study,

standard terminology such as "felony" or "misdemeanor" will be sufficient to

communicate to your reader what you intend, provided you also diagram the

adaptations you made to your problem. You may find it useful to cite Campbell and

Stanley's "Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research," Chicago: Rand

McNally, 1976, for descriptions of certain variations of "true" experimental designs. In

other cases, you may simply name the plan appropriate for your data, such as

"predictive" or "descriptive" in nature. Remember, the design of your study is the

framework you are to follow. Make the plan explicit to your reader.


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Testable Hypotheses

It is now time to restate your statistical or testable hypotheses. However, you still may

not state them specifically. The hypotheses will be broader in nature than those used in

the analysis chapter, but not as broad as stated in Chapter 1. If you have directionalhypotheses these are also stated. In other words, you will state your null hypotheses

and their directional alternates. (Because it is so thoroughly understood that you will test

the null before examining the alternate hypotheses, some authors only state the

alternates. If you are not confused on this issue, the procedure is acceptable.

Students find it helpful to translate the hypothesis from word statements to symbols.

Both ways are illustrated below. Note that the word "significant" would be redundant

because you are testing for significance.

Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in empathy as measured by average testperformance between police officers and probation officers.

Symbolically: Ho; M, = M2

Legend: M, = Police officers mean; M2 = Probation officers group mean

Alternate hypothesis: The police officers group mean score on a measure of

empathy will exceed that of the probation officer group.

Symbolically: H1a ; M1 = M2Legend: M, = Police officers mean; M2 = Probation officers group mean

Analysis

Designate which models you will use to test your hypotheses. It helps if you include a

discussion of the appropriateness of the models and any assumptions. If you make

certain assumptions about the nature of your data, such as normality or homogeneity,

give the reader cues to help understand why you think they are warranted. Remember,

too, that you should use the most powerful model appropriate for your data. You need

not state commonly acceptable statistical formulas, nor do you need to derive them for

the readers' benefit. This activity is merely "padding" and annoys your readers.

However, if you use a statistical formula, which is not generally accessible or known to

the reader, you should state it with full interpretation of all symbols.


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Summary

Write a meaningful summary, letting the reader know in a few specific statements what

it is that you are using as a "map for your hunting license."

CHAPTER IV

Analysis of Results

The three previous, chapters serve to prepare your reader for the "main course." It is in

The Analysis Chapter that you present findings that come from the data you have

gathered and analyzed. Incidentally, do not be dismayed if you get negative findings. It

is disappointing, but perfectly acceptable if you have developed an appropriate design

and followed it. Present your results in the same order in which you presented your

hypotheses in Chapter I. Use tables to summarize and pull together information

wherever appropriate to do so.

Organization of Analysis Chapter

The general procedure for presenting data is to restate your hypothesis, show your data

with probability statement of reject or accept, and then make a statement about whether

the hypothesis was rejected or accepted. Do not begin to interpret the meaning of yourdata at the same time that you present your data to the reader. You may want to do this

in Chapter 5 under a title labeled Discussion. The combination of presentation and

discussion can sway your reader and bias conclusions about what you have done.

The combination of presentation and discussion can sway your reader and bias

Restatement of Hypotheses

For each section of your analysis, begin with a statement of the hypothesis under

consideration. If you have stated the hypothesis in Chapter III in symbolic form,

restatement in symbolic form in this section is completely appropriate. However, your

statement of hypothesis should be specifically related to the instrument used for its

testing.


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Interpretation of Results

There are three conditions which can result from your analysis. Consider each of these

conditions carefully. Each has its own peculiar hang-ups.

1. Condition 1 : "Not So Good" You failed to reject your null hypotheses. Do not say

that you accept your null hypotheses and that no differences between groups

exist. You do not prove equality by failing to reject the null hypotheses. All you

know is that there is not a statistical difference. Establishing equality or identity

requires more sophisticated testing than normally included in master's theses.

Negative results do not necessarily mean your study is unacceptable, only that

your "rabbit test" is disappointing. Watch the temptation to write about

"approaching significance."

2. Condition 2: "All Systems Go!" You win! You have rejected your null

hypothesis and accepted your alternate hypothesis: you are in the grand position

of having lots of "goodies" to relate to your theory and interpret in your conclusion

section.

3. Condition 3: "Nice Try" You reject your null! But, oops, the alternate is contrary

to prediction. You lose! Accept fate. Do not try to rationalize the many mysteries

of nature. For all practical purposes your findings lead to conclusions similar to

condition "Not So Good." Accept the fact that you made predictions which were

either not right or at least not verified by your data. The findings suggest revising

theory, but be sure you make suggestions in a section separate from your result

section or some readers may misunderstand.

Note: Sometimes you find combinations of the above conditions from one replication to

another. In such cases be conservative, assume your findings are unstable, and try to

identify conditions such as low-measure reliability which resulted in such a catastrophe.


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Statements of Significance

Do not commit the sin of saying your results approach significance. You either have

significance or you don't. There are no near misses in statistical analysis, unless you

consistently find an alpha level over a number of studies. Trends are not interpretable

on a single study; you just lucked out, even though the magnitude of the value of the

statistic is only a few points from that required for your specified alpha level. Remember,

error can vacillate below as well as above a point.

Summary

This section becomes the last of your summaries. Sometimes it is helpful to make a

table which summarizes hypotheses tested, the significance level, and statement of

reject or accept. This is a helpful procedure if you have tested a number of hypotheses.

In any event give your reader "meaty" material--facts, just the facts!

CHAPTER 5

Summary and Conclusions

In the last chapter you collate your summaries (it sounds repetitious and it undoubtedly

is), state your conclusions, discuss the implications of the results for your theory, andset up the theses of your fellow graduate students and your own future research

endeavors.

Summary

Writing the major summary is a difficult job because usually you are so loaded with

information, tables, data, and interpretations that you find narrowing yourself down to a

few words almost impossible. However, see if in a few pages you can bring your reader

from the beginning to the end of your contribution to the science of behavior. It is

perfectly permissible to go back and lift paragraphs and-sentences from summaries in

the body of your report. Furthermore, if this section is carefully enough written it can be

adapted easily for the abstract which is necessary for the completion of your thesis.


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Conclusions

You should bring your conclusions to the attention of your reader. In general, a listing of

the findings by number, blocked and indented, helps the reader to see unquestionably

what you found.

Discussion

Here is your chance to integrate the findings of your study with the theory that you might

have employed in the first chapter. You should come to some conclusions and not

merely raise questions about what you have done. Particularly is this true if you have

positive findings in your study. It is permissible in the discussion section of your thesis to

quote others' findings and to raise some general doubts about the previous research if

your is in contradiction to what others have found.

Implications for Future Research

Be careful in this section. Your tendency will be to have the next investigator

discovering "God, mother, and country!" Narrow it down to an extension of what you

think should have been done or could have been done, now that you know something

about going through the labyrinth of research yourself You can "sky" dream a little, but

don't go too far afield.

Appendices

Do not fill chapters with irrelevant details. Picayune details may be put in the appendix

for the specialist who may want to replicate your study. These details will not be lost to

the few who may want access to them and yet they do not "clutter up" the main study.

The appendixes (or appendices) are labeled in order of their appearance in the body of

your report. That is, those things that are first mentioned in the body becomes the first

appendix and those that are mentioned later become second, third, and fourth

appendix. Following the appendices is the last piece of information--the bibliography.

Needless to say the bibliography should be comprehensive and current.


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PART III - STYLE OF WRITING

The style of scientific writing is different from other forms of written communication. You

must write so that your reader has no doubt what you actually are describing or

intending. Therefore, you will have to dispense with using indefinite, vague, and

nefarious references.

Expression

All of us acquire a set of loaded words or phrases with which we harangue readers at

random.

In terms of

This expression is freely battered about in criminal justice writing. Rewrite the sentence

to remove it completely.

As to

Here is a phrase that is cumbersome and awkward. Generally the word "to" will suffice,

or "about" is appropriate.

Etc.

In scientific writing we do not use etc. If you use the word "such as" then give some

illustration or example and cut it off with that.

Indefinite Person

You use the indefinite person in thesis writing. To be more explicit you do not use

pronouns such as, "you," "our," and "we." Furthermore, you do not refer to yourself

except on rare, rare occasions. Some of you will fall into the habit of stating "the

author..." You will be allowed this luxury only a few times in your scientific publications,

say after your third book.


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Tense

Much energy is spent trying to decide what to do -about tense in thesis writing. Please

follow this procedure! In the first chapter you will probably use the present tense and

you will also probably use the present tense in the paragraphs at the beginning of the

chapters where you let the reader in on what you're going to do. The rest of the thesis

should be in the past tense except for the suggestions for future research in the last

chapter.

Use of abbreviations

You may have a situation where you will repeat the name of a concept, such as a test,

throughout the body of your thesis. If you do, it is permissible to make a footnote and

use the capital letters of the words in the title. Be sure that you repeat the footnote in

your summaries and at the beginning of chapters, where you may lose your readers. Be

merciful in such endeavors because your reader may find himself in the position of

having to refer back and forth time and time again, trying to remember what it is you are

about. Some of our current professional journals are so saturated with such junk that

reading becomes a chore.

SpellingYou can be as certain as death that your advisor and reader will know when the

slightest letter is misplaced, inverted, or substituted, so beware of misspelling. You are

totally responsible for the accuracy of your copy. If you have trouble, hire an editor. In

fact, the services of an editor will greatly enhance the readability of your study. Check

with the English Department for editors.

This, These, That, Them, Many, Most

The excessive use of the above words indicates lack of clarity in writing. Avoid using

such words. Usually "the noun" will do.


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PART IV

Submitted for Reading

Your thesis will have to be read by both your advisor and second reader.

Advisor

When you turn copy in to your advisor, give him or her an outline of the total thesis and

at least two chapters. She will read them carefully and indicate her-reactions. Therefore,

be sure that you leave wide margins and that you double-space everything. It goes

without saying that this should be a typed copy.

After your advisor has read the first two chapters, you are to apply the criticisms to the

remaining chapters. You are not expected to retype the rough draft unless it is too

messy. Just make sure that when you hand the copy back to your advisor he can read

easily what it is that you have corrected. You may use inserts, pinned-on or staples

sheets, and whatever else your ingenuity will allow. Do not use scotch tape--it is too

hard to write over; a stapler is much better. Remember, rough draft is not an exercise in

perfection so use the most expedient way to show clearly how you have altered your

copy.

Reader

Some of you may want to present your rough draft to your second reader as you go

along. As a staff, we have not clearly defined whether this should be done or not.

Usually if a reader does agree to read your rough draft, he is doing you a favor because

the primary responsibility of the Advisor is to get the draft in shape so that the second

reader will approve it. If you have any doubts on this, check with your chair and reader

to see how they feel.

Final Copy After the copy is ready for final production, you can have it typed and the

required number of copies made. You should give the final copies to your advisor and

reader at least two weeks in advance for their final review. Courtesy requires that you


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make a copy of your thesis for both your advisor and reader.

CHAPTER V

THE FINAL THRUST

When a thesis is finished, you still have some details to take care of.

Checking with the Graduate School Office You must check with the graduate

coordinator, both in the Division of Criminal Justice and the University Graduate Office

to be sure that all of your requirements have been met. Be sure that you go over your

courses carefully to determine if you have taken everything you contracted to take. At

the same time, acquire all the forms necessary for the advisor's and reader's signatures.

Furthermore, you should have an abstract of the thesis which your advisor signs.

Finally, you should have all of your courses cleared through the Graduate Coordinator.

One last point. There is a little sheet that you are asked to fill out which asks for

personal information. Be sure that you fill it out before you leave campus; otherwise you

may find at graduation that you came from a town somewhere in Hoboken, Alaska. If

you are trying to meet a deadline for graduation, remember that the Graduate Office willunder no circumstances certify you for graduation unless the copy is in their hands at

the specified date. Do not forget to thoroughly review the Graduate Studies Office

Manual of Thesis Preparation.

helpful tips for writing a thesis

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