Introduction on air transport of Dangerous Goods

1

-Introduction-Background-Regulations-Limitations-Classification-Class 1 Explosives-Class 2 Gases-Class 3 Flammable liquids-Class 5 Oxidizers-Class 6 Toxic and infectious substances-Class 7 Radioactive material-Identification-Fig 1 List of Dangerous Goods Packing-Fig 2 Packing Instruction Packaging Marking and labeling and Documentation-Fig 3 Shippers Declaration-Fig 4 Example of a NOTOC -Handling and loading-Table 1 Class compatibility-Table 2 Separation chart-Table 3 Compatibility Chart-Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substances-Emergency and contamination-Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart-Dangerous goods in passenger baggage-Provisions for Dangerous Goods-Carried by Passengers or Crew-Radioactive materials

2

BackgroundIn the early 1950rsquos a growing demand was found for transporting hazardous materials and substances by air Experience from other forms of transportation had shown that handled correctly this could be done without risk so long as the goods are suitably packaged and in limited quantities These experiences in conjunction with the aviation communitiesrsquo knowledge of the characteristics of air transport resulted in the first industrial regulations on the safe transportation of dangerous goods Today we know these regulations as IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations (IATA DGR) These regulations are however based on the requirements of Annexes 18 of the Chicago Convention and the subsequent editions of ICAO Technical Instructions (ICAO TI) which the legal documents are relating to air transport of dangerous goods IATA DGR applies to IATA member airlines associate members and interlines partners so unless operating as such ICAO TI is the document to comply withThe ldquocorerdquo of all regulations on transporting dangerous goods is the list of hazardousmaterials and substances as recommended by the United Nations ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo and the ldquoInternational Atomic Energy Agencyrdquo This list consists of more than 3000 entries describing the hazards and how they are to be handled Each entry has been assigned a number known as the ldquoUN numberrdquo as a form of universal indexAs in all potentially hazardous activities awareness is the key to maintaining safety In May 1996 the world sadly saw the tragic consequences of insufficient awareness when a DC-9 from Value Jet crashed in the Florida Everglades after hazardous materials had caused a severe fire on-board (picture below) Generally regulations tend to require relevant training of all staff ground or airborne who may encounter dangerous goods with recurrent training every two years

RegulationsThe regulations to be adhered to are the previously mentioned ICAO TI and IATA DGR as applicable and JAR OPS 13 subpart R and various state regulationsState regulations generally do not address specific handling requirements of the varioussubstances that may be hazardous referring only to ICAO TI in those respects They dohowever regulate operational requirements and limitationsIn this document I mainly refer to IATA DGR and JAR OPS with some references to

3

different state regulations IATA DGR contain all of the requirements of ICAO TI withadditional requirements that are more restrictive and reflect industry standards or operational requirements of IATA members Where ICAO TI concerns ICAO member states and consequently includes state variations IATA DGR also lists operator variations For instance some operators such as Swissair and Cathay Pacific do not accept Gallium for transport as it has a severely detrimental effect on aluminumDangerous goods are defined as articles or substances which are capable of posing a significant risk to health safety or to property when transported by airWhen we discuss dangerous goods in this context we generally mean cargo as dangerous goods are prohibited in passenger baggage with a few exceptions Hazardous substances in passenger baggage can however pose a greater threat to air safety than cargo as they may easily find their way onto an aircraft unnoticed The travelling public cannot be expected to have the knowledge of the characteristics of air transport that professionals in the industry have or even of the potential dangers of articles they carry in their baggage Therefore it is the responsibility of all staff involved in passenger and dead-load handling as well as aircrews to be vigilant to signs of potential hazards The operator has the final responsibility to make sure the passengers and or client is informed and aware of regulations and technical instructions In our operation the aircrew will do this by using the list of goods on page hellip

LimitationsArticles and substances classified as dangerous goods have various limitations imposed on then depending on how dangerous they are Some goods are considered too hazardous to transport by air while others may be limited to transport on cargo aircraft only and some may be acceptable on both cargo and passenger aircraft Certain dangerous goods normally not acceptable for transport by air may be transported under exemption by the state of origin the state of destination and all states to be over-flown

Dangerous goods forbidden in aircraft under any circumstancesbull Explosives which ignite or decompose when subjected to a temperature of 75ordmC(167ordmF) for 48 hoursbull Explosives containing both chlorates and ammonium salts

4

bull Explosives containing mixtures of chlorates with phosphorousbull Solid explosives which are described as extremely sensitive to mechanical shockbull Liquid explosives which are described as moderately sensitive to mechanical shockbull Any article or substance as presented for transport which is liable to produce adangerous evolution of heat or gas under the conditions normally encountered in airtransportbull Flammable solids and organic peroxides having as tested explosive properties andwhich are packed in such a way that the classification procedure would require the useof an explosives label as a subsidiary risk labelThe dangerous goods listed in table 21A of IATA DGR (this is a long list and therefore not reproduced here)

Dangerous goods forbidden unless exempted1 Radioactive material which isbull in vented type B(M) packagesbull in packages which require external cooling by an ancillary cooling systembull in packages subject to operational controls during transport2 Explosive3 a pyrophoric liquid4 Unless otherwise provided articles and substances (including those described as ldquonototherwise specifiedrdquo) which are identified in the List of Dangerous Goods as beingforbidden5 Infected live animals6 Liquids having a vapor inhalation toxicity which requires Packing Group Ipackaging7 Substances that are offered for transport in a liquid state at temperatures equal to orexceeding 100ordmC (212ordmF) or in a solid state at temperatures equal to or exceeding240ordmC (464ordmF)

Limitations on dangerous goods acceptable for air transport are to be found in the lists based on the recommendations of the Committee of Experts in IATA DGR or ICAO TIA permanent approval is required in order for an operator to be allowed to carry dangerous goods with the exception of four instancesThese are1 Articles and substances required for the airworthiness of the aircraft2 Catering or cabin service supplies3 Veterinary aids or humane killers for animals4 Medical aids for a patientUnder 1) we find such things as oxygen and fire extinguishers Point 2) includes such things as dry ice and alcohol (whiskey is classified as dangerous goods) There are many articles which fall under 4) the most common being oxygen or compressed air and electric wheelchairsThe Universal Postal Union prohibits all dangerous goods in airmail with two exceptionsbull Infectious substances may be accepted provided the consignment is accompaniedby a ldquoShippers Declarationrdquo and it may be refrigerated with dry icebull Radioactive material may also be accepted if it has very low activity

Very small quantities of dangerous goods may be transported in such a manner that they may be excepted from the marking labeling and documentation requirements This

5

is known as ldquoDangerous goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo and is only applicable to goods acceptable on passenger aircraft The following provisions must also be met

Substances of division 22 without a subsidiary riskSubstances of class 3 all packing groupsSubstances of class 4 packing groups II and III but excluding all self-reactive substancesSubstances of division 51 packing groups II and IIISubstances of division 52 only when contained in a chemical kit or first aid kitSubstances of division 61 all substances in this division except those having an inhalation toxicity requiring packing group ISubstances of class 8 packing groups II and III but excluding Gallium and MercurySubstances and articles of class 9 other than magnetized material

The concept ldquoexcepted quantitiesrdquo can not be applied to passenger baggage or airmail There is also an extensive list of goods not acceptable as cargo in excepted quantities I have not included this list here because it basically lists the opposites of the above listWhen we speak of ldquovery small quantitiesrdquo we are dealing with for instance 1g or 1mL for solids or liquids of packing groups I or II in division 61 or requiring a subsidiary toxic label or 30g or 30mL for other substances For non-flammable gases with no subsidiary risk we are limited to receptacles with a water capacity of 30mLThe combination of packages in an outer package allows with a few exceptionsPacking group I ndash 300g or 300mLPacking group II ndash 500g or 500mLPacking group III ndash 1L or 1kgAlways refer to ICAO TI or IATA DGR for detailsThough excepted quantities do not require the regular labeling of dangerous goods they do require labels stating that they are ldquoDangerous Goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo stating class and UN-number of the contents When packing these goods it is not necessary to use the approved packages normally required for dangerous goods It is sufficient to use ldquogood qualityrdquo packaging according to the specifications in the regulations For inner packaging they should be constructed of plastic glass earthenware or metalThe regulations also allow for ldquoDangerous Goods in Limited quantitiesrdquo All this means is that some forms of dangerous goods may be packed in simpler though good quality packages if the quantity is less than a given amount I have not provided a list of substances allowed in limited quantities here because though it is not long it is fairly detailed These goods still need to be marked labeled and documented as dangerous goods The net amount allowed as limited quantities is specified in the List of Dangerous Goodsalong with packing requirements The gross weight of a limited quantity package musthowever not exceed 30kg I will clarify the difference under the section ldquoIdentificationrdquo

6

ClassificationDangerous goods are divided into nine classes depending on the type of hazard they pose while the three packing groups relate to the degree of hazard Some classes are divided into divisions as there may be several types of substances with the same type of hazard Gases for instance can be toxic flammable or non-toxic and non-flammable

Class 1 ExplosivesExplosives are defined asbull Explosive substances except those whose predominant hazard should be in anotherclassbull Explosive articles except devices containing explosive substances in such a limitedquantity or of such a character that their inadvertent or accidental ignition or initiationduring transport will not cause any manifestation of projection fire heat smoke orloud noise external to the devicebull Other articles or substances which are manufactured with a view to producing apractical explosive or pyrotechnic effect

Division 11 Explosives having a mass explosion hazard

Division 12 Explosives having a projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

Division 13 Explosives having a fire hazard a minor blasthazard andor a minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard

7

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

-Introduction-Background-Regulations-Limitations-Classification-Class 1 Explosives-Class 2 Gases-Class 3 Flammable liquids-Class 5 Oxidizers-Class 6 Toxic and infectious substances-Class 7 Radioactive material-Identification-Fig 1 List of Dangerous Goods Packing-Fig 2 Packing Instruction Packaging Marking and labeling and Documentation-Fig 3 Shippers Declaration-Fig 4 Example of a NOTOC -Handling and loading-Table 1 Class compatibility-Table 2 Separation chart-Table 3 Compatibility Chart-Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substances-Emergency and contamination-Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart-Dangerous goods in passenger baggage-Provisions for Dangerous Goods-Carried by Passengers or Crew-Radioactive materials

2

BackgroundIn the early 1950rsquos a growing demand was found for transporting hazardous materials and substances by air Experience from other forms of transportation had shown that handled correctly this could be done without risk so long as the goods are suitably packaged and in limited quantities These experiences in conjunction with the aviation communitiesrsquo knowledge of the characteristics of air transport resulted in the first industrial regulations on the safe transportation of dangerous goods Today we know these regulations as IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations (IATA DGR) These regulations are however based on the requirements of Annexes 18 of the Chicago Convention and the subsequent editions of ICAO Technical Instructions (ICAO TI) which the legal documents are relating to air transport of dangerous goods IATA DGR applies to IATA member airlines associate members and interlines partners so unless operating as such ICAO TI is the document to comply withThe ldquocorerdquo of all regulations on transporting dangerous goods is the list of hazardousmaterials and substances as recommended by the United Nations ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo and the ldquoInternational Atomic Energy Agencyrdquo This list consists of more than 3000 entries describing the hazards and how they are to be handled Each entry has been assigned a number known as the ldquoUN numberrdquo as a form of universal indexAs in all potentially hazardous activities awareness is the key to maintaining safety In May 1996 the world sadly saw the tragic consequences of insufficient awareness when a DC-9 from Value Jet crashed in the Florida Everglades after hazardous materials had caused a severe fire on-board (picture below) Generally regulations tend to require relevant training of all staff ground or airborne who may encounter dangerous goods with recurrent training every two years

RegulationsThe regulations to be adhered to are the previously mentioned ICAO TI and IATA DGR as applicable and JAR OPS 13 subpart R and various state regulationsState regulations generally do not address specific handling requirements of the varioussubstances that may be hazardous referring only to ICAO TI in those respects They dohowever regulate operational requirements and limitationsIn this document I mainly refer to IATA DGR and JAR OPS with some references to

3

different state regulations IATA DGR contain all of the requirements of ICAO TI withadditional requirements that are more restrictive and reflect industry standards or operational requirements of IATA members Where ICAO TI concerns ICAO member states and consequently includes state variations IATA DGR also lists operator variations For instance some operators such as Swissair and Cathay Pacific do not accept Gallium for transport as it has a severely detrimental effect on aluminumDangerous goods are defined as articles or substances which are capable of posing a significant risk to health safety or to property when transported by airWhen we discuss dangerous goods in this context we generally mean cargo as dangerous goods are prohibited in passenger baggage with a few exceptions Hazardous substances in passenger baggage can however pose a greater threat to air safety than cargo as they may easily find their way onto an aircraft unnoticed The travelling public cannot be expected to have the knowledge of the characteristics of air transport that professionals in the industry have or even of the potential dangers of articles they carry in their baggage Therefore it is the responsibility of all staff involved in passenger and dead-load handling as well as aircrews to be vigilant to signs of potential hazards The operator has the final responsibility to make sure the passengers and or client is informed and aware of regulations and technical instructions In our operation the aircrew will do this by using the list of goods on page hellip

LimitationsArticles and substances classified as dangerous goods have various limitations imposed on then depending on how dangerous they are Some goods are considered too hazardous to transport by air while others may be limited to transport on cargo aircraft only and some may be acceptable on both cargo and passenger aircraft Certain dangerous goods normally not acceptable for transport by air may be transported under exemption by the state of origin the state of destination and all states to be over-flown

Dangerous goods forbidden in aircraft under any circumstancesbull Explosives which ignite or decompose when subjected to a temperature of 75ordmC(167ordmF) for 48 hoursbull Explosives containing both chlorates and ammonium salts

4

bull Explosives containing mixtures of chlorates with phosphorousbull Solid explosives which are described as extremely sensitive to mechanical shockbull Liquid explosives which are described as moderately sensitive to mechanical shockbull Any article or substance as presented for transport which is liable to produce adangerous evolution of heat or gas under the conditions normally encountered in airtransportbull Flammable solids and organic peroxides having as tested explosive properties andwhich are packed in such a way that the classification procedure would require the useof an explosives label as a subsidiary risk labelThe dangerous goods listed in table 21A of IATA DGR (this is a long list and therefore not reproduced here)

Dangerous goods forbidden unless exempted1 Radioactive material which isbull in vented type B(M) packagesbull in packages which require external cooling by an ancillary cooling systembull in packages subject to operational controls during transport2 Explosive3 a pyrophoric liquid4 Unless otherwise provided articles and substances (including those described as ldquonototherwise specifiedrdquo) which are identified in the List of Dangerous Goods as beingforbidden5 Infected live animals6 Liquids having a vapor inhalation toxicity which requires Packing Group Ipackaging7 Substances that are offered for transport in a liquid state at temperatures equal to orexceeding 100ordmC (212ordmF) or in a solid state at temperatures equal to or exceeding240ordmC (464ordmF)

Limitations on dangerous goods acceptable for air transport are to be found in the lists based on the recommendations of the Committee of Experts in IATA DGR or ICAO TIA permanent approval is required in order for an operator to be allowed to carry dangerous goods with the exception of four instancesThese are1 Articles and substances required for the airworthiness of the aircraft2 Catering or cabin service supplies3 Veterinary aids or humane killers for animals4 Medical aids for a patientUnder 1) we find such things as oxygen and fire extinguishers Point 2) includes such things as dry ice and alcohol (whiskey is classified as dangerous goods) There are many articles which fall under 4) the most common being oxygen or compressed air and electric wheelchairsThe Universal Postal Union prohibits all dangerous goods in airmail with two exceptionsbull Infectious substances may be accepted provided the consignment is accompaniedby a ldquoShippers Declarationrdquo and it may be refrigerated with dry icebull Radioactive material may also be accepted if it has very low activity

Very small quantities of dangerous goods may be transported in such a manner that they may be excepted from the marking labeling and documentation requirements This

5

is known as ldquoDangerous goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo and is only applicable to goods acceptable on passenger aircraft The following provisions must also be met

Substances of division 22 without a subsidiary riskSubstances of class 3 all packing groupsSubstances of class 4 packing groups II and III but excluding all self-reactive substancesSubstances of division 51 packing groups II and IIISubstances of division 52 only when contained in a chemical kit or first aid kitSubstances of division 61 all substances in this division except those having an inhalation toxicity requiring packing group ISubstances of class 8 packing groups II and III but excluding Gallium and MercurySubstances and articles of class 9 other than magnetized material

The concept ldquoexcepted quantitiesrdquo can not be applied to passenger baggage or airmail There is also an extensive list of goods not acceptable as cargo in excepted quantities I have not included this list here because it basically lists the opposites of the above listWhen we speak of ldquovery small quantitiesrdquo we are dealing with for instance 1g or 1mL for solids or liquids of packing groups I or II in division 61 or requiring a subsidiary toxic label or 30g or 30mL for other substances For non-flammable gases with no subsidiary risk we are limited to receptacles with a water capacity of 30mLThe combination of packages in an outer package allows with a few exceptionsPacking group I ndash 300g or 300mLPacking group II ndash 500g or 500mLPacking group III ndash 1L or 1kgAlways refer to ICAO TI or IATA DGR for detailsThough excepted quantities do not require the regular labeling of dangerous goods they do require labels stating that they are ldquoDangerous Goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo stating class and UN-number of the contents When packing these goods it is not necessary to use the approved packages normally required for dangerous goods It is sufficient to use ldquogood qualityrdquo packaging according to the specifications in the regulations For inner packaging they should be constructed of plastic glass earthenware or metalThe regulations also allow for ldquoDangerous Goods in Limited quantitiesrdquo All this means is that some forms of dangerous goods may be packed in simpler though good quality packages if the quantity is less than a given amount I have not provided a list of substances allowed in limited quantities here because though it is not long it is fairly detailed These goods still need to be marked labeled and documented as dangerous goods The net amount allowed as limited quantities is specified in the List of Dangerous Goodsalong with packing requirements The gross weight of a limited quantity package musthowever not exceed 30kg I will clarify the difference under the section ldquoIdentificationrdquo

6

ClassificationDangerous goods are divided into nine classes depending on the type of hazard they pose while the three packing groups relate to the degree of hazard Some classes are divided into divisions as there may be several types of substances with the same type of hazard Gases for instance can be toxic flammable or non-toxic and non-flammable

Class 1 ExplosivesExplosives are defined asbull Explosive substances except those whose predominant hazard should be in anotherclassbull Explosive articles except devices containing explosive substances in such a limitedquantity or of such a character that their inadvertent or accidental ignition or initiationduring transport will not cause any manifestation of projection fire heat smoke orloud noise external to the devicebull Other articles or substances which are manufactured with a view to producing apractical explosive or pyrotechnic effect

Division 11 Explosives having a mass explosion hazard

Division 12 Explosives having a projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

Division 13 Explosives having a fire hazard a minor blasthazard andor a minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard

7

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

BackgroundIn the early 1950rsquos a growing demand was found for transporting hazardous materials and substances by air Experience from other forms of transportation had shown that handled correctly this could be done without risk so long as the goods are suitably packaged and in limited quantities These experiences in conjunction with the aviation communitiesrsquo knowledge of the characteristics of air transport resulted in the first industrial regulations on the safe transportation of dangerous goods Today we know these regulations as IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations (IATA DGR) These regulations are however based on the requirements of Annexes 18 of the Chicago Convention and the subsequent editions of ICAO Technical Instructions (ICAO TI) which the legal documents are relating to air transport of dangerous goods IATA DGR applies to IATA member airlines associate members and interlines partners so unless operating as such ICAO TI is the document to comply withThe ldquocorerdquo of all regulations on transporting dangerous goods is the list of hazardousmaterials and substances as recommended by the United Nations ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo and the ldquoInternational Atomic Energy Agencyrdquo This list consists of more than 3000 entries describing the hazards and how they are to be handled Each entry has been assigned a number known as the ldquoUN numberrdquo as a form of universal indexAs in all potentially hazardous activities awareness is the key to maintaining safety In May 1996 the world sadly saw the tragic consequences of insufficient awareness when a DC-9 from Value Jet crashed in the Florida Everglades after hazardous materials had caused a severe fire on-board (picture below) Generally regulations tend to require relevant training of all staff ground or airborne who may encounter dangerous goods with recurrent training every two years

RegulationsThe regulations to be adhered to are the previously mentioned ICAO TI and IATA DGR as applicable and JAR OPS 13 subpart R and various state regulationsState regulations generally do not address specific handling requirements of the varioussubstances that may be hazardous referring only to ICAO TI in those respects They dohowever regulate operational requirements and limitationsIn this document I mainly refer to IATA DGR and JAR OPS with some references to

3

different state regulations IATA DGR contain all of the requirements of ICAO TI withadditional requirements that are more restrictive and reflect industry standards or operational requirements of IATA members Where ICAO TI concerns ICAO member states and consequently includes state variations IATA DGR also lists operator variations For instance some operators such as Swissair and Cathay Pacific do not accept Gallium for transport as it has a severely detrimental effect on aluminumDangerous goods are defined as articles or substances which are capable of posing a significant risk to health safety or to property when transported by airWhen we discuss dangerous goods in this context we generally mean cargo as dangerous goods are prohibited in passenger baggage with a few exceptions Hazardous substances in passenger baggage can however pose a greater threat to air safety than cargo as they may easily find their way onto an aircraft unnoticed The travelling public cannot be expected to have the knowledge of the characteristics of air transport that professionals in the industry have or even of the potential dangers of articles they carry in their baggage Therefore it is the responsibility of all staff involved in passenger and dead-load handling as well as aircrews to be vigilant to signs of potential hazards The operator has the final responsibility to make sure the passengers and or client is informed and aware of regulations and technical instructions In our operation the aircrew will do this by using the list of goods on page hellip

LimitationsArticles and substances classified as dangerous goods have various limitations imposed on then depending on how dangerous they are Some goods are considered too hazardous to transport by air while others may be limited to transport on cargo aircraft only and some may be acceptable on both cargo and passenger aircraft Certain dangerous goods normally not acceptable for transport by air may be transported under exemption by the state of origin the state of destination and all states to be over-flown

Dangerous goods forbidden in aircraft under any circumstancesbull Explosives which ignite or decompose when subjected to a temperature of 75ordmC(167ordmF) for 48 hoursbull Explosives containing both chlorates and ammonium salts

4

bull Explosives containing mixtures of chlorates with phosphorousbull Solid explosives which are described as extremely sensitive to mechanical shockbull Liquid explosives which are described as moderately sensitive to mechanical shockbull Any article or substance as presented for transport which is liable to produce adangerous evolution of heat or gas under the conditions normally encountered in airtransportbull Flammable solids and organic peroxides having as tested explosive properties andwhich are packed in such a way that the classification procedure would require the useof an explosives label as a subsidiary risk labelThe dangerous goods listed in table 21A of IATA DGR (this is a long list and therefore not reproduced here)

Dangerous goods forbidden unless exempted1 Radioactive material which isbull in vented type B(M) packagesbull in packages which require external cooling by an ancillary cooling systembull in packages subject to operational controls during transport2 Explosive3 a pyrophoric liquid4 Unless otherwise provided articles and substances (including those described as ldquonototherwise specifiedrdquo) which are identified in the List of Dangerous Goods as beingforbidden5 Infected live animals6 Liquids having a vapor inhalation toxicity which requires Packing Group Ipackaging7 Substances that are offered for transport in a liquid state at temperatures equal to orexceeding 100ordmC (212ordmF) or in a solid state at temperatures equal to or exceeding240ordmC (464ordmF)

Limitations on dangerous goods acceptable for air transport are to be found in the lists based on the recommendations of the Committee of Experts in IATA DGR or ICAO TIA permanent approval is required in order for an operator to be allowed to carry dangerous goods with the exception of four instancesThese are1 Articles and substances required for the airworthiness of the aircraft2 Catering or cabin service supplies3 Veterinary aids or humane killers for animals4 Medical aids for a patientUnder 1) we find such things as oxygen and fire extinguishers Point 2) includes such things as dry ice and alcohol (whiskey is classified as dangerous goods) There are many articles which fall under 4) the most common being oxygen or compressed air and electric wheelchairsThe Universal Postal Union prohibits all dangerous goods in airmail with two exceptionsbull Infectious substances may be accepted provided the consignment is accompaniedby a ldquoShippers Declarationrdquo and it may be refrigerated with dry icebull Radioactive material may also be accepted if it has very low activity

Very small quantities of dangerous goods may be transported in such a manner that they may be excepted from the marking labeling and documentation requirements This

5

is known as ldquoDangerous goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo and is only applicable to goods acceptable on passenger aircraft The following provisions must also be met

Substances of division 22 without a subsidiary riskSubstances of class 3 all packing groupsSubstances of class 4 packing groups II and III but excluding all self-reactive substancesSubstances of division 51 packing groups II and IIISubstances of division 52 only when contained in a chemical kit or first aid kitSubstances of division 61 all substances in this division except those having an inhalation toxicity requiring packing group ISubstances of class 8 packing groups II and III but excluding Gallium and MercurySubstances and articles of class 9 other than magnetized material

The concept ldquoexcepted quantitiesrdquo can not be applied to passenger baggage or airmail There is also an extensive list of goods not acceptable as cargo in excepted quantities I have not included this list here because it basically lists the opposites of the above listWhen we speak of ldquovery small quantitiesrdquo we are dealing with for instance 1g or 1mL for solids or liquids of packing groups I or II in division 61 or requiring a subsidiary toxic label or 30g or 30mL for other substances For non-flammable gases with no subsidiary risk we are limited to receptacles with a water capacity of 30mLThe combination of packages in an outer package allows with a few exceptionsPacking group I ndash 300g or 300mLPacking group II ndash 500g or 500mLPacking group III ndash 1L or 1kgAlways refer to ICAO TI or IATA DGR for detailsThough excepted quantities do not require the regular labeling of dangerous goods they do require labels stating that they are ldquoDangerous Goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo stating class and UN-number of the contents When packing these goods it is not necessary to use the approved packages normally required for dangerous goods It is sufficient to use ldquogood qualityrdquo packaging according to the specifications in the regulations For inner packaging they should be constructed of plastic glass earthenware or metalThe regulations also allow for ldquoDangerous Goods in Limited quantitiesrdquo All this means is that some forms of dangerous goods may be packed in simpler though good quality packages if the quantity is less than a given amount I have not provided a list of substances allowed in limited quantities here because though it is not long it is fairly detailed These goods still need to be marked labeled and documented as dangerous goods The net amount allowed as limited quantities is specified in the List of Dangerous Goodsalong with packing requirements The gross weight of a limited quantity package musthowever not exceed 30kg I will clarify the difference under the section ldquoIdentificationrdquo

6

ClassificationDangerous goods are divided into nine classes depending on the type of hazard they pose while the three packing groups relate to the degree of hazard Some classes are divided into divisions as there may be several types of substances with the same type of hazard Gases for instance can be toxic flammable or non-toxic and non-flammable

Class 1 ExplosivesExplosives are defined asbull Explosive substances except those whose predominant hazard should be in anotherclassbull Explosive articles except devices containing explosive substances in such a limitedquantity or of such a character that their inadvertent or accidental ignition or initiationduring transport will not cause any manifestation of projection fire heat smoke orloud noise external to the devicebull Other articles or substances which are manufactured with a view to producing apractical explosive or pyrotechnic effect

Division 11 Explosives having a mass explosion hazard

Division 12 Explosives having a projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

Division 13 Explosives having a fire hazard a minor blasthazard andor a minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard

7

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

different state regulations IATA DGR contain all of the requirements of ICAO TI withadditional requirements that are more restrictive and reflect industry standards or operational requirements of IATA members Where ICAO TI concerns ICAO member states and consequently includes state variations IATA DGR also lists operator variations For instance some operators such as Swissair and Cathay Pacific do not accept Gallium for transport as it has a severely detrimental effect on aluminumDangerous goods are defined as articles or substances which are capable of posing a significant risk to health safety or to property when transported by airWhen we discuss dangerous goods in this context we generally mean cargo as dangerous goods are prohibited in passenger baggage with a few exceptions Hazardous substances in passenger baggage can however pose a greater threat to air safety than cargo as they may easily find their way onto an aircraft unnoticed The travelling public cannot be expected to have the knowledge of the characteristics of air transport that professionals in the industry have or even of the potential dangers of articles they carry in their baggage Therefore it is the responsibility of all staff involved in passenger and dead-load handling as well as aircrews to be vigilant to signs of potential hazards The operator has the final responsibility to make sure the passengers and or client is informed and aware of regulations and technical instructions In our operation the aircrew will do this by using the list of goods on page hellip

LimitationsArticles and substances classified as dangerous goods have various limitations imposed on then depending on how dangerous they are Some goods are considered too hazardous to transport by air while others may be limited to transport on cargo aircraft only and some may be acceptable on both cargo and passenger aircraft Certain dangerous goods normally not acceptable for transport by air may be transported under exemption by the state of origin the state of destination and all states to be over-flown

Dangerous goods forbidden in aircraft under any circumstancesbull Explosives which ignite or decompose when subjected to a temperature of 75ordmC(167ordmF) for 48 hoursbull Explosives containing both chlorates and ammonium salts

4

bull Explosives containing mixtures of chlorates with phosphorousbull Solid explosives which are described as extremely sensitive to mechanical shockbull Liquid explosives which are described as moderately sensitive to mechanical shockbull Any article or substance as presented for transport which is liable to produce adangerous evolution of heat or gas under the conditions normally encountered in airtransportbull Flammable solids and organic peroxides having as tested explosive properties andwhich are packed in such a way that the classification procedure would require the useof an explosives label as a subsidiary risk labelThe dangerous goods listed in table 21A of IATA DGR (this is a long list and therefore not reproduced here)

Dangerous goods forbidden unless exempted1 Radioactive material which isbull in vented type B(M) packagesbull in packages which require external cooling by an ancillary cooling systembull in packages subject to operational controls during transport2 Explosive3 a pyrophoric liquid4 Unless otherwise provided articles and substances (including those described as ldquonototherwise specifiedrdquo) which are identified in the List of Dangerous Goods as beingforbidden5 Infected live animals6 Liquids having a vapor inhalation toxicity which requires Packing Group Ipackaging7 Substances that are offered for transport in a liquid state at temperatures equal to orexceeding 100ordmC (212ordmF) or in a solid state at temperatures equal to or exceeding240ordmC (464ordmF)

Limitations on dangerous goods acceptable for air transport are to be found in the lists based on the recommendations of the Committee of Experts in IATA DGR or ICAO TIA permanent approval is required in order for an operator to be allowed to carry dangerous goods with the exception of four instancesThese are1 Articles and substances required for the airworthiness of the aircraft2 Catering or cabin service supplies3 Veterinary aids or humane killers for animals4 Medical aids for a patientUnder 1) we find such things as oxygen and fire extinguishers Point 2) includes such things as dry ice and alcohol (whiskey is classified as dangerous goods) There are many articles which fall under 4) the most common being oxygen or compressed air and electric wheelchairsThe Universal Postal Union prohibits all dangerous goods in airmail with two exceptionsbull Infectious substances may be accepted provided the consignment is accompaniedby a ldquoShippers Declarationrdquo and it may be refrigerated with dry icebull Radioactive material may also be accepted if it has very low activity

Very small quantities of dangerous goods may be transported in such a manner that they may be excepted from the marking labeling and documentation requirements This

5

is known as ldquoDangerous goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo and is only applicable to goods acceptable on passenger aircraft The following provisions must also be met

Substances of division 22 without a subsidiary riskSubstances of class 3 all packing groupsSubstances of class 4 packing groups II and III but excluding all self-reactive substancesSubstances of division 51 packing groups II and IIISubstances of division 52 only when contained in a chemical kit or first aid kitSubstances of division 61 all substances in this division except those having an inhalation toxicity requiring packing group ISubstances of class 8 packing groups II and III but excluding Gallium and MercurySubstances and articles of class 9 other than magnetized material

The concept ldquoexcepted quantitiesrdquo can not be applied to passenger baggage or airmail There is also an extensive list of goods not acceptable as cargo in excepted quantities I have not included this list here because it basically lists the opposites of the above listWhen we speak of ldquovery small quantitiesrdquo we are dealing with for instance 1g or 1mL for solids or liquids of packing groups I or II in division 61 or requiring a subsidiary toxic label or 30g or 30mL for other substances For non-flammable gases with no subsidiary risk we are limited to receptacles with a water capacity of 30mLThe combination of packages in an outer package allows with a few exceptionsPacking group I ndash 300g or 300mLPacking group II ndash 500g or 500mLPacking group III ndash 1L or 1kgAlways refer to ICAO TI or IATA DGR for detailsThough excepted quantities do not require the regular labeling of dangerous goods they do require labels stating that they are ldquoDangerous Goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo stating class and UN-number of the contents When packing these goods it is not necessary to use the approved packages normally required for dangerous goods It is sufficient to use ldquogood qualityrdquo packaging according to the specifications in the regulations For inner packaging they should be constructed of plastic glass earthenware or metalThe regulations also allow for ldquoDangerous Goods in Limited quantitiesrdquo All this means is that some forms of dangerous goods may be packed in simpler though good quality packages if the quantity is less than a given amount I have not provided a list of substances allowed in limited quantities here because though it is not long it is fairly detailed These goods still need to be marked labeled and documented as dangerous goods The net amount allowed as limited quantities is specified in the List of Dangerous Goodsalong with packing requirements The gross weight of a limited quantity package musthowever not exceed 30kg I will clarify the difference under the section ldquoIdentificationrdquo

6

ClassificationDangerous goods are divided into nine classes depending on the type of hazard they pose while the three packing groups relate to the degree of hazard Some classes are divided into divisions as there may be several types of substances with the same type of hazard Gases for instance can be toxic flammable or non-toxic and non-flammable

Class 1 ExplosivesExplosives are defined asbull Explosive substances except those whose predominant hazard should be in anotherclassbull Explosive articles except devices containing explosive substances in such a limitedquantity or of such a character that their inadvertent or accidental ignition or initiationduring transport will not cause any manifestation of projection fire heat smoke orloud noise external to the devicebull Other articles or substances which are manufactured with a view to producing apractical explosive or pyrotechnic effect

Division 11 Explosives having a mass explosion hazard

Division 12 Explosives having a projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

Division 13 Explosives having a fire hazard a minor blasthazard andor a minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard

7

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

bull Explosives containing mixtures of chlorates with phosphorousbull Solid explosives which are described as extremely sensitive to mechanical shockbull Liquid explosives which are described as moderately sensitive to mechanical shockbull Any article or substance as presented for transport which is liable to produce adangerous evolution of heat or gas under the conditions normally encountered in airtransportbull Flammable solids and organic peroxides having as tested explosive properties andwhich are packed in such a way that the classification procedure would require the useof an explosives label as a subsidiary risk labelThe dangerous goods listed in table 21A of IATA DGR (this is a long list and therefore not reproduced here)

Dangerous goods forbidden unless exempted1 Radioactive material which isbull in vented type B(M) packagesbull in packages which require external cooling by an ancillary cooling systembull in packages subject to operational controls during transport2 Explosive3 a pyrophoric liquid4 Unless otherwise provided articles and substances (including those described as ldquonototherwise specifiedrdquo) which are identified in the List of Dangerous Goods as beingforbidden5 Infected live animals6 Liquids having a vapor inhalation toxicity which requires Packing Group Ipackaging7 Substances that are offered for transport in a liquid state at temperatures equal to orexceeding 100ordmC (212ordmF) or in a solid state at temperatures equal to or exceeding240ordmC (464ordmF)

Limitations on dangerous goods acceptable for air transport are to be found in the lists based on the recommendations of the Committee of Experts in IATA DGR or ICAO TIA permanent approval is required in order for an operator to be allowed to carry dangerous goods with the exception of four instancesThese are1 Articles and substances required for the airworthiness of the aircraft2 Catering or cabin service supplies3 Veterinary aids or humane killers for animals4 Medical aids for a patientUnder 1) we find such things as oxygen and fire extinguishers Point 2) includes such things as dry ice and alcohol (whiskey is classified as dangerous goods) There are many articles which fall under 4) the most common being oxygen or compressed air and electric wheelchairsThe Universal Postal Union prohibits all dangerous goods in airmail with two exceptionsbull Infectious substances may be accepted provided the consignment is accompaniedby a ldquoShippers Declarationrdquo and it may be refrigerated with dry icebull Radioactive material may also be accepted if it has very low activity

Very small quantities of dangerous goods may be transported in such a manner that they may be excepted from the marking labeling and documentation requirements This

5

is known as ldquoDangerous goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo and is only applicable to goods acceptable on passenger aircraft The following provisions must also be met

Substances of division 22 without a subsidiary riskSubstances of class 3 all packing groupsSubstances of class 4 packing groups II and III but excluding all self-reactive substancesSubstances of division 51 packing groups II and IIISubstances of division 52 only when contained in a chemical kit or first aid kitSubstances of division 61 all substances in this division except those having an inhalation toxicity requiring packing group ISubstances of class 8 packing groups II and III but excluding Gallium and MercurySubstances and articles of class 9 other than magnetized material

The concept ldquoexcepted quantitiesrdquo can not be applied to passenger baggage or airmail There is also an extensive list of goods not acceptable as cargo in excepted quantities I have not included this list here because it basically lists the opposites of the above listWhen we speak of ldquovery small quantitiesrdquo we are dealing with for instance 1g or 1mL for solids or liquids of packing groups I or II in division 61 or requiring a subsidiary toxic label or 30g or 30mL for other substances For non-flammable gases with no subsidiary risk we are limited to receptacles with a water capacity of 30mLThe combination of packages in an outer package allows with a few exceptionsPacking group I ndash 300g or 300mLPacking group II ndash 500g or 500mLPacking group III ndash 1L or 1kgAlways refer to ICAO TI or IATA DGR for detailsThough excepted quantities do not require the regular labeling of dangerous goods they do require labels stating that they are ldquoDangerous Goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo stating class and UN-number of the contents When packing these goods it is not necessary to use the approved packages normally required for dangerous goods It is sufficient to use ldquogood qualityrdquo packaging according to the specifications in the regulations For inner packaging they should be constructed of plastic glass earthenware or metalThe regulations also allow for ldquoDangerous Goods in Limited quantitiesrdquo All this means is that some forms of dangerous goods may be packed in simpler though good quality packages if the quantity is less than a given amount I have not provided a list of substances allowed in limited quantities here because though it is not long it is fairly detailed These goods still need to be marked labeled and documented as dangerous goods The net amount allowed as limited quantities is specified in the List of Dangerous Goodsalong with packing requirements The gross weight of a limited quantity package musthowever not exceed 30kg I will clarify the difference under the section ldquoIdentificationrdquo

6

ClassificationDangerous goods are divided into nine classes depending on the type of hazard they pose while the three packing groups relate to the degree of hazard Some classes are divided into divisions as there may be several types of substances with the same type of hazard Gases for instance can be toxic flammable or non-toxic and non-flammable

Class 1 ExplosivesExplosives are defined asbull Explosive substances except those whose predominant hazard should be in anotherclassbull Explosive articles except devices containing explosive substances in such a limitedquantity or of such a character that their inadvertent or accidental ignition or initiationduring transport will not cause any manifestation of projection fire heat smoke orloud noise external to the devicebull Other articles or substances which are manufactured with a view to producing apractical explosive or pyrotechnic effect

Division 11 Explosives having a mass explosion hazard

Division 12 Explosives having a projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

Division 13 Explosives having a fire hazard a minor blasthazard andor a minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard

7

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

is known as ldquoDangerous goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo and is only applicable to goods acceptable on passenger aircraft The following provisions must also be met

Substances of division 22 without a subsidiary riskSubstances of class 3 all packing groupsSubstances of class 4 packing groups II and III but excluding all self-reactive substancesSubstances of division 51 packing groups II and IIISubstances of division 52 only when contained in a chemical kit or first aid kitSubstances of division 61 all substances in this division except those having an inhalation toxicity requiring packing group ISubstances of class 8 packing groups II and III but excluding Gallium and MercurySubstances and articles of class 9 other than magnetized material

The concept ldquoexcepted quantitiesrdquo can not be applied to passenger baggage or airmail There is also an extensive list of goods not acceptable as cargo in excepted quantities I have not included this list here because it basically lists the opposites of the above listWhen we speak of ldquovery small quantitiesrdquo we are dealing with for instance 1g or 1mL for solids or liquids of packing groups I or II in division 61 or requiring a subsidiary toxic label or 30g or 30mL for other substances For non-flammable gases with no subsidiary risk we are limited to receptacles with a water capacity of 30mLThe combination of packages in an outer package allows with a few exceptionsPacking group I ndash 300g or 300mLPacking group II ndash 500g or 500mLPacking group III ndash 1L or 1kgAlways refer to ICAO TI or IATA DGR for detailsThough excepted quantities do not require the regular labeling of dangerous goods they do require labels stating that they are ldquoDangerous Goods in Excepted Quantitiesrdquo stating class and UN-number of the contents When packing these goods it is not necessary to use the approved packages normally required for dangerous goods It is sufficient to use ldquogood qualityrdquo packaging according to the specifications in the regulations For inner packaging they should be constructed of plastic glass earthenware or metalThe regulations also allow for ldquoDangerous Goods in Limited quantitiesrdquo All this means is that some forms of dangerous goods may be packed in simpler though good quality packages if the quantity is less than a given amount I have not provided a list of substances allowed in limited quantities here because though it is not long it is fairly detailed These goods still need to be marked labeled and documented as dangerous goods The net amount allowed as limited quantities is specified in the List of Dangerous Goodsalong with packing requirements The gross weight of a limited quantity package musthowever not exceed 30kg I will clarify the difference under the section ldquoIdentificationrdquo

6

ClassificationDangerous goods are divided into nine classes depending on the type of hazard they pose while the three packing groups relate to the degree of hazard Some classes are divided into divisions as there may be several types of substances with the same type of hazard Gases for instance can be toxic flammable or non-toxic and non-flammable

Class 1 ExplosivesExplosives are defined asbull Explosive substances except those whose predominant hazard should be in anotherclassbull Explosive articles except devices containing explosive substances in such a limitedquantity or of such a character that their inadvertent or accidental ignition or initiationduring transport will not cause any manifestation of projection fire heat smoke orloud noise external to the devicebull Other articles or substances which are manufactured with a view to producing apractical explosive or pyrotechnic effect

Division 11 Explosives having a mass explosion hazard

Division 12 Explosives having a projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

Division 13 Explosives having a fire hazard a minor blasthazard andor a minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard

7

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

ClassificationDangerous goods are divided into nine classes depending on the type of hazard they pose while the three packing groups relate to the degree of hazard Some classes are divided into divisions as there may be several types of substances with the same type of hazard Gases for instance can be toxic flammable or non-toxic and non-flammable

Class 1 ExplosivesExplosives are defined asbull Explosive substances except those whose predominant hazard should be in anotherclassbull Explosive articles except devices containing explosive substances in such a limitedquantity or of such a character that their inadvertent or accidental ignition or initiationduring transport will not cause any manifestation of projection fire heat smoke orloud noise external to the devicebull Other articles or substances which are manufactured with a view to producing apractical explosive or pyrotechnic effect

Division 11 Explosives having a mass explosion hazard

Division 12 Explosives having a projection hazard but not a massexplosion hazard

Division 13 Explosives having a fire hazard a minor blasthazard andor a minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard

7

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Division 14 Explosives presenting no significant hazard

NOTE Class 14S is the only explosive acceptable on passenger aircraft

Division 15 Very insensitive substances having a mass explosion hazard

Division 16 Extremely insensitive substances that do not have a mass explosion hazard

8

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Class 2 GasesIn this class we find compressed and liquefied gases and refrigerated liquefied gases Also gases in solution mixtures of gases and mixtures of gases with vapors of other substancesArticles charged with a gas and aerosols also belong here

Division 21 Flammable gas

Division 22 Non-flammable non-toxic gas

Division 23 Toxic gas

Class 3 Flammable liquidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids andliquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

9

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Class 4 Flammable solidsThis class has no divisions It comprises liquids mixtures of liquids and liquids containing solids in solution or suspension which give of a flammable vapor

Division 42 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Division 43 Substances that in contact with water emit flammable gases

Class 5 OxidizersOxidizers are substances which though not necessarily combustible in them-selfe may cause or contribute to combustion in other materials

Division 51 Oxidizer

Division 52 Organic peroxides

10

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substancesThis class includes substances which are liable to cause death injury or to harm human health if they are swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

Division 61 Toxic substances

Division 62 Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materialThis class has no divisions but is possibly the one that there is the most to be said about Therefore I have devoted an entire section to this class alone For the purpose of regulations a radioactive material is any substance with a specific activity greater than 70 kBqkg

Class 8 CorrosivesThis class has no divisions It comprises substances that can cause severe damage by chemical action when in contact with living tissue other materials or the aircraft

11

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goodsThis class covers all articles and substances that are not covered by other classes and includes magnetic material Some examples are

1048633 Asbestos1048633 Carbon dioxide solid (dry ice)1048633 Environmentally hazardous substances1048633 Life-saving appliances1048633 Internal combustion engines1048633 Polymeric beads RMD RSB ICE1048633 Battery powered equipment or vehicles and many othershellip

Subsidiary risk labelsSome hazardous substances may have properties that would place them in more than one class or division Such substances must carry a label showing the subsidiary hazard as well as the primary hazard

Handling labels for dangerous goodsLabels with arrows indicate that the package must be secured with the indicated direction upwards CAO indicates that the package may only be loaded on cargo aircraftExplosives are also assigned to compatibility groups indicated by the letters A to S Adivision of explosives may belong to several compatibility groups and each compatibilitygroup can cover several divisions of explosives There are three packing groups indicating the degree of hazard a substance or article may present

1048633 Packing group I ndash great danger1048633 Packing group II ndash medium danger1048633 Packing group III ndash minor danger

12

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Most substances have been assigned a packing group based on technical criteria somehowever have been assigned based on experience It is the Shipperrsquos responsibility to ensure that an article or substance is identified and classified correctly and that it is asked in compliance with the relevant regulations The operator must comply with the requirements for acceptance storage loading inspection provision of information emergency response retention of records and training The crew will use the checklist issued by IATA to carry out an acceptance check on Dangerous Goods This checklist is enclosed in this compendium as an annex

Identification In order to make life a little easier for those of us who are not well versed in chemistry ornuclear physics dangerous goods are assigned what is known as a ldquoproper shipping name nosrdquo (not otherwise specified) In many cases it can be impractical or of little value to show a long and complicated name on an air waybill or NOTOC then it is more useful to use the generic or nos proper shipping name An example listed in IATA DGR is methyl-n-amyl carbinol This is an alcohol with a flashpoint of 54ordmC and is not listed by name As the scientific name is meaningless to most pilots and cargo handlers the proper shipping name is more relevant The most descriptive name is ldquoAlcohol nosrdquo which is what we will find on all the documentation It is however good practice and encouraged to add the full name in parenthesis on the documentation For the same purpose we also use the UN identification numbers as assigned by the ldquoCommittee of Expertsrdquo By using these numbers for cross-reference all qualified personnel can easily identify the goods and itsrsquo associated hazards In an emergency it can be a clear and concise way of informing rescue teams of what they will encounter Let us look at another example to illustrate all the strange new vocabularyWe want to send two shipments that may be dangerous goodsOne is a very large bottle of whiskey and the other is a bottle of Stroh rum The volume of our whiskey bottle is 5 liters and the alcohol content is 43 by volume The Stroh rum is also 5 liters but 80 alcohol When we look in section 4 of IATA DGR we find the following entries in the list of dangerous goods

13

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Since our bottle of whiskey is only 5L it can be shipped as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo as this allows up to 10L It must be packed according to packing instruction Y309 which is somewhat simpler than that required for receptacles of more than 10L Although we can send it as ldquoLimited quantityrdquo it still needs all the labels and documentation required for dangerous goods Receptacles of less than 5L are not restricted at all ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo is not applicable since these are limited to 1L in the case of flammable liquidsOur bottle of Stroh rum on the other hand is too much for ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo and so needs the full treatment If it had been 1L or less we could send it as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquoIf we were sending only 30mL of Stroh rum we could send it as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo inwhich case our package would not need to be labeled as ldquoFlammable liquidrdquo or documented as dangerous goods It would only require an ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo labelWe will return to these two examples further on

PackingThe packing of dangerous goods is almost a science in itself To begin with we will discuss the various ways of packing and shipping cargo There is of course the simple package containing the dangerous substance and nothing else But then life is seldom so simpleIf the dangerous substance or article is not alone in the package we have what is known as an outer package The package may be grouped together with other packages in an overpack or it may be loaded together with other cargo in a container or ULD (Unit Load Device) All these different ways of packing imply different conditions that need to be addressed in marking separation and loadingA primary concern is to ensure that different forms of dangerous goods are kept apart if they do not agree with one another Some forms of explosives for instance should not be loaded or packed together When we looked at our examples above we saw references to packing instructions These are comprehensive instructions on how the substance or article must be packed including the materials to be used in the package and provisions for ventilation shock absorption etc Our bottle of whiskey shipped as ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo refers to packing instruction Y309 This instruction tells us to begin with that if the bottle is made of glass it is too big If we use glass we are only allowed to have 25L in each package Plastic and metal

14

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

receptacles may contain 5L We also find that our whiskey must be packed in a sturdy outer package with sufficient cushioning and absorbent material to prevent movement and leakage The table below is a partial replication from packing instruction Y309

In this table we can see that there are a number of outer packagingrsquos to choose fromThe Stroh rum must be packed according to packing instruction 305 which has a table similar to the one above with a few differences Glass and earthenware is limited to 1L and the outer packagings refer to specification codes These codes are found in the regulations and give fairly detailed descriptions on how the package is to be constructed and tested

PackagingWe have seen that the aspects to consider in handling dangerous goods are mainly the type and degree of hazard We also have to consider the particular properties of the substance or article we are shipping Flammables for instance have different flash points toxins are harmful in different ways (inhaling skin contact etc) and explosives can be ignited in different waysAll these aspects are important to consider when selecting a suitable package but they are not quite enough The conditions under which the package is going to be handled are also a factor as well as possibly storage in transit and conditions at the destination Some countries and airlines also deviate from the regulations in their requirementsDangerous goods must always be transported in approved packages unless they are acceptable in ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquo or ldquoLimited quantitiesrdquo or if they are not restricted Approved packages are recognized by the UN mark

This mark is always followed by a number of codes signifying type packing group

15

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

limitations year of manufacture etc The mark implies that the construction of the package corresponds to a design type that has been tested according to specifications set down in the regulations The tests are definitely not kind to the packages They are required to survive drops heating drowning punctures and many other forms of torture

Marking and LabelingThe correct marking and labeling of dangerous goods is very important It may be theclearest way of identifying a package containing dangerous goods in a stressful environment especially if the package has been damaged and there is risk of contamination Under the section ldquoClassificationrdquo I have included a complete set of the labels to be used along with the classes and divisions they representMy personal ldquofavoriterdquo among dangerous goods classes is infectious substances Anyone encountering such a package that is spilling itsrsquo contents has most likely already been infected unless he sees it at a safe distance If the package has been damaged during flight the person opening the cargo hatch will find himself in close proximity to it before he sees the danger While this is also true for toxins with an inhalation hazard most other forms of dangerous goods can be found damaged without significant personal danger For these reasons if nothing else no dangerous goods may be loaded on an aircraft with damaged or missing labels

DocumentationThere are three documents that must accompany all forms of dangerous goods shipped as air cargo except those shipped as ldquoExcepted quantitiesrdquoThe first is the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo

While this should be completed for all air cargo if the consignment includes dangerous goods the ldquoAir Waybillrdquo must include all relevant hazard information

16

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Next we have the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo This must include the following information1048633 Shipper1048633 Consignee1048633 Air Waybill number1048633 How many pages1048633 Aircraft limitations ldquoPassenger and cargo aircraftrdquo or ldquoCargo aircraft onlyrdquo1048633 Airport of departure1048633 Airport of destination1048633 Shipment type ldquoRadioactiverdquo or ldquoNon-radioactiverdquo1048633 Nature and quantity of dangerous goods1048633 Additional handling information (special handling requirements)1048633 Name and title of signatory1048633 Place and date1048633 SignatureThe lower half of the ldquoShippers Declaration for Dangerous Goodsrdquo (fig3) concerns nature and quantity and is reproduced in part below

NOTE The actual document is easily recognized by itsrsquo borders in red hatchingThis data is to be copied to the third document known as the NOTOC (fig3)(Notification To Captain)This document is completed by the shipper or handling agent and is signed by the person responsible for loading the aircraft and given to the captain

The format of a NOTOC may vary in detail from airline to airline but they basically cover the same information The purpose of the NOTOC is twofold It is a legal document whereby the person responsible for loading the aircraft certifies that the regulations have

17

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

been complied with and it serves to inform the pilot in command of what has been loaded how and were

All those documents must be issued with minimum 3 copyrsquos1 Captain Operator 2 Originator 3 Receiver

Handling and loadingLast in the chain of handling dangerous goods is the person responsible for loading theaircraft whether it is a handling agent or one of the pilots Distributing the load in the aircraft may require some thought and planning particularly if there are other special loads involved such as live animals or foodstuffs

As we have seen some dangerous goods must be kept apart from each other but we must also consider other special loads There are various ways of separating different forms of cargo depending on if the aircraft is ULD-loaded or bulk-loaded or a combination of the two Some things must be loaded in separate compartments while others only need to be kept well apart Dry ice emits carbon dioxide which is suffocating so it must not be loaded in the same compartment as live animals or they may not reach the destination alive Radioactive materials may be loaded in the same compartment as live animals as long as there is sufficient distance separating them to prevent the animal from being contaminated Another situation is live animals and infectious substances These may not be loaded in the same compartment or on adjacent pallets but may be loaded in adjacent enclosed containers

18

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Before accepting a package of dangerous goods for loading the person supervising theloading must inspect the goods to make sure the packages or labels are not damaged He must also make sure all the documentation is in order and that the goods are loaded and secured safely His signature on the NOTOC must be a trustworthy guarantee for the crew who are taking the hazard with them into the airThe following tables are of some aid in planning the loading of dangerous goods on an aircraft

NOTE Group 41 and classes 6 7 and 9 are not included in this table as they do notrequire separation from other classes of dangerous goodsNOTE 1 Explosives of the same compatibility group may be loaded together regardlessof divisionNOTE 2 Only explosives of division 14S may be loaded with this compatibility groupExplosives not belonging to the same compatibility group may not be loaded together even if they belong to the same division with the exceptions of compatibility groups C D and E which may be loaded togetherExplosives of division 14S may be loaded together with other compatibility groups with the exceptions of compatibility groups A and L

19

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Table 2 Separation and Compatibility Chart

Indicates packages that must be separated physically from one another either in separate compartments or secured well apart

20

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Minimum separation distance in accordance with IATA DGRMay not be loaded together Adequate separation distanceMay not be loaded in the same compartment may not be loaded on adjacent pallets May be loaded in adjacent enclosed containersMay not be loaded in the same compartmentSeparation is only required for laboratory animals and animals that are natural enemies

Table 4 Separation distances for radioactive substancesMinimum distance between the surface of a package ldquoOverpackrdquo or container and the floor of the cabin or flight deck or live animals

Emergency and contaminationIf a package of dangerous goods has been damaged to the extent that it spills its contents the situation must be handled promptly and correctly Regardless of the nature of hazard everyone not immediately required in the vicinity must be kept well away Anyone who may have been affected (harmed or contaminated) must be taken care of and their names and addresses notedThe person supervising the situation must consult a suitable ldquoDangerous Goods Emergency Chartrdquo (ICAO Doc 9481) to see what immediate remedial action may be required The wrong action may make the situation worse As soon as possible expert help must be acquired There are seldom any established official channels for this the local telephone directory is usually the best way of getting expert help In the case of leaking toxins for instance one could simply call the nearest hospital and get help from their toxicologistsAll handling agents should have an emergency chart similar to the one below readilyavailable together with types of procedures and kits to handle this type of emergencies

21

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Dangerous Goods Emergency Chart

Dangerous goods in passenger baggageDangerous goods as such are not permitted in passenger baggage Passengers do however often pack articles and substances that are hazardous To a certain extent this is acceptable It would not be proper to discriminate against disabled passengers who need electric wheelchairs so these are allowed Some forms of cosmetics such as hairspray and perfume may be hazardous but it would be very difficult to get passengers to abstain from bringing these on their journeys On the next page there is a table taken from IATA DGR that indicates what is acceptable and to what extentThe major problem in this case is to locate the passenger who is carrying unacceptablearticles It is mainly up to passenger handling staff to be on the lookout for signs of potential hazard as it would be unethical or illegal to search the baggage

22

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

These are a few suggestionsCamping or hiking equipment May contain butane or flammable liquids an extensivesupply of matches emergency flares and many other dangerous articlesToolboxes Some forms of measuring equipment are radioactive There may be gas-powered soldering irons explosives adhesives corrosives resins paints solvents etcDiving equipment Apart from the breathing apparatus divers may be carrying divingtorches that generate extremely high heat when operated in airMotion picture and stage May involve articles for special effects that may containexplosives or flammablesAutomobile accessories Substances for corrosive protection Fuel additives such as nitro methane Most passengers cannot be expected to be familiar with the normal conditions in an aircraft such as the changes in temperature and pressure Nor can they be expected to always consider the dangers inherent in the everyday objects we all surround ourselves with A large supply of matches on a pantry shelf does not seem particularly lethal but packed in a bag on board an aircraft it can be very hazardousInformation about dangerous goods in baggage must be provided to the passengers As a minimum this must consist of placards at check-in counters and having it printed on tickets or ticket folders Though it might prove difficult or impractical in a congested situation it is good practice for all check-in staff to ask each passenger if they are carrying any of the articles on these placards

23

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

Radioactive materialsRadioactive packages can be very unpleasant to handle Radiation cannot be detected by any human senses only by measuring equipment Nevertheless it can be very harmful to living tissue and organs The smallest noticeable symptoms of radiation contamination are nausea and vomiting and a generally unpleasant feeling These symptoms disappear within a couple of days The worst symptoms are much more gruesome The radiation can destroy the central nervous system and most of the internal organs leading to death within two to three days Radioactive materials are articles or substances that spontaneously and continuously emit-ionizing radiation These substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements and each is distinguished by its own unique atomic numberThe atoms of each chemical element can exist in a number of slightly different variationswithout altering the chemical characteristics or the physical form of the element Some ofthese variations occur naturally and some are artificially produced and are termed isotopes or nuclides Each of these is denoted by its own atomic mass number not to be confused with atomic numberFor instance Chlorine has the atomic number 17 and as isotopes may be called Chlorine-35 or Chlorine-37 which are non-radioactive or Chlorine-36 or Chlorine-38 which are radioactive and so termed radioisotopesRadioactive substances consist of material in which at any particular time some of the atoms are radioactive Each of these radioactive atoms randomly and spontaneously undergoes a process of disintegration In this process the atoms emit their characteristic form of radiation and decompose into another configuration This radiation consists of one or more of the various forms of radiation alpha beta gamma X-ray or neutronWe are to some extent interested in measuring the activity of the radiation The old unit of measuring activity was the Curie (Ci) but the SI unit is the Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one atomic transformation per second Since the Becquerel is such an extremely small unit it is common to use the multiples kilo Becquerel (kBq) or mega Becquerel (MBq) For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations a substance must have an activity greater than 70 Becquerel per gram (70 Bqg) or 70 kilo Becquerel per kilogram (70 kBqkg) to be regarded as radioactive materialThe activity of a radioactive material is essentially a measurement of its quantity As each radioactive atom decays the remaining activity declines The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its activity is known as its half-life In successive half-life periods a radioisotope is reduced by decay to frac12 frac14 etc of its initial value It is therefore possible to predict the remaining activity at any given time The half-life time may be significant when transporting radioisotopes with extremely short half-lives The half-life period may vary from billionths of a second to billions of yearsThe different forms of radiation mentioned earlier have varying characteristics Alpharadiation has a range of a few centimeters in air and beta radiation has a range of a fewmeters These can generally be absorbed by paper or wood or conventional packingmaterialsGamma and X-ray radiation on the other hand have theoretically infinite ranges and are only absorbed by high-density materials such as lead They do however disperse rapidly with distanceFor our safety we are interested in measuring radiation exposure and radiation dose equivalent The old units of measurement were roentgen ( R ) and ream respectively The SI unit of radiation exposure is Coulomb per kilogram (Ckg) and for dose-equivalent it is Sievert (Sv) Neutron radiation is a special case It is assessed primarily by the number of neutrons passing through unit cross-sectional area in unit time This can be converted to dose equivalent by a fairly simple method

24

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

There are international agreements on acceptable levels of radiation in a workingenvironment These are usually established in terms of cumulative doses on a yearly basis and applied as limiting dose-equivalent rates This means that an environment where a person is constantly exposed to radiation will be limited to a lower dose-equivalent rate than an environment where radiation is more sporadicAnother safety consideration in a working environment is the form of the radioactivesubstance A radioactive gas or liquid may find its way into the body where it will stay for varying lengths of time How long will vary depending on the form and characteristics of the substance Some substances will be rejected by the body immediately while some are retained indefinitely In the latter case the dose-equivalent rate may be low but since the exposure time is likely to be for life the accumulated exposure will be severe if the substance has a long half-life periodFissile materials are radioactive materials in which the atoms can be split by neutron radiation which will cause them to release energy in the form of heat gamma radiation and more neutron radiation If a sufficient quantity of fissile material is assembled in one place under certain conditions the added neutron radiation can cause a nuclear chain reaction This kind of reaction is known as critical and may produce intense heat and high radiation More or less what happens in an atomic bomb

For the purpose of dangerous goods regulations only the following radioisotopes or mixturescontaining them are considered fissile1048633 Uranium-2331048633 Uranium-2351048633 Plutonium-2381048633 Plutonium-2391048633 Plutonium-241The regulations go into further detail which are worthwhile reading if one should come into contact with the transport of fissile materialsSome other terms used in the transport of radioactive material are ldquoSpecial formrdquo ldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo (SCO) and ldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo (LSA)ldquoSpecial Formrdquo is used to describe radioactive material which is in a sealed integral form and so cannot for all practical purposes produce radioactive contaminationldquoSurface Contaminated Objectsrdquo is more or less self-descriptive This is an object which is not radioactive in it but has radioactive material on its surfaceldquoLow Specific Activityrdquo is material that by nature has limited activity or for which limits of estimated average activity apply

When transporting radioactive materials it is impractical to go into the details of the various forms of substances and their different forms of radiation The packages or over packs are assigned to one of three categories known as1048633 ldquocategory I-whiterdquo or ldquoRRWrdquo1048633 ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIrdquo1048633 ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo or ldquoRRY IIIrdquoWhich category a package should be assigned to is determined primarily by measuring its surface radiation ldquoCategory I-whiterdquo is limited to 5 μSvh ldquocategory II-yellowrdquo allows up to 05 mSvh and more than that but less than 2 mSvh is assigned to ldquocategory III-yellowrdquo Depending on the size of the package and the radiation it emits a transport index (TI) is determined The purpose of this is to enable us to handle it correctly without having a deep knowledge of nuclear physicsUsing table 4 above we can fairly easily determine where in an aircraft we can load the

25

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26

package and to what extent we need to ensure it is separated from other cargo If for instance we receive three packages with TI of 2 3 and 35 respectively we can see that they must be separated from live animals cabin floor (or walls) and some other forms of cargo The first two packages must have a minimum separation of 70cm and the third 85cm If however we load all three packages in the same place we get an accumulated TI of 85 which requires a separation of 155cmWhen receiving an aircraft carrying radioactive materials one always approaches the hold while measuring the radiation levels As long as the instrument one is using shows no significant radiation it is safe to proceed up to the cargo hatch After that open the hold and measure inside the hold If the package appears undamaged measure the surface of the package and if there is still no more radiation than expected it is safe to unload the package If at some point in the procedure the radiation levels increase significantly it is imperative to stop and back away Get qualified assistance and let them handle the situation Refer to the chapter on emergencies and contamination

26