CHAPTER 4

PERCEPTION, ATTRIBUTIONS AND EMOTIONS

PERCEPTION The cognitive process people use to make sense

out of the environment by selecting , organizing and interpreting information.

PERCEPTION PROCESS1. Observing information via the senses2. Screening the information and selecting what to

process3. Organizing the selected data into patterns for

interpretation and response.

PERCEPTUAL SELECTIVITY

The process by which individuals screen and select the various stimuli that vie for their attention.

Important points: PRIMACY AND RECENCY

* Managers can use an understanding of perceptual selectivity to obtain clues about why one person sees things differently from others and they can apply the principles to their own communications and actions, especially when they want to attract or focus attention

PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS Errors in perceptual judgment that arise from inaccuracies in any

part of the perceptual process.

TYPES OF ERRORS:1. Stereotyping- the tendency to assign an individual to a group or

broad category and then attribute generalizations about the group to the individual. Ex. Women are emotional

2. Halo Effect-an overall impression of a person or situation based on one characteristic, either favorable or unfavorable. Ex. Worker –perfect attendance must not be the basis of good performance

3. Projection or similar-to-me errors-the tendency to see one’s own personal traits in other people

4. Perceptual defense-the tendency of perceivers to protect themselves by disregarding ideas, objects or people that are threatening to them. Develop blind spots

continuationcontinuation

5. Situational factors- the press of time literally 5. Situational factors- the press of time literally will force the manager to overlook some will force the manager to overlook some details, to rush certain activities and to ignore details, to rush certain activities and to ignore certain stimulicertain stimuli

6. Need and Perception- if a need is not filled 6. Need and Perception- if a need is not filled up, it can affect the perception of an individualup, it can affect the perception of an individual

ATTRIBUTIONS

Judgments about what caused a person’s behavior- either characteristics of the person or of the situation.

*Internal Attributions

- characteristics of the person led to

the behavior.

*External Attributions

-something about the situation caused the person’s behavior.

The attribution processThe attribution process1.1. EventEvent

Ex. I received a raiseEx. I received a raise

2. Analysis of what caused the event2. Analysis of what caused the event

Ex. I received the raise because I am a hard workerEx. I received the raise because I am a hard worker

3. Reinforcement or modification of previous 3. Reinforcement or modification of previous assumptions of causalityassumptions of causality

Ex. Hard work leads to rewards in this organizationEx. Hard work leads to rewards in this organization

4. Choices regarding future behavior4. Choices regarding future behavior

Ex. Since I value these rewards, I will continue to Ex. Since I value these rewards, I will continue to work hard in the futurework hard in the future

FACTORS INFLUENCING WHETHER ATTRIBUTIONS ARE INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL:

1. Distinctiveness

- whether the behavior is unusual for that person.

2. Consistency

- whether the person being observed has a history of behaving in the same way.

3. Consensus

- whether other people tend to respond to similar situations in the same way.

Factors influencing whether Factors influencing whether attributions are internal or externalattributions are internal or external

Does the person behave in this way in other situation?Does the person behave in this way in other situation?

Yes- low distinctiveness- internal attributionYes- low distinctiveness- internal attribution

No- high distinctiveness- external attributionNo- high distinctiveness- external attribution Does the person have a history of behaving this way at Does the person have a history of behaving this way at

other times?other times?

Yes- high consistency- internal attributionYes- high consistency- internal attribution

No- low consistency- external attributionNo- low consistency- external attribution Does other people behave in this way in similar situations?Does other people behave in this way in similar situations?

Yes- high consensus- external attributionYes- high consensus- external attribution

No- low consensus- internal attributionNo- low consensus- internal attribution

BIASES THAT APPLLY WHEN MAKING ATTRIBUTIONS:

FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR- the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors on another’s behavior and to overestimate the influence of internal factors.

SELF-SERVING BIAS- the tendency to overestimate the contribution of internal factors to one’s successes and the contribution of external factors to one’s failures

Impression ManagementImpression Management The attempt to influence others’ perceptions of The attempt to influence others’ perceptions of

oneself.oneself. Managers manage impressions of themselves by Managers manage impressions of themselves by

how they talk, their overall style, their office location how they talk, their overall style, their office location and furniture, and even by the individuals they select and furniture, and even by the individuals they select as employees.as employees.

Allows the person to communicate a desired identityAllows the person to communicate a desired identity

Five Impression Five Impression Management tactics:Management tactics:

1. Ingratiation- they seek to be viewed positively by 1. Ingratiation- they seek to be viewed positively by flattering others or offering to do favors for them.flattering others or offering to do favors for them.

2. Self- promotion- They tout their abilities and 2. Self- promotion- They tout their abilities and competence.competence.

3. Exemplification- they seek to be viewed as 3. Exemplification- they seek to be viewed as dedicated by going above and beyond the calldedicated by going above and beyond the call

4. Supplication- they seek to be viewed as needing 4. Supplication- they seek to be viewed as needing help because of limitations.help because of limitations.

5. Intimidation- they seek to be viewed as powerful 5. Intimidation- they seek to be viewed as powerful and threateningand threatening

EmotionsEmotions A state of physiological arousal and changes in A state of physiological arousal and changes in

facial expressions, gestures, positive and facial expressions, gestures, positive and subjective feelings.subjective feelings.

The root of the word emotion means “to move”The root of the word emotion means “to move” 8 primary emotions: fear, surprise, sadness, joy, 8 primary emotions: fear, surprise, sadness, joy,

disgust, anger, anticipation, and acceptancedisgust, anger, anticipation, and acceptance Additional : aggression, love, remorse, contempt, Additional : aggression, love, remorse, contempt,

optimism and disappointmentoptimism and disappointment

EmotionEmotion

Mood- is the mildest forms of emotionsMood- is the mildest forms of emotions

- is a low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state- is a low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state Kinesics- is the study of communication through body Kinesics- is the study of communication through body

movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions.movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions. Emotional labor- may involve enhancing, faking, or Emotional labor- may involve enhancing, faking, or

suppressing emotions to modify the emotional suppressing emotions to modify the emotional expressions.expressions.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EQ)

The handling of relationships and interactions with others

FOUR BASIC COMPONENTS:1. Self-awareness

-being aware of what you are feeling

2. Self-management- the ability to control disruptive or harmful emotions and balance one’s moods so that worry, anxiety, fear, or anger do not cloud thinking and get in the way of what needs to be done.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (CONTINUATION)

3. Social awareness-the ability to understand others and practice empathy, which means being able to put yourself in someone else’s shoes, to recognize what others are feeling without them needing to tell you.

4. Relationship awareness- the ability to connect to others, build positive relationships, respond to the emotions of others, and influence others.