gym-wizards tumbling gymnastics learning material: … · sports and exercise training –...

GYM-WIZARDS TUMBLING GYMNASTICS

LEARNING MATERIAL:

Sports and Exercise Training – Recreational

Tumbling Gymnastics (Assistant Coach)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Module 1 –

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permission of Gym Wizards CC

Contents

A. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 3

A.1 Welcome ........................................................................................................................... 3

A.2 Learning Programme Alignment ........................................................................................ 3

A.3 Learning Structure for the Module ..................................................................................... 3

A.4 Unit of Competence Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 3

A,5 Navigating the Learner Guide ............................................................................................ 4

B. SECTION 1 – THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY .......................................................... 6

1. The Human Skeleton SO1 AC 1 ........................................................................................................... 6

C. SECTION 2 – MOVEMENT .................................................................................................................. 13

2.1 The Muscles SO 1 AC 2 SO2 AC 2 ...................................................................................................... 13

2.2 Joints SO 2 AC 1 ................................................................................................................................... 36

D. SECTION 3 – COMMON EXERCISES .................................................................................................. 40

3.1 Movement SO3 AC2 and 3................................................................................................................. 40

3.2 Exercises ............................................................................................................................................... 45

E. SECTION 4 – PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS .......................................................................................... 46

4.1 Major Physiological Systems SO 4 AC1, AC2 .................................................................................. 46

4.2 Energy Systems SO 4 AC 3 ................................................................................................................. 48

F. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................ 51

G. RESOURCES .......................................................................................................................................... 52

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reproduced or redistributed in whole or in part without the express written permission of Gym Wizards CC.

Module 1 –



A INTRODUCTION

A. INTRODUCTION

A.1 Welcome

Welcome to Module 1 Apply knowledge of anatomy and physiology to exercise training. The purpose

of this module is to develop learners to utilize their knowledge to identify and explain safe and

effective movement in the context of physical activity and exercise conditioning.

A.2 Learning Programme Alignment

This programme is aligned to the following unit of competence:

UNIT OF COMPETENCE TITLE LEVEL CREDITS

Apply knowledge of anatomy and physiology to exercise training 4 5

A.3 Learning Structure for the Module

The Module is structured so as to include the following sections:

IDENTIFY Section 1 The anatomical structure of the human body

EXPLAIN Section 2 The movements of joints, bones and muscles

DESCRIBE Section 3 Common exercises

APPLY Section 4 Physiological systems

A.4 Unit of Competence Learning Outcomes

Alignment to unit standard requirements for the Module includes:

ELEMENT OF

COMPETENCE

NO LEARNING OUTCOMES / PERFORMANCE

CRITERIA

UNIT

NO

UNIT NAME

LO 1 Identify the

anatomical

structures of the

human body.

1 Identify the anatomical structures of the human

body by labelling the bones of the appendicular

and axial skeleton 1

The

anatomical

structure of

the human

body

2 Distinguish the muscles responsible for movement

at each joint are according to their correct

anatomical term.

LO 2 Explain the

movements of the

joints, bones and

muscles.

1 Establish the range of movement of joints

according to the different types of joints and their

actions. 2

The

movements of

joints, bones

and muscles

2 Explain how the major muscles and with their

actions are facilitate in movement of the body.

LO 3

Describe common

exercise and their

related movement

1 Discuss how exercises are named and described

according to accepted terms used in exercise

science.

3

Common

exercises

2 Explain the terms movement of joints. flexion,

extension, abduction, adduction, rotation,

circumduction, pronation, supination, medial,

lateral, horizontal

3 Describe movement in terms of the planes of

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movement.

Range • Exercises can include but are not limited to

movements that involve all the joints of the

body.

• Includes but is not limited to: Flexion,

extension, abduction, adduction, rotation,

circumduction, pronation, supination, medial,

lateral, horizontal.

LO 4 Identify the

physiological

systems of the

human body.

1 Identify major physiological systems affected by

exercise training inclusive of cardiovascular,

respiratory, endocrine, neurological, muscular,

and skeletal systems of the body

4

Physiological

systems

2 Explain the adaptation of each of the physiological

systems to exercise.

3 Identify the energy systems that underpin specific

exercises or activities

Range Includes, but not limited to, cardiovascular,

respiratory, endocrine, neurological, muscular,

and skeletal.

A,5 Navigating the Learner Guide

Throughout the learning programme icons are used to focus your attention on important aspects of

the learning programme.

Performance Criteria:

An indication of the performance criteria that is addressed in each module.

Learner Tip/Truths:

A useful tip regarding the concept under discussion is given as a basis to further

discussion.

Critical Note:

An essential element regarding the concept under discussion is given as a basis for

further discussion.

Individual/Group/Pair Activity:

You will be required to complete an activity on your own/ in pairs or in a group that

relates to the outcomes covered in the module.

Self Reflection:

Reflect on the question(s) asked to identify the relevance of learning outcomes in

real working situations.

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Self Assessment:

Reflect on the question(s) asked to identify the relevance of learning outcomes in

real working situations...

Facilitator/Assessor Note:

Content matter/ Assessment element that is critical to the understanding of the

module. The learner must pay careful attention to this section.

Mentored Discussion/Activity:

Refers to a topic of discussion that will be facilitated by the facilitator – input from

the class in a free-style feedback session is required.

Example Box:

Practical examples that relate to topic of discussion.

Resources:

Possible sources for further research and study is listed under this icon. Resources

may include additional reading, hand-outs, web-sites, multimedia.

Workbook:

Complete the activity in your workbook for this section. Completed activities will be

assessed as part of your Portfolio of Evidence for the particular module.

Case Study:

A practical case study that relates to the topic under discussion.

You are ready to start your learning experience.

Good luck!!

Module 1 –



1 SECTION ONE

B. SECTION 1 – THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY


The following performance criteria will be covered in this learning unit:

LO NO CRITERIA

NO PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

1 Identify the anatomical structures of the human body.

1 Identify the anatomical structures of the human body by labelling the bones

of the appendicular and axial skeleton

2 Distinguish the muscles responsible for movement at each joint are according

to their correct anatomical term.

1. The Human Skeleton SO1 AC 1

The adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones, and is divided into two main divisions: the axial and

appendicular.

The axial skeleton consists of the bones along the axis of the body. The appendicular skeleton consists of

the bones of the appendages (arms and legs) and the girdles (shoulder and pelvic) that connect them with

the axial skeleton.

AXIAL SKELETON:

• Skull

• spinal column

• sacrum

• ribs

• sternum

• ear ossicles

• hyoid bone

APPENDICULAR

SKELETON:

Shoulder girdle:

• clavicle

• scapula

Arms:

• humerus

• ulna

• radius

• carpals

• metacarpals

• phalanges

Pelvic girdle:

• pelvis

Legs:

• femur

• patella

• tibia

• fibula

• tarsals

• metatarsals

• phalanges

Module 1 –



The Human Skull

http://www.visualdictionaryonline.com/human-being/anatomy/skeleton/lateral-view-skull.ph

The human skull is a bony structure, part of the skeleton, that is in the human head and which supports the

structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain.

The adult human skull is said to consist of two categorical parts of different embryological origins: The

neurocranium and the viscerocranium.

The neurocranium (or braincase) is a protective vault surrounding the brain and brain stem. The

viscerocranium (also splanchnocranium or facial skeleton) is formed by the bones supporting the face

The Spinal Column

The spine (also called the vertebral column or spinal column) is composed of a series of bones called

vertebrae stacked one upon another.

There are four regions of the spine:

• cervical (neck)

• thoracic (chest/trunk)

• lumbar (low back)

• sacral (pelvic)

The cervical spine is made up of seven cervical vertebrae. The main function of the cervical spine is to

support the weight of the head which is approximately 10-12 pounds.

The cervical spine has the greatest range of motion, in part because of two specialized vertebra that move

with the skull. Cervical vertebrae are the smallest of the vertebrae.

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The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas and is significantly

different from the other vertebrae. It is ring-like in shape with two

large protrusions on the sides to support the weight of the head. The

second cervical vertebra is called the axis.

The axis is also unique in that it has a bony peg-like protrusion,

called the dens or odontoid on its upper surface that fits within the

ring of the atlas. The curve of the neck is described as a lordosis or

lordotic curve, and looks like a “C” in reverse.

The main function of the thoracic spine is to protect the organs of

the chest, especially the heart and lungs. There are 12 thoracic

vertebrae with one rib attached on each side, to create a thoracic

cage, which protects the internal organs of the chest. The thoracic

spine has a normal kyphosis, or “C” curve.

The thoracic spine is less mobile than the cervical and lumbar spine

because of the thoracic cage. The lumbar spine has five lumbar

vertebrae, which are the largest vertebrae.

These vertebrae are also aligned in a reverse “C” like the cervical

spine, creating a normal lumbar lordosis. The five lumbar vertebral

bodies are the weight-bearing portion of the spine and are the

largest in diameter compared to the thoracic and cervical vertebral

bodies. https://www.innerbody.com/image_skel05/skel14_spine.html

They sit atop the sacrum, which is formed by five vertebrae fused together into a solid unit.

There are usually no identifiable disc spaces between the sacral segments. At the end of the spinal column

is the coccyx or tailbone. Most people have 33 vertebrae in total, although there may be 32 or 34.

Variations are usually found in the lumbar or sacral regions.

The Sacrum

In humans, the sacrum is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of

the pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between the two hip bones.

Its upper part connects with the last lumbar vertebra, and bottom part with the coccyx (tailbone). It

consists of usually five initially unfused vertebrae which begin to fuse between ages 16–18 and are usually

completely fused into a single bone by age 34.

It is curved upon itself and placed obliquely (that is, tilted forward). It is kyphotic — that is, concave facing

forwards. The base projects forward as the sacral promontory internally, and articulates with the last

lumbar vertebra to form the prominent sacrovertebral angle.

The central part is curved outward towards the posterior, allowing greater room for the pelvic cavity. The

two lateral projections of the sacrum are called ala (wings), and articulate with the ileum at the L-shaped

sacroiliac joints.

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The Rib Cage

The human rib cage, also known as the thoracic cage, is a bony and cartilaginous structure which

surrounds the thoracic cavity and supports the pectoral girdle, forming a core portion of the human

skeleton.

A typical human rib cage consists of 24 ribs, the sternum (with Xiphoid process), costal cartilages, and the

12 thoracic vertebrae. It, along with the skin and associated fascia and muscles, makes up the thoracic

wall and provides attachments for the muscles of the neck, thorax, upper abdomen, and back.

The Sternum

The sternum or breastbone is a long flat bony plate shaped like a capital "T" located anteriorly to the heart

in the centre of the thorax (chest).

It connects the rib bones via cartilage, forming the anterior section of the rib cage with them, and thus

helps to protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels from physical trauma.

Although it is fused, the sternum can be sub-divided into three regions: the manubrium, the b ody, and the

xiphoid process.

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Pectoral Girdle(Shoulder Girdle)

• Clavicle – anterior: collar bone

• Sternal end attaches to the manubrium medially

• Acromial end articulates with the scapula laterally

• Scapula – posterior: shoulder blade

The Human Arm

In human anatomy, the arm is the part of the upper limb between

the shoulder and the elbow joints. In other animals, the term arm

can also be used for analogous structures, such as one of the

paired forelimbs of a four-legged animal or the arms of

cephalopods.

In anatomical usage, the term arm refers specifically to the

segment between the shoulder and the elbow, while the segment

between the elbow and wrist is the forearm.

However, in common, literary, and historical usage, arm refers to

the entire upper limb from shoulder to wrist.

The Pelvis

The pelvis, or pelvic bone, derived from the

Latin word for 'basin', is an anatomical

structure found in most vertebrates.

It is the name given to both a bony structure

and pelvic girdle connecting the base of the

spine to the rear limbs, and the region of the

body defined by that structure.

The muscles and tissue beneath the pelvic

girdle are known as the pelvic floor. The

rounded epiphysis of the femur called the Head

articulates with the pelvic bone at the Hip Joint

at the acetabulum.

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The Human Leg

The human leg is the entire lower extremity or limb of the

human body, including the foot, thigh and even the hip or

gluteal region; however, the precise definition in human

anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb

extending from the knee to the ankle.

Legs are used for standing, walking, jumping, running, kicking,

and similar activities, and constitute a significant portion of a

person's mass.

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Facilitator must ensure that the learner understand the names and functions of the

bones in the human body. Explain the importance of knowledge of the workings of

the human body within the context of exercise and training.

Module 1 –



2 SECTION TWO

C. SECTION 2 – MOVEMENT



LO NO CRITERIA


2 Explain the movements of the joints, bones and muscles.

1 Establish the range of movement of joints according to the different types of

joints and their actions.

2 Explain how the major muscles and with their actions are facilitate in

movement of the body.

2.1 The Muscles SO 1 AC 2 SO2 AC 2

Humans have more than 600 muscles in the body; there are only three types of muscle: smooth, cardiac

and skeletal. Each muscle helps to keep the body in motion, the heart beating or signal a natural response

in the body, such as the ability to keep eyes focused.

SMOOTH

MUSCLE

Smooth muscles are also known as involuntary muscles, meaning a person cannot

physically will them to move. Smooth muscles are instead controlled involuntary

responses in the brain and body.

One example of smooth muscle is the digestive system, where muscles in the

oesophagus contract to move food down to the stomach and tighten when you have

an illness that causes you to vomit.

Other examples of smooth muscle include the uterus, the bladder and behind the

eyes to keep your eyes focused. In terms of appearance, smooth muscles are long,

thin-shaped cells attached to bones in the body. Smooth muscles also are found in

the blood vessels, helping blood to move around the body.

CARDIAC

MUSCLE

Cardiac muscle also is known as myocardium. Similar to smooth muscle, cardiac

muscle is an involuntary muscle.

These muscles are thickened because they must contract frequently to move blood in

and out of the heart.

Cardiac muscle cells are quadrangular in terms of shape, according to msnucleus.org,

and the muscles have striations, or which can resemble stripes or lines, running

through them.

SKELETAL

MUSCLE

Skeletal muscles are the voluntary muscles that allow you to control the movements

of your body. Skeletal muscles also are striated and comprise the musculoskeletal

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system.

These muscles are attached to your bones via tendons, which are cords of tissue. In

order to move, your skeletal muscles, tendons and bones all must work together.

Skeletal muscles come in different shapes and sizes, as evidenced by a weightlifter's

large muscles.

Other skeletal muscles in the body you may not be as aware of include those in the

neck or face.

Even your tongue contains skeletal muscles, according to KidsHealth.org. Major

skeletal muscles in the body include the deltoids (shoulders); pectorals (chest);

abdominals (stomach); quadriceps (thighs); or gluteal muscles (buttocks). Skeletal

muscles work in pairs, such as the biceps, which can lift the arms or the triceps, which

are activated when the arms are straight.

On the sketch below the major muscles of the human body is shown and following is detailed sketches and

information on these muscles.

Module 1 –




Ensure that learners understand the names and functions of the different

muscles in the human body. Explain the class the importance of knowledge of the

workings of the human body to exercise and training

Shoulder Girdle Trapezius

The Trapezius is part of the group of muscles which control the shoulder girdle and is

divided into; upper, middle and lower parts. When all parts of the muscle work

together they have the effect of simultaneously elevating and retracting the scapula.

The Trapezius is used most commonly to fix the scapula to allow the Deltoid to move

the Humerus

ORIGIN ACTIONS NERVE USES

• Base of skull

• Ligaments cervical

(upper) spine

• Spinous processes

of Cervical 7 to

Thoracic 12

vertebrae

• Elevate the Scapula

• Retract the Scapula

• Upward rotation of

the scapula

• Cranial nerve

•

• Shrugging the

shoulders

• Overhead

movements or the

arm

Levator Scapulae

Shrugging the shoulders (scapula elevation) requires the use of levator scapulae and

Trapezius. Fixation of the scapula by other muscles, allows the levator scapulae

muscles to work together to aid cervical extension, or independently to laterally flex

(side bend) the neck towards the side of the working muscle


• Transverse

processes of C1-4

• Scapula elevation

• Lateral flexion of

the cervical spine

(each side

independently)

• Extension of the

cervical spine (each

side independently)

• Cervical nerve

• Dorsal scapular

nerve

•

• Shrugging

shoulders

• Carrying a heavy

shopping bag

•

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Rhomboids

There are two rhomboid muscles - Rhomboid major is larger and positioned below

rhomboid minor. Both muscles work together to retract the scapula (bring the

shoulder blades together) and rotate the scapula.



of C7-T5

• Scapula retraction

• Rotation of the

scapula downwards

• Dorsal scapular

nerve

• Pulling a drawer

open

Pectoralis Minor

The Pectoralis Minor muscle is the smallest of the two pectoral (chest) muscles. It

works together with Serratus anterior which protracts and rotates upwards. When

the two work together, pure protraction (without rotation) is produced


• Outer surface of

ribs 3-5

• Scapula protraction

• Rotation of the

scapula downwards

• Medial pectoral

nerve

• Pushing a door

open

Serratus Anterior

The Serratus anterior muscle is used in activities which draw the scapula forwards. It is

used strongly in push-ups and bench presses. Winged scapula are an indicator of

having a weak Serratus anterior.


• Upper nine ribs at

the side of the

chest

• Scapula protraction

• Rotation of the

scapula upwards

• Long thoracic nerve • Reaching up to

open a high

window

Module 1 –



Sternocleidomastoid Muscle

The Sternocleidomastoid muscle is the big thick muscle in the neck and is easily seen

at the front of the neck when rotating the head the other way.


• Anterior surface

of the upper

sternum

• Inner part of the

clavicle

• Contraction on

both sides: Flexes

the neck

• Contraction on one

side only: Laterally

flexes (side bends)

to the same side

and rotates to the

other side

• Accessory XI nerve.

•

• Looking over your

shoulder

• Holding the phone

between your ear

and shoulder

Shoulder joint including Chest Muscles

Pectoralis Major Chest Muscle

Pectoralis major is the largest and most superficial of the two chest muscles.

Pec major and the anterior fibres of Deltoid work closely together. Pec fly and

push-up exercises work the Pectoralis major.


• Medial 1/2 of the

clavicle

• Costal cartilages of

the first 6 ribs

• Sternum

• Shoulder flexion

• Internal rotation

• Adduction

• Lateral and medial

pectoral nerves

• Using roll-on

deodorant

Latissimus Dorsi

The Latissimus dorsi muscle is one of the largest in the body. It is a powerful extensor

muscle of the arm and is used extensively in chinning and climbing. They are

commonly known at the lats.


• Posterior crest of

the ilium (via the

• Extension


• Thoracodorsal

nerve

• Pushing on the

arms of a chair

Module 1 –



Thoracolumbar

fascia)

• Posterior sacrum


of T7-L5

• Adduction • when standing up

Deltoid

The deltoid muscle is used in all side lifting movements and any movement of the humerus

on the scapula. It is divided into two portions, anterior and posterior, with the fibres having

different roles due to their orientation


• Outer 1/3 of the

clavicle

• Acromion process

• Spine of the

scapula

•

• Anterior portion -

Shoulder flexion

and internal

rotation

• Posterior portion -

Shoulder extension

and external

rotation

• All fibres - Shoulder

abduction

• Axillary nerve • Lifting

Supraspinatus Muscle

The Supraspinatus muscle is one of the four muscles which make up the

rotator cuff. Its main function is to stabilise the humerus by holding the head

of the humerus in position.


• Supraspinous

fossal

• Abduction

• Stabilisation of the

humerus

• Suprascapular

nerve

• Holding shopping

bags away from the

body

Infraspinatus

The Infraspinatus muscle is one of the four rotator cuff muscles and is commonly

injured.


• Posterior surface • Shoulder abduction • Suprascapular • Brushing hair

Module 1 –



of the scapula

(below the spine

of the scapula)

• External rotation nerve

Teres Minor

Teres Minor is one of the four rotator cuff muscles. Its main action, along with

Infraspinatus is to externally rotate the shoulder joint. There are two Teres muscles,

the other being Teres Major.


• Mid section of the

lateral border of

the scapula

• External rotation

• Shoulder abduction

• Axillary nerve

• Brushing hair

Subscapularis Muscle

Subscapularis is one of the four rotator cuff muscles. The muscle also acts to hold

the head of the humerus in position and prevents it moving forwards.


• Anterior (costal)

surface of the

scapula


• Adduction

• Upper and lower

subscapular nerves

• Tucking the back of

your shirt into your

trousers

Teres Major Muscle

Teres major is only functional when the Rhomboids fix the scapula. This

muscle mainly helps Latissimus dorsi.


• lower 1/3 of the

lateral border of

the scapula

• Adduction


• Extension

• Lower subscapular

nerve

• Tucking the back of

your shirt into your

trousers

Elbow joint muscles / Arm Muscles

Biceps Brachii.

The Biceps brachii crosses both the elbow and shoulder joints. Its action on the shoulder joint is very weak

Module 1 –



flexion.

The Biceps brachii works most efficiently in flexing the elbow joint when the

forearm is supinated (palm facing up). The bicep curl is the most commonly used

exercise to strengthen this muscle.

Brachialis

The brachialis acts to flex the elbow whether in pronation or supination, along

with Biceps brachii. As Brachialis is attached to the Ulna, which cannot rotate, it is

the only true flexor of the elbow.


• Long head - top of

the glenoid fossa

• Short head -

coracoid process

• Lower half of the

anterior humerus

•

• Elbow flexion

• Supination of the

forearm

• Musculocutaneus

nerve

• Picking up a

shopping bag

Brachioradialis

The Brachioradialis muscle acts to supinate the forearm from a pronated position,

when it flexes the elbow. When starting in a supinated position, it acts to pronate the

hand as it flexes the elbow.


• Lower 2/3 of the

lateral

supracondylar

ridge of the

humerus

• Elbow flexion

• Pronation

• Supination

• Radial nerve • Turning a

corkscrew

Triceps Brachii Muscle

The Triceps Brachii also assists Latissimus Dorsi in extending the shoulder joint. It

contracts strongly during the up phase of a push up, to straighten the arm.


• Long head - Lower

part of the glenoid

cavity of the

scapula


elbow

• Radial nerve

•

• Pushing a door

closed

Module 1 –



• Lateral head -

Upper half of the

posterior surface

of the humerus

• Medial head -

Lower 2/3 of the

posterior surface

of the humerus

Anconeus

The Anconeus works alongside Triceps Brachii in extending the elbow. It also acts to

pull the synovial membrane out of the way of the olecranon process when the elbow

is extending.


• Posterior surface

of the lateral

condyle of the

humerus

• Elbow extension

•

• Radial nerve • Pushing a door

closed

Supinator Muscle

The supinator muscle assists Biceps brachii in supinating the hand, which is turning it

over so that the palm faces up. To isolate the supinator muscle, supinate the hand whilst

extending the elbow as this takes out the Biceps muscle


• Lateral

supracondylar

ridge of the

humerus

• Posterior part of

the ulna

• Supination

•

• Posterior

interosseous

branch of the radial

nerve

• Turning a

screwdriver

Pronator Teres

Pronator Teres works the hardest when the elbow is flexing the hand simultaneously

pronating

Pronator Quadratus

Pronator Quadratus works in conjunction with Triceps Brachii during pronation with

elbow extension.


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• Medial

supracondylar

ridge of the

humerus

• Medial side of the

coronoid process

of the ulna

• Pronation

• Elbow flexion

•

• Median nerve • Turning a

screwdriver

Wrist and Hand Flexor Carpi Radialis

Flexor Carpi Radialis crosses the elbow joint and so is also a weak elbow flexor.


• Medial epicondyle

of the humerus

• Flexion of the wrist

• Radial deviation of

the wrist

• Median nerve

•

• Pulling rope

towards you

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris


ORIGIN ACTIONS INNERVATION USES

• Lateral

supracondylar

ridge of the

humerus


wrist

• Radial deviation

(abduction) of the

wrist

• Radial nerve • Typing

Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis

Extensor Carpi Radalis Brevis is the shorter of the two extensor carpi radialis muscles. The

word brevis means short in Latin


• Medial epicondyle

of the humerus

• Flexion of the wrist

• Ulnar deviation

• Ulnar nerve • Pulling rope

towards you

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(adduction) of the

wrist

Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus

Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus is, as the name suggests, the longer of the two extensor

carpi radialis muscles as its origin is the ridge above the lateral epicondyle of the

humerus, as opposed to the medial epicondyle.


• Lateral epicondyle

of the humerus


wrist

• Radial deviation

(abduction) of the

wrist

• Radial nerve • Typing

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris Muscle

The Extensor Carpi Ulnaris muscle is a powerful wrist extensor and except for the

flexor carpi ulnaris is the only muscle involved in wrist adduction



of the humerus


wrist

• Ulnar deviation

(adduction) of the

wrist

• Radial nerve • Accelerating a

motorbike

Extensor Digitorum Communis

Extensor Digitorum Communis is sometimes simply referred to as Extensor

Digitorum.



of the humerus


wrist


fingers

• Posterior

interosseous nerve

• Pulling the hand

back and

straightening the

fingers to wave

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis is sometimes also known as Flexor Digitorum

Sublimis.


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• Upper posterior

surface of the ulna


wrist


thumb

• Posterior

interosseous nerve

• Releasing your grip

on an object

Knee Joint

Vastus Lateralis Muscle

Vastus Lateralis is the most lateral (outside) of the four quadriceps muscles. It is thought to be

a major contributor to patella tracking injuries.



the greater

trochanter of the

femur

• Upper half of the

linea aspera

• Knee extension • Femoral nerve • Cycling

• Walking up stair

Vastus Intermedius Muscle

Vastus Intermedius is located deep to the Rectus Femoris muscle and is part of the

quadriceps muscle group


• Anterior and

lateral surfaces of

the shaft of the

femur

• Knee extension

•

• Femoral nerve • Cycling

• Walking up stairs

Vastus Medialis Muscle

Vastus Medialis is the most medially located of the quadricep muscles and is thought to be

important in stabilizing the knee cap or patella


• Intertrochanteric

line (between the

• Knee extension • Femoral nerve • Cycling

• Walking up stairs

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greater and lesser

trochanters of the

femur)

• Medial lip of the

linea aspera of the

femur

Popliteus

Popliteus is a small muscle which is often described as the key of the knee joint. It

unlocks the knee joint by rotating the femur at the beginning of knee flexion to allow full

knee flexion to occur


• Lateral condyle of

the femur

• Knee flexion

• Internal rotation of

the knee when it is

flexed

• Tibial nerve

•

• Walking

Hip and Pelvis

Iliopsoas

Iliopsoas is sometimes classified as two muscles, Iliacus and Psoas major


• Inner surface of

the Ilium

• Base of the

sacrum

• Sides of the

bodies of T12-L5

• Flexion of the hip

• Lateral rotation of

the hip

• Flexes torso when

the legs are fixed

(e.g. laying to

sitting)

• Femoral nerve and

branches of the

lumbar plexus

• Climbing a step

Gluteus Medius

Gluteus Medius is an important muscle in controlling the level of the hips. Weaknesses in

gluteus medius often result in a trendelenburg sign, an abnormal gait cycle where the hip

of the swinging leg drops down, rather than raises up. This results in increased degrees of

knee flexion in order to clear the ground.



the ilium, just

below the crest

• Hip abduction

• Posterior fibres

externally rotate

the hip

• Superior gluteal

nerve

• Stepping sideways

out of the bath

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• Anterior fibres

internally rotate

the hip

Gluteus Minimus



the ilium, below

the origin of

Gluteus medius

• Hip abduction


the hip


nerve

•

• Getting out of a car

Gluteus Maximus

Gluteus Maximus is the largest and most superficial of the three gluteal muscles


• Posterior crest of

the ilium


of the sacrum

• Hip extension

• External rotation of

the hip

•

•

• Inferior gluteal

nerve

• Extension phase of

walking upstairs

Piriformis

The Piriformis muscle is an important muscle. The sciatic nerve passes underneath this

muscle on its route down to the posterior thigh. In some individuals the nerve can

actually pass right through the muscle.


• Anterior surface of

the lateral sacrum


the hip

• Hip abduction

• Branch of the sacral

plexus

• Taking the first leg

out of the car

Pectineus

Pectineus is positioned between the Iliopsoas and Adductor Longus muscles.


• Upper front of the

pubic bone

• Hip adduction

• Hip flexion

• Femoral nerve

•

• Kicking a football

Sartorius Muscle

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The Sartorius is a two joint muscle and so is weak when the knee is flexed and the hip is

flexed at the same time. It works better during single movements.


• Area between the

ASIS (Anterior

Superior Iliac

Spine) and AIIS

(Anterior Inferior

Iliac Spine)


• Flexion of the knee


the hip as it flexes

the hip and knee

• Abducts the hip

• Femoral nerve

• Sitting in a cross-

legged position

Rectus Femoris

The Rectus Femoris muscle is part of the Quadriceps muscle group. It is the only muscle of

the group which crosses the hip joint and is a powerful knee extensor when the hip is

extended, but is weak when the hip is flexed.


• Area between the

ASIS (Anterior

Superior Iliac

Spine) and AIIS

(Anterior Inferior

Iliac Spine


• Flexion of the knee


the hip as it flexes

the hip and knee

• Abducts the hip

• Femoral nerve

•

• Sitting in a cross-

legged position

Tensor Fasciae Latae Muscle

The Tensor Fasciae Latae is a small muscle which attaches inferiorly to the long thick

strip of fascia, known at the iliotibial band (ITB)


• Anterior Iliac crest

and ilium


• Hip abduction


nerve

• Keeping one foot in

front of the other

when walking

Biceps Femoris

Biceps Femoris is one of the three muscles which form the hamstring group. The muscle

is often described as having a long head (the attachment from the ischium) and a short

head (attached to the femur).


• Tuberosity of the • Hip extension • Tibial part of the • Bending the knee

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ischium

• Lower1/2 of the

linea aspera of the

femur

• Lateral

supracondylar

ridge

• Knee flexion


the hip when the

knee is flexed

sciatic nerve to step over

something

Semitendinosus

When running the hamstrings act eccentrically to slow down the knee extension motion.

Hamstring strains are common in individuals with chronically tight hamstrings or who do

not warm-up thoroughly


• Tuberosity of the

ischium

• Lower1/2 of the

linea aspera of the

femur

• Lateral

supracondylar

ridge

• Hip extension

• Knee flexion


the hip when the

knee is flexed

•

• Tibial part of the

sciatic nerve

• Bending the knee

to step over

something

Semimembranosus.

Semimembranosus is the most medial (inside) of the three hamstring muscles and along

with the semitendinosus muscle provides dynamic stability to the knee joint.


• Ischial tuberosity

• Hip extension

• Knee flexion


the hip when the

knee is flexed


sciatic nerve


to step over

something

Adductor Brevis

Adductor Brevis is the smallest and shortest of the five adductor muscles with the others

being Adductor longus, Adductor magnus, Gracilis and Pectineus.


• The pubic bone

• Hip adduction

• Hip flexion

• Obturator nerve • Bringing your

second leg into the

car

Adductor Longus

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Adductor Longus is the middle of the three short adductor muscles (adductor brevis and

pectineus are the other two). The adductor magnus and gracilis are the two long adductor

muscles which go from the pubic bone to the knee.


• Ischial tuberosity • Hip extension

• Knee flexion


the hip when the

knee is flexed


sciatic nerve


to step over

something

Adductor Magnus

Adductor Magnus is the largest of the adductor muscles and with the gracilis muscle forms

the long adductor group.


• Adductor head:

Inferior ramus of

pubis and ischial

ramus

• Hamstring head:

Ischial tuberosity

• Adductor head:

Adducts and flexes

hip

• Hamstring head:

Extends hip

• Adductor head:

Obturator nerve

• Hamstring head:

Sciatic nerve

• Bringing your

second leg into the

car

Gracilis

Gracilis is another muscle which works in conjunction with the groin muscles, or adductors.


• Lower pubic body,

near the pubic

symphesis

• Adducts hip

• Flexes knee

• Internally rotates

the hip when the

knee is flexed

• Obturator nerve • Sitting with the

knees pressed

together

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Lower Leg Muscles

Gastrocnemius

Gastrocnemius is the largest and most superficial of the calf muscles. Together the

Gastrocnemius, Soleus and Plantaris are known as Triceps Surae. The Gastrocnemius is the

main propellant in walking and running.


• Lower posterior

surface of the

femur above the

medial condyle


the femur

• Plantar flexion • Tibial nerve • Standing on tip toes

Soleus Muscle

Soleus is a large muscle, deep to Gastrocnemius. Together the Gastrocnemius, Soleus and

Plantaris are known as Triceps Surae. Soleus is used constantly in standing to maintain an

upright position.


• Upper half of the

posterior surface

of the tibia, along

the soleal line

• Upper third of the

posterior fibula

• Plantar flexion • Tibial nerve

•

• Standing upright

Tibialis Posterior Muscle

The Tibialis Posterior is the deepest of all the calf muscles. It helps to support the arch of the

foot.


• Interosseous

membrane

(between the tibia

• Plantarflexion

• Inversion

• Tibial nerve • Pushing down car

pedals

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and fibula)

• Posterior surfaces

of the tibia and

fibula, adjacent to

the interosseous

membrane

Flexor Digitorum Longus

Flexor Digitorum Longus causes the toes to grip and mould to the floors surface

which is vital in maintaining balance on rough surfaces. Walking barefoot on an

uneven surface is an excellent exercise for this muscle.



posterior surface

of the tibia

• Plantarflexion

• Inversion

• Flexion of the toes

•

• Tibial nerve • Gripping with the

toes

Flexor Hallucis Longus

Flexor Hallucis Longus bends the big toe when you curl up your foot. It is called 'Hallucis'

as the word Hallux means great toe in Latin. This muscle also supports the longitudinal

arch of the foot.



posterior surface

of the fibula

• Flexion of the big

toe

• Inversion

• Plantarflexion

• Tibial nerve

•

• Pushing off the

surface in walking

Peroneus Longus

Peroneus Longus is one of the peroneal muscles which pass down the outside of the

lower leg and evert the foot. These muscles are sometimes referred to as fibularis longus,

brevis and tertius due to their attachments on the fibula.


• Head of fibula • Eversion • Superficial peroneal • Walking on uneven

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• Upper 2/3 of

fibula

• Plantarflexion

•

(fibular) nerve surfaces

Peroneus Brevis

Peroneus Brevis is one of the peroneal muscles which pass down the outside of the lower

leg and evert the foot. These muscles are sometimes referred to as Fibularis brevis,

longus and tertius due to their attchments on the fibula.



lateral surface of

the fibula

• Eversion

• Plantarflexion

• Superficial peroneal

(fibular) nerve

• Walking on uneven

surfaces

Tibialis Anterior

Tibialis anterior forms the main fleshy part of the shin on the front and outside of the

shin. It is a powerful dorsi flexor (lifts the foot up).


• Upper 1/2 of

lateral and

anterior surfaces

of the tibia

• Inversion

• Dorsiflexion

•

• Deep peroneal

nerve

• Walking - to lift the

foot up and clear

the ground

Extensor Digitorum Longus

The Extensor Digtitorum Longus muscle is one of the three dorsi flexors (pulls the foot

upwards) of the foot. It is exercised by trying to walk on the heels



the tibia

• Head and anterior

surface of the

fibula

• Interosseous

• Extends toes

• Dorsiflexion

• Eversion

• Peroneal (Fibular)

nerve

• Walking upstairs

and making sure

the toes clear the

steps

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membrane

(between tibia and

fibia)

Neck and back muscles

Erector Spinae

The erector spinae (sometimes known as

group of different muscles called iliocostalis, longissimus and spinalis

ORIGIN

• Posterior crest of the

ilium

• Lower posterior surface

of the sacrum

• Lower 7 ribs

• Spinous processes of T9-

L5

• Transverse processes of

T1-12

•

•

•

•

Multifidus

Multifidus is a series of small muscles which travel up the length of the spine. It

is an important muscle in the rehabilitation of Gilmore's Groin.

ORIGIN


of the sacrum

• Articular processes

of the lumbar

vertebrae

• Transverse

processes of the

thoracic vertebrae

• Articular processes

of C3-7

• Extension, lateral

flexion and rotation

of the spine

May not be be reprinted, reproduced or redistributed in whole or in part without the express written


Erector Spinae

The erector spinae (sometimes known as sacrospinalis) is often described as a


ACTIONS NERVE

Extension of the

spine

Lateral flexion

(side-bending) of

the spine

Maintains correct

curvature of the

spine

• Dorsal rami of

cervical, thoracic

and lumbar

spinal nerves

Multifidus



ACTIONS NERVE

Extension, lateral

flexion and rotation

of the spine

• Dorsal rami of the

spinal nerves

•

•

May not be be reprinted, reproduced or redistributed in whole or in part without the express written

sacrospinalis) is often described as a


USES

Neck movement



USES

• Maintaining good

posture of the spine

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Rectus Abdominus

Rectus Abdominus is the most superficial of the abdominal muscles. It is this muscle which

forms the six-pack shape!


• Crest of the pubis

• Pubic symphesis

• Flexes lumbar spine • Ventral rami of

thoracic nerves

• Moving from lying

to sitting

Transversus Abdominus Muscle

Transversus Abdominus is often abbreviated to TVA. This is a very important core muscle

which is vital in maintaining good posture. Activities such as Pilates focus on contraction of

the TVA.


• Front of the iliac

crest

• Inguinal ligament

• Costal cartilages of

the lower 6 ribs

• Thoracolumbar

fascia

• Compresses the

abdomen and

supports the

abdominal visera

• Ventral rami of

thoracic nerves

• Ilioinguinal nerve

• Iliohypgastric nerve

• Maintaining good

posture

Internal Obliques


• Iliac crest

• Inguinal ligament

• Thoracolumbar

fascia

• Contraction of one

side alone laterally

bends the trunk to

that side

• and rotates the

trunk to the other

• Ventral rami of

thoracic nerves

• Ilioinguinal nerve

• Iliohypgastric nerve

• Raking leaves

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side

• Compresses the

abdomen and

supports the

abdominal viscera

External Obliques


• Lowest 8 ribs • Contraction of one

side alone laterally

bends the trunk to

that side and

rotates the trunk to

the other side

• Compresses the

abdomen and

supports the

abdominal viscera

• Ventral rami of

thoracic nerves

• Raking leaves

Splenius Muscle

Splenius is often divided into two muscles, splenius capitus (those fibres which

insert on the skull) and splenius cervicis (those that insert onto the cervical

transverse processes of the spine).


• Lower half of the

ligamentum

nuchae


of C7-T5


head and neck

• Contraction of one

side laterally flexes

and rotates the

neck to the same

side

• Posterior rami of

the lower cervical

spinal nerves

• Lateral branches of

the posterior rami

of the middle and

lower cervical

spinal nerves

• Looking up at the

ceiling

• Looking over your

shoulder

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Quadratus Lumborum

The quadratus lumborum muscle is a common muscle involved in lower back pain.


• Posterior iliac

crest

• Iliolumbar

ligament

• Laterally flexes

(side-bends) trunk

• Ventral rami of the

subcostal nerve

• Lumbar nerves

• Bending sideways

to pick something

up

2.2 Joints SO 2 AC 1

Flexibility or limberness refers to the absolute range of movement in a joint or series of joints, and length

in muscles that cross the joints. Flexibility is variable between individuals, particularly in terms of

differences in muscle length of multi-joint muscles.

Flexibility in some joints can be increased to a certain degree by exercise, with stretching a common

exercise component to maintain or improve flexibility.

Quality of life is enhanced by improving and maintaining a good range of motion in the joints. Overall

flexibility should be developed with specific joint range of motion needs in mind as the individual joints vary

from one to another. Loss of flexibility can be a predisposing factor for physical issues such as pain

syndromes or balance disorders.

Gender, age, and genetics are important for range of motion. Exercise including stretching often improves

flexibility.

Many factors are taken into account when establishing personal flexibility: joint structure, ligaments,

tendons, muscles, skin, tissue injury, fat (or adipose) tissue, body temperature, activity level, age and

gender all influence an individual's range of motion about a joint.

Types of joints

There are several types of joints in the human body. Below of the joints most commonly associated with

joint pain.

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Ball and Socket Joints allow for a wide range of

rotation and movement. The shoulder and hip

are ball and socket joints.

Condyloid Joints allow movement but no

rotation. There are condyloid joints in the jaw

and fingers.

Gliding Joints allow bones to glide past each

other. There are gliding joints in the ankles,

wrists and spine.

Hinge Joints allow for movement much like

that of a door hinge. The knee and ulna part of

the elbow are hinge joints.

Pivot Joints allow bones to spin and twist around other bones. There are pivot joints in the neck and the

radius part of the elbow.

Saddle Joints allow for back and forth and side to side motion but limited rotation. There is a saddle joint in

the thumb.

Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how the

bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement

between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap between the two types of

classifications.

Structural

classification

(Binding tissue)

Structural classification names and divides joints according to the type of binding

tissue that connects the bones to each other.[3] There are three structural

classifications of joints:

� Fibrous joint - joined by dense irregular connective tissue that is rich in collagen

fibers

� Cartilaginous joint - joined by cartilage

� Synovial joint - not directly joined - the bones have a synovial cavity and are

united by the dense irregular connective tissue that forms the articular capsule

that is normally associated with accessory ligaments

Functional

classification

(movement)

Joints can also be classified functionally according to the type and degree of

movement they allow:

� synarthrosis - permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous

joints (e.g., skull sutures).

� amphiarthrosis - permits slight mobility. Most amphiarthrosis joints are

cartilaginous joints (e.g., intervertebral discs.

� diarthrosis - freely movable. All diarthrosis joints are synovial joints (e.g.,

shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, etc.), and the terms "diarthrosis" and "synovial

joint" are considered equivalent by Terminologia Anatomica. Diarthroses can in

turn be classified into six groups according to the type of movement they allow:

arthrodia, enarthrosis, ginglymus, rotary diarthrosis, condyloid articulation and

articulation by reciprocal reception.

Joints can also be classified according to the number of axes of movement they

allow, into monoaxial, biaxial and multiaxial. Another classification is according to

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the degrees of freedom allowed, and distinguished between joints with one, two

or three degrees of freedom.

A further classification is according to the number and shapes of the articular

surfaces: flat, concave and convex surfaces. Types of articular surfaces include

trochlear surfaces.


Ensure that learners understand the names and functions of the different types

of joints in the human body. Explain the class the importance of knowledge of

the workings of the human body to exercise and training

Synovial Joint Types and Movement Ranges

SYNOVIAL JOINT TYPES MOVEMENT RANGE EXAMPLE BODY PLACE: ARTICULATING BONES

Ball and socket 3 axes, flexion / extension, abduction /

adduction, rotation, circumduction

hip: femur, acetabulum of pelvis.

shoulder: scapula, humerus.

Hinge 1 axis, flexion / extension knee: femur, tibia.

elbow: humerus, radius, ulna.

Pivot 1 axis, rotation

spine: atlas: odontoid process of axis (turns head side

to side).

elbow: proximal ends of radius and ulna.

Condyloid (modified ball and socket)

2 axes, flexion / extension, abduction / adduction

= circumduction

knuckles: joint of fingers: metacarpals, phalanges.

wrist: radius, carpals.

Saddle 2 axes, flexion / extension, abduction / adduction

= circumduction

joint at base of thumb: carpal, metacarpal.

Gliding a little movement in all directions

centre of chest: clavicle, sternum.

spine: articulating surfaces.

wrist: carpals.

ankle: tarsals

3 SECTION THREE

D. SECTION 3 – COMMON EXERCISES



LO NO CRITERIA


3 Describe common exercise and their related movement

1 Describe movement in terms of the planes of movement.

2 Discuss how exercises are named and described according to accepted terms used

in exercise science.

3 Explain the terms movement of joints, flexion, extension, abduction, adduction,

rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, medial, lateral, horizontal

Range • Exercises can include but are not limited to movements that involve all the

joints of the body.

• Includes but is not limited to: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction,

rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, medial, lateral, horizontal.

3.1 Movement SO3 AC2 and 3

Terms used in movement

analysis

Terms of movement consist of three main sections:

� Planes of the body.

� Axes of the body.

� Movement patterns.

�

To help analyse movement, it is possible to imagine a series of lines and surfaces that divide the body into

sections – the lines are called axes and the surfaces called planes.

Planes of the body

The term body plane is defined as ‘an imaginary flat surface running through the centre of gravity of the

body’, and is used to assist in the understanding of movement of body segments with respect to one

another. Within each plane an axis can be identified in association with a particular joint about which the

movement takes place.

Frontal (coronal) plane

� A vertical plane that divides the body into front and back sections.

� Movements in this plane are abduction and adduction, as for example in a cartwheel.

� And spinal lateral flexion, as for example in side flexion trunk bends.

Sagittal (median) plane

� A vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sides.

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� Movements in this plane include flexion and extension, as for example in somersaults, biceps curl, pole

vault take-off, sprinting, dorsiflexion, and plantar flexion.

Transverse (horizontal) plane

� A horizontal plane that divides the body into upper and lower sections

� Movements are rotational movement patterns such as supination, pronation, and spinal rotation.

� Example movements would be twisting or turning, the spinning skater, discus, hammer or ski turns.

Axes of rotation An axis of rotation is defined as ‘an imaginary line about which the body rotates or spins, at

right angles to the plane’

https://www.Movements.html&source

Longitudinal axis

• This axis runs vertically from the top of the head to a point between the feet.

• Movements in the transverse plane about the longitudinal axis are rotational movements.

• Examples of sporting movements would be the spinning skater and the hammer throws.

Transverse axis

• This axis runs horizontally from side to side across the body between opposite hips at right angles to

the sagittal plane.

• Movements within the sagittal plane about the transverse axis are flexion, extension, hyperextension,

dorsiflexion and plantar flexion.

• Sports movements about this axis include sit ups, and the high jump Fosbury Flop flight phase.

Frontal axis (sometimes called the front axis)

• This axis runs horizontally from front to back between belly button and lumbar spine.

• Movements in the frontal plane about the frontal axis include abduction, adduction and spinal lateral

flexion.

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• Examples of sports movements about this axis are a cartwheel, and the bowling action in cricket.

The possible ranges of movements within a synovial joint vary according to the shape of the articular

surfaces and therefore according to the joint type. These movement patterns have been categorised

according to the relevant body planes.

Movement

patterns in the

sagittal (median)

plane:

� Flexion means to bend, resulting in a decreased angle around the joint – for

example, bending of the knee.

� Extension means to straighten, resulting in an increased angle around the joint

– for example, straightening of the knee from a bent-legged to straight-legged

position.

� Hyperextension is the forced extension of a joint beyond its normal range of

motion – for example, the arched spine that is created in the flight phase of the

Fosbury Flop high jump technique.

� Plantarflexion involves extending the toes thereby increasing the angle at the

ankle – for example, standing on tip-toes.

� Dorsiflexion describes movement of the foot towards the shin – for example,

walking on one’s heels.

Movement

patterns in the

frontal (coronal)

plane:

� Abduction means to take away and so is characterised by movement away

from the midline – for example, a cartwheel in gymnastics.

� Adduction means to bring together and so is characterised by movement

towards the midline – for example, bringing the lower legs back together

from the inverted cartwheel.

� Lateral flexion is sideways bending.

� Eversion is the joint action at the ankle characterised by the turning of the

sole of the foot laterally outwards – for example, the kick action in

breaststroke.

� Inversion is the joint action at the ankle characterised by the turning of the

sole of the foot medially inwards – for example, a football player inverts the

foot to pass the ball with the outside of his or her boot.

� Depression describes movement of the shoulders downwards – for

example, the preparation for a dead lift, gripping the bar.

� Elevation describes movement of the shoulders upwards – for example, a

shoulder shrug.

Movement

patterns in the

transverse

(horizontal)

plane:

� Horizontal abduction and adduction Start off with your arm stretched out

in front of you parallel to the ground, whilst your shoulder is flexed. Now

move your arm away and to the side of the body.

This is called horizontal abduction (also known as horizontal extension). If

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you return back to your starting position you will have performed horizontal

adduction (also known as horizontal flexion).

A discus thrower during the preparatory swing (horizontal abduction) and

release of a discus (horizontal adduction) performs these movement

patterns.

� Pronation is characterised by the rotation of the forearm medially so that

the hand faces downwards – for example, a top-spin forehand in tennis.

� Supination is characterised by the rotation of the forearm laterally so that

the hand faces upwards – for example, the right hand action in a hockey

flick.

� Rotation is the turning of a structure around its long axis. Rotation can be

inwards, hence medial rotation of the humerus with the forearm flexed

brings the hand towards the body – for example, in the breaststroke the

humerus rotates medially as the hands enter the water.

� Rotation can be outwards, hence lateral rotation of the humerus describes a

movement whereby the hand moves away from the body – for example, the

humerus rotates laterally in preparation for the forehand stroke in tennis.

Major Joint Movement Patterns

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Mentored Discussion/Activity:

The facilitator will let the class demonstrate different exercises in order to

incorporate all movement patterns

3.2 Exercises

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY JOINT USED ARTICULATING

BONES

MOVEMENT

PRODUCED

AGONIST MUSCLES

Leg action in squat

Knee a – c tibia, femur

extension to flexion

quadriceps group

Hip c - e femur, acetabulum

of pelvis

flexion to extension

gluteus maximus,

hamstring group

Ankle c tibia, fibula, talus

dorsiflexion

tibialis anterior

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY JOINT TYPE MOVEMENT

PRODUCED

AGONIST MUSCLES ANTAGONIST MUSCLES

Arm action in push-up – down movement

Elbow / hinge

Flexion triceps brachii,

anconeus

biceps brachii, brachialis

Up Movement

shoulder / ball and

socket

horizontal adduction

pectoralis major,

anterior deltoid

trapezius, posterior

deltoid

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4 SECTION FOUR

E. SECTION 4 – PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS



LO NO CRITERIA


4 Identify the physiological systems of the human body

1 Identify major physiological systems affected by exercise training inclusive of

cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, neurological, muscular, and skeletal systems

of the body

2 Explain the adaptation of each of the physiological systems to exercise.

3 Identify the energy systems that underpin specific exercises or activities

Range Includes, but not limited to, cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, neurological,

muscular, and skeletal.

Chronic adaptation is a long-term physiological change which is made by the body in response to repeated

physical activity over time. The enlargement of particular muscles as a result of exercise is an example of

chronic adaptation.

A temporary change as a result of exercise, such as a raised pulse or respiration rate, is not chronic adaptation

as it is only a short-term effect. Such short-term changes are known as "acute response."

The beneficial changes within the circulatory system from exercise include making the heart stronger,

providing more oxygen throughout the body for improved functioning and helping people to react better to

stress while gaining physical benefits.

These benefits can be achieved through regular exercise, usually defined as vigorous activity for at least 30

minutes 3 to 5 days a week. The improvements can be seen soon after the start of an exercise program and

will continue throughout life with regular exercising. Moderately intense exercise may include everything from

jogging and swimming to racquetball and aerobics.

4.1 Major Physiological Systems SO 4 AC1, AC2

Cardiovascular system

Exercise has immediate and long-term effects on the cardiovascular system. While all types of exercise provide

health and fitness benefits, strength training and stretching have a minimal impact on the cardiovascular

system.

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Aptly called cardio exercise, activities such as walking running, biking and swimming activate the heart, lungs

and pulmonary systems and, when done routinely, create enduring changes in your physiology.

Effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system

The effects of regular exercise on the vascular system:

• The supply of blood vessels to the heart will increase thereby lowering blood pressure and

improving the functioning of the heart

• Lowers the cholesterol levels in the blood helping to reduce the risk of arteries "furring up" and

possible heart disease

• The period needed for the heart rate to return to normal after exercise is reduced

The network of capillaries in a muscle will increase thereby increasing the supply of blood, oxygen and

nutrients to the working muscle

The Skeletal System

The skeletal system comprises of 206 bones and provides four basic functions:

• Support for tissues and muscle

• Protection for vital organs

• Movement through bones and attached muscles

• Storage for minerals and immature blood cells

Effect of exercise on the skeletal system

The condition of bone may be improved by exercise as it responds to mechanical stresses. These mechanical

stresses usually take the form of skeletal muscle pulling at their points of attachment being their origins and

insertions.

Where these mechanical stresses are applied, most it has been shown that more mineral salts are deposited

and more collagenous fibres are produced. Therefore, both the density and size of bone in these areas may

be increased and these changes in bone structure are stimulated by increased loads being placed on the

skeleton.

This has been borne out by greater bone mass being observed in weight lifters than in other lighter

endurance athletes such as joggers. Other examples include racquet players who have been shown to have

greater bone density in their playing arms.

It has even been shown that if a leg is immobilised by being placed in plaster, due to a fracture, that even

after a few weeks the bone becomes decalcified from lack of mechanical stress.

Whilst it may therefore be considered beneficial to utilise exercise to maintain healthy bones, great care

must be taken with children whose bones and muscles are still developing. They should not be subjected to

forms of sport involving high degrees of mechanical stress, partly because of the weaknesses that still exist

within the bones, and also because of adverse effects on the development of these bones before maturity.

There are two main effects on bones as we grow older.

Bones begin to lose calcium and this is one of the factors contributing to the condition called osteoporosis.

Secondly, with age less protein is produced which alters the make-up of bone and sometimes creates brittle

bones.

The Respiratory System

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The respiratory system comprises of the nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The function

of the respiratory system is to facilitate gaseous exchange to take place in the lungs and tissue cells of the

body.

Effect of exercise on the respiratory system

In the Cardiovascular system, the benefits of exercise were discussed in relation to the improved functioning

of the heart and the lowering of blood pressure. Combined with increased maximum oxygen consumption

(VO2 max), or lung capacity, these are all vital contributors to being fit and healthy.

An athlete who has not properly trained their cardiovascular system is likely to incur other injuries more easily

by the rapid onset of fatigue and the consequent lowering of motivation and mental awareness. For anyone

competing at varying altitudes, they must allow themselves a considerable period to acclimatise before an

event.

Even climbing to a moderate altitude decreases the maximum uptake by 7% to 8% due to the change in

atmospheric pressure. This decrease in oxygen being supplied to the muscles may decrease performance by 4

to 8% depending on the duration of competition, a considerable disadvantage at the finish line.

Even the athlete who prepares and acclimatises well may still not match natives of high altitude areas such as

the Andes, who have a larger chest capacity, more alveoli, larger capillary beds and higher red blood cell

count. Since people may suffer from altitude sickness when moving from low to high altitudes, sufficient time

must also be allowed for these symptoms to disappear before starting intensive training.

The Muscular System

Muscle tissue has four main properties: Excitability (ability to respond to stimuli), Contractibility (ability to

contract), Extensibility (ability of a muscle to be stretched without tearing) and Elasticity (ability to return to its

normal shape).

Through contraction, the muscular system performs three important functions:

• Motion - walking, running etc.

• Heat production - maintain normal body temperature

• Maintenance of posture - standing, sitting etc.

Effect of exercise on the

muscular system

The effects of regular exercise on the muscular system:

• Strengthens muscles and the connective tissues

• Improves muscle control and balance

• An increase in muscle size and efficiency

• The amount of myoglobin within skeletal muscle increases

• Muscles are capable of storing a larger amount of glycogen

• Muscle became more efficient at disposing of waste products through

the bloodstream

• Increase in muscle recruitment

4.2 Energy Systems SO 4 AC 3

Athletes are capable of using one or a combination of the two energy systems. Different events demand

different types and amounts of muscle activity. Different systems dominate in various events. Our goal is to

design a training program that increases the capacity of a specific energy and muscular system, therefore

increasing performance.

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Aerobic System

(with oxygen)

Aerobic training is good for the development of the cardiovascular system. It enables athletes to

recover from tough workouts and helps develop the capacity increase repetitions.

• Very efficient, does not produce fatigue-producing waste products

• Lower intensity exercises

• Important in the recovery process for all exercises

• Heart and lungs are critical

• Resists fatigue

• Takes longer to overload than the anaerobic systems

• Requires a minimum 20 minutes duration training period

• Workload can be continuous or broken up into interval training

• Examples of aerobic activities include jogging, running, walking

Anaerobic Lactic

System (without

oxygen)

• Less efficient, produces lactic acid, hastening muscle fatigue

• High intensity level

• Body must burn carbohydrates stored in muscle

• Lactic acid must be removed — can take up to one hour

• Carbohydrates must be replaced for further activity to occur

• First ten minutes of active recovery produces greatest reduction in

lactic acid

• Provide majority of energy requiring high bursts of speed or resistance

lasting up to 10 seconds

• Built by alternating periods of work and rest

• Several easy indications of anaerobic effort are difficulty with

breathing, or difficulty with sustaining effort

• Builds on the aerobic base, and challenges the athlete at the upper

level of aerobic capacity

• Examples of anaerobic activities include weight training, sprints, starts,

jumping, interval training, training at various speeds or training at a

defined pace.

Individual/Group/Pair Activity:

Ask yourself these quick, easy questions to determine which system your exercise is

using.

Is oxygen required? (or, is running or jumping involved)

• If yes, the energy system is Aerobic — with oxygen

• If no, the energy system is Anaerobic — without oxygen

Is lactic acid produced?

• If no, the energy system is Anaerobic Alactic (0-10 seconds energy)

• If yes, the energy system is Anaerobic Lactic (10 seconds-1 minute energy)

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F. CONCLUSION

Self Assessment:

You have come to the end of this Module. Please take the time to review your

understanding of the material by indicating what you can remember about each of the key

areas below in the space provided.

I understand:

Workbook:

Complete the activity in your workbook for this section. Completed activities will be

assessed as part of your Portfolio of Evidence for the particular module.

• The anatomical structures of the human body.

• The movements of the joints, bones and muscles

• Common exercise and their related movement

• The physiological systems of the human body

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G. RESOURCES

1. http://www.innerbody.com/image/skel07.html#full-description

2. http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/joints.php

3. http://kidshealth.org/teen/food_fitness/sports/stress_fractures.html?tracking=T_RelatedArticle

4. http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/movements.php

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iP7fpHuVaiA

6. http://www.ptdirect.com/training-design/anatomy-and-physiology/musculoskeletal-system/joints-joint-

actions-planes-of-movement

7. http://encyclopedia.lubopitko-bg.com/Joints_Articulations.html

8. http://www.bodybuilding.com/exercises/list/index

9. http://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Lecture%20Notes/Unit%202/chapter_8_articulations%20with%20figures

.htm

10. http://www.livestrong.com/article/131711-what-are-effects-exercise-skeletal-system/

11. http://healthyliving.azcentral.com/full-leg-squat-8701.html

12. Examples of Exercises - http://www.jroscoe.co.uk/download/tryouts/AQAAS_ch3.pdf

13. http://www.topendsports.com/fitness/flexibility.htm

14. http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/cardiovascular-system-and-exercise.html

15. http://www.endoszkop.com/the-significance-of-our-endocrine-system/endocrine-system-chart-2/

16. http:// Livestrong.com

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