PETER CONNOLLY

G R EEC E E , AN ID RO #:~ . .. AlT A.

Con t en t s

Greece a n d Macedonia Chapter 1 T he City States 800-360 BC 10

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4

The States at War II The Phalanx 37 The Phalanx in the Field 44 Armour and Weapons 51

Chapter 2 M acedon 360- 140 BC 64 Part 1 T he M acedonian Wars 64 Part 2 The New Macedonian Army 68 Part 3 The L ater Macedonian Army 75Italy a n d T he Wester n Med iter ranean Chapter 1 T he Rise of Rome 800-275 BC 86

Part 1 T he Struggle for Italy 87 Part 2 The Italian Military Systems 91 Chapter 2 Rome 275-140 B C 129 Part 1 T he Roman Army 160 BC 129 Part 2 T he Great Wars 143The Ro man E m p ire Chapter 1 T h e Empire 140 BC-AD 200 210

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4

Conq uest of the World 210 Army Organisation (D r Brian D obson) 213 Equipment 228 T h e Army in the Field 239AD

Chapter 2 The Later Empire

200-450 249

Pa rt 1 T he M obile Army (D r Roger T omlin) 249 Part 2 Equipment 259 Appendix 1 War at Sea 262 Appendix 2 Fortifications and Siege W arfare 274 Appendix 3 Roman Military Costume 304 Bibliography 314 Index 316

GREECE AN D MACEDO:--IA

The City States 800-360 DC

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T H E C ITY STAT ES 800-360 Be T HE STATES AT WA R

Int roductio D Soon aftfi 1200 Be the great Bronu_ Age crvilisauon which had f1ourishC'd in Greece for several ceerunes ...-ent into a rapid decline and tinally collapsed. Barbarou s uibn poured southwards obliterating the last re mnants of th e xt ycenaean culture, and a dark age descended on G reece. T his book is a surve y of t he militar y system. th at emerged from this dark age. An au empt is made to t race t h~ developm~ nt of militar y organisation, tact ics and ar mament in Greece and Italy from t he 8t h cent ur y Be, when ci"ili.ation once more began to eme rge in Gree , unt il the onsct of the second dark age when t he Roman em pire in the West collapsed. Both Greece and Rome had to face the supreme tnl. With G reece it WI$ .....hCII the Penian. in.-a.de:ntury , ...hile Rome faced a similar cruci al situation whe n the gratest of the ancienl generals, Hannibal, invaded I taly 260 yea" later. Both t hese wan are examined in considereble detail to show how the t wo military syste ms rose to t he situaILon. .\toll of Rome's or ganisation and equipmen t was borrowed from the nation. with whom she came into confl ict: the Etruscans, Samnites, Celts, Canna ginians and, of course, the Gree ks , T he contr ibutic ns c f each of the . e sta tes will be examined in tu rn . Alread r by t he late M ycenaea n period in the 13th and t 2th cent uries Be central European influences were bei ng fel t in t he Aegean world. T his continued in the succeeding centuries and. b> the time that Homer 's epic poems of t he .\i.ycenaean era, the l/iad and the Odyruy, w ere commiued 10 " Titing, pra.;ticall> nothi ng of the ancient weaponry survived. For t his reason , unless there is adeat derivation from theearlier period, the Bronze Age ...i ll be ignored. O ur knowledge of the 8t h and l1 h centuries is very sparse b ut, by t he 6th, we have a conti nuous written history. T he hislory of the 6t h and 5t h cen rune s is dom inated first by t he rise of Persia and later by the bl uer war betwee n Sparta and At hens. T he period is very well docume nted by IWO great wnrers-c- Hero dot us, who ",as alive at the time of the Pen ian invasion of Gt'eece, and T bucydides, the greatest of the ancie nt historians, who "'as actually

inv olved in ue .... r betwee n Spana and Athens, T o t hese one mu st add Xenophon, who " Tore alVUIld t he beginning of mc 4th century Be. Xenophon's writ ings arc not in the same class as Herod OllIS or Thucydid es but he was a soldier and served for man) }'e an with the Spanan. He is t hus an incom parable sou rce of infor m at ion about t he Spart an military system. The~ e literary sources ar e supple_ mented b y a mass of archaeological evidence. An er a battle it was custom ary for the victor to dedicate some armou r in a sanct uary such as Olympia. In time t hese shrines became .0 clutte re d wit h armou r that it became neceasar}' to t hro...' out the older pieces. At O lym pia some were dumped in t he 5treams and dis used " "ells. whib t other pio;es ~re used to reinforce t he banks of the stadium. In rece nt years some of this armour has been recovered during exca'at KlIIS.

When t he M ycenaean states fell soon after t 200 IIC, hotdes of savage tribesmen, G reek speaking but from the mountaimlU' north ....e.tern region , moved down into sout hern G reece. T he most formid abl e of t hese invaders were the Dori ans. M any of t he origina l inhabitants fled fro m G r eece and settle d along the west coast of Asia M inor (Turkey ) in Ihe area t hat became kno",'n as Ionia. T he invasions and subsequenl m igrations came 10 an end about 1000 BC. This ....as followed by a period of settlement. Finally, order began to ret.um . The little states ,.'hich emerge.goras "'as thrown out, he appealed to his personal friend Cleomenes for assista nce. Clcomenes, wit h a small bod y of rel ainers , agai n invaded Attica, and so great was t he aura of Span a tha I he took the city wit hout a blo w and gar risoned t he Acro rcn. When the Athenians discovere d t he paltry size of Cleomenes' party, t hey besieged the Acropolis and Clecmenes, in the face of starvation, .... a. forced to sur render, Fear ing repri s.ls, t he Athenians felt ob liged to release the king and his retainers. Enr aged at his humiliat ion Cleome nn re lurned to Spana and mobilised t he entir e Peloponnesian League against Athens. Accompanied b y t herr

G R EE C E A:-JD MACE DON IA

other king Dema ratus, he led his arm~ to"'ards the borders of A ttica. In the non h T hel:>l:s and C hakis, Alhens ' ~'OlTlmcrcial ri"al, se ized the o p portunity to stri ke at Ihcir enem y and alw mobilised . hUI I:>I:fo"" the assault CQUld be launched d isse nsion broke out in t he Peloponnestan ranks , !o.1any of the allied Slates refuse;,cd t he Danu be and imade d Scythia, Next T hraee was o verru n and .\-tacedo niu forced to submit. Only 'I'hessaly now , x,d hel ween t he Greek states and Persia. In 500 the Greek slate, in Asia ,\ I m" r, led by Mil" IU' , revolte d and looked for help from t he wes t . Athens and Eretr ia on the wes t CQ;lSt uf Huboe a se nt expe ditionary

fo rces to Ionia which res ulted in t he saet inll end bur ning of Sardis, capi tal of t he Persian san ap~. T he Persians rUl h l essl~' put down the "" '011 .\li lerlli> was overt hrown and its pnpu lark>ll ooId into d a,'ery, By -194 the revcn " -as over and the Pers,ans prepat'N for a pumnve o f"'dition against GINa . An embassy was se nt (0 G reece demanding eart h and water, the traditional symbols of suhm ission. All hough practically all t he Greek states refused , " .::gina. which ha d t rad ing links wnh t he eaSl , su bm itted . Aegi na lies in the Saronic gulf " nly te n kilometres olf the An ic coaSi and cont rols access to At he n. ' harbouMi. W ith t he Isla n d under Persia n contro l Al hens woul d be: strangled . Aegina was a mem hcr of the Pcloponne sian League and Athens appealed to he r old enemy C le" me nes , The Spartan king to"k up t he Atheni an cause hur nnce aKain he Ca rne int o co nfl ict with his co llealo:ue Dema rat us. The enmit y which had smouldered between the I WO ' ince the abortive at tempr to invad e All iea some t 7 years he f"re now bursl into flame , Cjeomenes laid charges of illegit imacy against his colleague and Dema ratus " 'as depmcd. T he fonner king fled GR'eCe and toot ..,fuge wil h the l' eMilans . Cleomenes, freed of his partner, forcibly ..,turned A\'gina 10 its former loy'allies and pa tched u p an alliaOCe ,,-ith Athens agai m l the t hreatened lOva,ion . T he PeMiians om"iously in_ lended only a lim iled puniti"e o peration agalOst At hens and l':.-etria which had aid ed t he loman eevon. I n 490 the P ersia'" launched a seaborne anack . E etria was sacked and the r llcct moved dow n 10 t he ba~' of .' laratoon ..,ady for 1he sIri ke agains t Athens. The Al henians scm a ru nner 10 Sparta and marched QU I 10 meet the inva ders. W hat ha ppened at Uarathon isconfused and t he tru th will pro ba b ly ne'"er be known . The S partans delayed their march be cause they were ecl ebn ting a resli val and ar rived 100 late fo r t he batt leo T o t he ir ast onishment they di scovered lhal the At he nians bad decisive ly defeated Ihe Persia ns and dr iven t hem Out of Attica. The defeat at Maratho n serve d onl y 10 in itat e t he Persia ns. All knew fha t t he matl el WIS unsettled, but it was te n years hefore a """ontJ arternpr " as matJe" [n

t he meamime Athens was a ble to build u p he r lleel u nt il it ",as eq uai lOr he combmed fleels of all tbe ot her Greek stales. \X"hen it became obvious t ha t the Persi.an in" sion was imm ine nt. a C\)f1g"'ss was as5Cm bled at the i.thmus of U>rlnlh 10 try 10 'el tl e fhe imCTnal d ifrere ncn of the G reet Slates SO t ha t they oould present a united front. In l~ sprmg of 480 BC lhe Persian t ing Xe n:es, accompanied b)" D~ mar alUt, the deposed king of Spar1a. crossed the He llespont. H it vase army advanced on (irec l)" L "Overcd with hide, wh ich were

T H E C IT Y ST ATES &>0-360 lie TH E S T ATI\S AT W AR

som e w hat SIm ila r in a ppeara nce (0 the

U." eOliafl . hid d., this was a ce ntralhand grip tv pc on It, wh ich was stitched a metal 00". Their weapons co nsrsred ofa 'ho rt sp~3 r . bou t zm in le n gt h, a lu ng composite lin'" with hronz e- lippe d ITcd arruws and . dai/;ger w h ich hu n g on the rig ht . ide, The elite of t he !' eThlan anny werC rhc klll g '6 pe rsonal Ix>dygu a rd, the 10,000

Im mort als, '" called

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st rengt h w a, alw ays kept up to t hi, numhe r. T h" 'I cq uipm< differed frum 'nl orher I'er. ian, o nly in t he ri ~h ne" of it, a~~"utre menlS. The l'er. ian cavalry wa, armed in t he same fa ' hio n as the infant ry ex~ ..pt that s"me wore met al helm" " . l lemdm u, cla,ms thaI the Per, ian cavalry n umbe red &>,000, bul 8,opyl"" Nal",,,,,1 of ro.coo hopfire s was despa tc hed and A!cn_ lOij,cal M u,,"um , Ar"""" S P."" .. in p"'it ion he fo re Ihe Persians Ilad eve n sh..-d boss from Sarno.

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GR EECE A:-.: n .'I.1AC f: DO :--J I A

At T hermopylae the mou ntains come in cl",e to the sea, leaving only tWO possible ro ute! south -one along t he CNS! and the (Mher a vcry di fficult route over the mountains . T oda y t here is a ma rshy plain berween t he hills and the sea, brou ght about by the silting of the ri,cr Sperchrius ; in t he ~th ~n1Ur) tIC t here was only a nalTow passage between the hills and the sea. Th ese hills, the Callidromus ra nge, streich in an easl-wnl direcnon down t he ecase and al t hrtt points ther co me very dose: to the sea . T he lint of t bese (t he west gate) is at the very beginning of the pass. Herodotus descr ibes t his as so narro" lhat t here was only roo m for a single cartway. Here the hills are not very high and could easily be crossed. Beyond t he wnl gat e the pass wide ns. Here was situated the and ent vilb ge of Anthela T wo and a half kilometres beyond the west gate lay the village of The rmopylae, named after the hot springs which still rise there today. T he calcium car bonate in these ther mal spr ings gives t he land scapc t he appear ance of cru sty grey rock. A great cl iff, know n as Zastano , to wers nearly r.ocorn above Thermopylae_

Th is cliff is the ke~ to t he pass . A shon distance be}ond the cliff a spur jUls out towards the sea (t his is t he m iddle pass). Along t his spur t he people of Phocis had const ructed a ..-all st re tc hing OU t into l he manM 10 stop the Malians in,.,.d_ ing Iheir CO!.Inlry. An }one ",~shing to bn'lss this poi nl ....oeld neve to neg0nate the Zan ano cliff_About t hree kilometres fan her along the pass is a t hIrd narm'" poi nt (Ihe east gate) wit h t he ancient ,-mage of ..\ lpe ni built on a spur jut ting out into the mars hes . Here t he hills are low and easy to CIo. s. As me nt ione d before, th ere ....as anot her stee p and d ifficult route into cent ral Greece at the CS t end of Ihe range. T his rout e follo s the valle}" of the Asopu s, which passes t hrough a precip itous gorge. T oday the railway and road bot h follow th is route , th e for mer passing t hrough a tunnel on th e we, t . ide of t he gorge, whilst th e lalter climb. up th e hillside "n t he east of the ravine and then runs over t he hills above t he gorg e. T his route was guar ded by t he ancient citadel of Trac hi. built on top or t he stee p cliff. overlooking the ..-est side of the gor ge. "So commander

" 'ou ld auempr to force a passage at Ihis point in thefaeeoCdetermined and wellorganised opposition_ .-\ shun d istance off the coast lies t he long island of Euboea, which st retehe, for 1 7 ~ km in a south-eas te rly di rection, leaving onl) a narro.... channel bet....een {he isla nd and the mainland . Here, unlike t he original position a{ T empe , i{ "as posMblr for Ihe Grttk tlerI: 10 p~_ 'ent the Pen ian na'-y bypass ing the G rttk army on the mainland . This, lhen, ....al t he area .,,-here the Grttks elected to halt t he Persian ad.-ancr _ An edvance guard ....a s imme di alely sent out to man the pass until tbe rest of t he army could be bro ught up. Cleomenes had met a violent end .e'"en years earlier and had bee n succeeded by his you nger brot her Leonid as. It .... as Ihis new Spart an king who marched nort h .... it h hi. h..,dyguard of 300, th e h'ppm , to hold t he paa_l ow A model 01 Il"Ie p. .. 31 Trn.,rnopyl... o. ,t prob 30'" 3l>p"a'lld c 500 Be. Tho Po,...,.,._~

"",comped i~ I'" pla n on " '" 1011 T"'" 01\0S "u,J1d have had am ple space to beach in a single line . Lookoul posn we re ""lab-lished o n Ille lIill. O ne of these mu.t certainly ha"e been placed abo" e Cape ....rtemision , len kilometres cast of Pe"1Ism

ra

THE CITY STATES 800-360 Be THE STATES A T WAR

ob\'iously been a bandoned as the G reeks only learned whar hud ha ppe ned fro m a deserter Th is post had ['robably bcen withdraw n after the t hree warch ships at rhe i, land had bee n captured. T be de serte r who informed the Greeks was a man calle d Seyll ias. rhe greatest diver of his day. II e had escaped by swimmingl he Euboca nch anncl. T he Greeks imme diardy ,em a fast sh ip dow" t hro ug h t he Euripus to in[ot m the 53 Athenian ship s which had been hdd back in anticipation of the Persi an move. F ifteen Per>lan ships had be en delayed at their anchorage farther up the ,0051 and did nol set out {() j", n rhe mai n fleet at i\pherae unt il lon g afrer t he other ships had left. T hese late comers did not reach thc channel betw een Skiathos and the mainland unril late 111 the afte rnoon , W lhe ir view we,t wa, blind ed by t he hetl glare of t he sett ing sun . T hey failed to ,ee tht ir com pani on s in the shadows at Platania Bay bU I did ,ee the G reek \'e"eb shining in lhe evemn g sun 10 t he south- west. .' li "~, . Ik'i h Jlu ,n ~ndl'rildl"lr arc agreed lh~1 Ih,' 1'1.. ",i"n< up Ih,.." '00 ur .I".. ' ",,,"n " 'n "n .\ \' J\lm I j~ t hi l >~ '" the ",,"h "I rill' r"lh. ~nJ Ihi, """IJ "en,"nl" lil 11.-"..I" IU' d.......rif'l ",,,. T h" I'.,'-" Ian, ", lJ hm'" r...""h" d Ill. lop of ,lie r>a" ..1:'< 1 I hr,... pAy J ... " r!,' h.:l< >r~ Ihe' Ji~,t 1 1~ \"Jnl: ~rn,'" Ih" " f lh. rl",un lam [he I',,_i.,n, ~1~ rl C,t l h" d ~ '~-':I1l. 1....." .1,,1,," .~" lh"l Ih,' .. \n"ra~a I'~r h , 'a111" d. .w n 111'" 1h" P"'~ ~ I .\ 1pcni T h,' ,ill; "I rh i, 1\ \\\'11 h." h~~n "'l "hli> h~d Wilh ,,>It'" .I ,g , " ~ "I' ~~ ,m in1\' Oil,' , id ~~ )ll ltin~ ,' ,lrn 'en "n WlIh """r)!,'" an.i d a,,-,hc,,-J "Wr the r de' ,,.' Ih"ir J~ad h' !l.el ~ : Ih" ( ;"...k,. :-.'~'n m,"1 "flh. (ir",-\.: ' I'_a" were hr"h.., ~ n,l l "e h.'phl'" J",,\\ rh,';r ,,,,,,J, 3n ,1 n." " '-.I in d,,,~r. h..... king~' rhe ,,-~ "f f;o,.-.." lxf,."" ,hem H.,, I.,"'" 01,1 tdl ~n,j Ihe battle r~~J ,..-,., h\> 3' ""I""~' ( ,r" ek and P""ian 'lru~t.-,I I" " " "" " '" " , 'he t-.lo.iy . " " ur l im,... the l'er ' lan, "'''I'lu,,-'.1 il anJ 1~'uI II,",'" Ihc ( 'h,.. k, Jr ~l!ged 11 h ""k "I(" i". :-." (he .1 '''~". I":r" ' l,,d unllll.",J,;,'m, ",,, u!!t ht Ih" ne'" that (he I mm,'n" l, h~J ""adl'.1 'he l\o.'I,,'m ,,1' ,he f'alh . Till: ('re,k. "I,....." r~n'" a",1 ""l"".lred h'...a, J . Ih, \\ all. ' I'he~' f'a,,," Ih",u ;,, " Ihe 1("'''' anJ \\ II hd l' C\\ I" " 'mall hill"." k n""l( at-.'lI l r cm ali-,.-.- th, mar- Ill' ~"'UIl J ",h," ,' t hcv ("'''1Ce, ordered his IIdoilO Ind him into t he thic\: of the batde. The 5Jern Daphne ). The lh'rd .ite o n t he A" ,pu, was found while t'xp re"I,' I"o" ing for S''m here t hey headed n"rt h and follwcd Ihe I' e" ian army imo Ilo~olia Onc"C past ,U num I'"rnc" they lurned west along Ihe '''u t h side of t he A",I"'" I Inodo lU' lell, u, Ih~t th,' n reck armv rea ched Erylhrae wh ere thq' learned ~f rhe Pe rsian I""it ion . Ae armc vie..... of Ihe whole Persia n line, In 1'1"", Iwo and a half k ilomet re~ wesl of flk:l Ihi, view can be seen from any Daphne. "'ilh a . tr(>ng connngem of po int "Ionl( lhe 1:>;o$C of the hills aU tile lig hl-armoo u o f",m ren k,lomel rC'! farther ".."t. E,'en if .\Iegar;,l. "'er" I"km g a terrible healing Ik rodulUs' .talement i!; dJSreg,u t Vi ew oIl he Pers,an pOs't ;ons ,n ,he d,'ta nce. Fro m he ' e there ', a oa no,. mic Y;ew 01 !he Pers ,an line

3'

G R Ee C E A :-< D M AC E D O l" IA

from Plataea to Thebes. This means tha t u, 100, was in the area of the Agi@en a~ ,he '.!rn. nO ~de T~,. w" I"" Ii,,, G'ee k The '>O pic ked men, the flower of the Persi an a rmy_ The.e m en fo ught valia ntly chargin g the Laccda emoni an. and many a Spa rta n reU before them But the nee of lhe battle was inexorab le. Gradually the Spartan hoplitt'S C\lt their ...a) th ro ugh the 1,000. Fina ll y .\{ardonius himself ns struc k from his horse . So long .. he ..as a li ve the Persiantood Iheir ground. but when the ntIL"S spread through the n. nks lhal Mardonius ...as dead and the majority of his bodyguard wi th him. the army began to falter and gtve gro und. Soon their line broke and they turned in Dight. rushing head long fo r their camp wit h Its wooden wall ' ac r"~s the river, \\:'h en they saw the Persians fl eeing lhe other A, lan s also look to thei r hee ls, Only the Ilocotians. perh aps because of th eir age-old e nmity with At hens . co nunued the fight They she....ed great bravery and all 300 of lheir Sacred Band fell ' n the ballic. but at 1 3S1 they too bro l:e an d ned across the r iver to Thebe-.. The Persian rerrear ....as covered by the cavalry ",,-ho l:ept b 01, moo. "W..

comfnllO(led

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we'e that made up Spart a. Itl prehisloric ti me ' each village may have been ex pected to supply one loehos. Grad ually, as lhe villages ex panded , so lhese units grew bu t cont in ue d to be called JlJChoi. Each of t hese units was commanded by a I",hagos wh o wa, o bvi"us ly much more senior than hi, nam.' ,uggcsts. At Plataca ill 479 , e a~h of t he live lod w f{OI wou ld have com ma nded abou t ' ,O men. T hi, cxplams why t he I",;h~xo., ,\momph arel us felt that h." could challenge lhe aut ho rit y of t he mmmander-in-ehld Pausanias because

under no rma l ~'ircum stances he would have b een pr ese nt ur Ihe cou nd l of war. N o dou bl lhese su pe r 10O'tlrhcai .",1 t>oo~

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rest,ng aga,nst n,s 'h ig~ o ano ,oea' boH on I~ groono, Some" """ :n" p$ "'on seM,d . , a o'g n 01 conwmo, w~n lac'r>g 2 Allent on . w,1l' h' o SOQ' ol"""G' ""'0 ohoeld

At eue,

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T.. _.-m t"liovorq """. 1r(lO'l'l n' lru'-1 ed . ' II i. amusing 10 note Ihat Ihe S parlans feared a sla"e re"o lt so much Ihal il " 'as conside re d more imporl ant 10 guald t he armS Ihan t he I"'rimeter of the cam p. T he cam p had nO sanila!1' arrangemenls and il ,,'as ms isted o nl}' l ha l ~ldiers relieve Ihemselves at a suffK:iem distance SO "" not 10 o!fend l he ir comrades , Ea.:h mora enca mped ~ a unil with sl rie w e>od.." COe sh ",ld a "lt II .., 11'>0 th 'c 'n".. of ti'>o sh ~d al th is poonl _il>S1 aboul 'em , 1 1nd 8 0,., .11 ftom O1ymp, " 01\"T'P'1

9 A ...const,,,,,,,.,,, of a 6th-century Alg,ve...e1d based.", , .... finds from Olvml>a

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T HE CI T Y STATE S K oo- j 60 lie AR MOU R A... D WEA I'O:'liS .

overla p ,,'hich lIua rdcd his uncovered sidc. One of the g reat problems of t he phalanx " lIS this tendency to close u p towards lhe ri ght. Afrcr lhe end of rhe 61h cen tury , probably as a res ult of l he Persian invasions and the increase in , he use of Iighl- armcd rroops anncd wi rh mi5!Jiles, a kllher curtai n was sometimes au a.:hcd 10 rhe bouom of rhe shie ld ro prolecr rhc ..-llI"f'i ""nlu ry 1 The ,nside of th. ,hleld shOWi ng Inc armband. wh,en wou ld have l>een Iin-ed WIth hrde, the hand g" o ar>l1 and ha!\dQ" o 4 ReconslruC1>on of lhe nandg"p a!\d "''' SP'I(Mo'ng lhe 01 ""OOd u sed to !'ll l he 10m

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l3

GR EECE AND M ACEDO N I A

making a copy of l~ Yal ican sh~ld and Ining it OI.It. The sbarp curve bay [wo iron spikes on Ihe from plate which passed through eorrespack plate ( S) . A sem i-circular bronze pla te ca lled a mitTa (Ihis term is probably wrong but used for co nven ience) could be suspended from a belt to CO"er l he abdomen . All hough lhere ar e rome Greek examples of these, mos r come from Crete. Exam ples have been found 10 Thntcc " ; Ih la'tT \'enions of the bell cuirass sho..;ng lha l lhe } "~ re: used ' logel her. In t he second half of the 6th cent ury the bell cuirass ded ined in popularilY and was su perseded by rhe linen corse_ let as rhe basic hoplile hody armou r. Howe.-er, Ihe b ronze cuirass continued in m e and gradually evolved into [he e1eganf m uscled cuirass . Alt hough il never enjoyed t he same popularilY as the bell corselel, probal>l)' because u wu so expensive 10 ma ke, itlasted unt il l he end oft he Roman era 1,000 years laler, and bttame parr of [he uniform of seniol officers. T he new cuirass came in IWO In"'S, eil her shore, fi nishing at the wais. , Or long 10 cover the abdomen. The mu sded cuila," was usually joined al the sides , and sometimes al l he shooldel'S, ,,'irh hin ges, one balf of the hinge being anached to the fronl plale and one to the back. There "'ere usuall y six of t hese hiniles- Iwo on each side an d one on each shoulder. I n order 10 pUilhe cu irass on, th e hinge pi ns were remo.-ed from one side (us ually rhe right) and from the shoulders. The corselet was then opened out as with the previous IYpes , When fi lled t he fronl and back plates would be drawn 10gerber and the hi nge pins in ser ted on the r ighl side and [he shoulders. On eil her side ot t he hin ge was a ring whi ch was us ed to p ull the fro nt and back plates logel her. A fragmem of a coilass in the British ,\ t useum (9:' has a d ear impre:1ISion of a buckle nexl 10 the nng

showing that a strap and buckle werr used 10 r ull t he IWO sides together. Some of lhese conelCis h&\'e no hi nges and were held toge-ther wit h rings and straps onl~ . Some 4Ih -cen IUr ~' cuir~es haw a Iefl- hand hi nge "" rending fro m the ar mpil 10 th e hip. Since ir would be impssihle to inserl lhe pin in such a hinge when th e cuirass was being worn, one mUSI assume rhar t he lefr side was juineJ before il was pUI on, Although t he developmenl of t he mu scled cuira' s can be t raced on Greek va""s, Ihe archaeological finds are ma inly Italian. In ,he 4fh cent u ry the full-length mU'l0 Votoear> ( Muoeo Gf890"."",j st>owi"", llmelll' plo,O$. C 350 Be ' A ",. 6th-cent""" "oph'e puttmll II nl$ Ionen

G REECE AND MACEDOt-;'IA

me . T he bottom was swept ou t"'ard~ at the front and back "J tha t the wearer cou ld sit On a horse. Such a cu ira" is shown d earl y on t he equestri an statue of ~on iu~ Halbus the Younge r found at Herculane um, now In the :-;apks ."-i useum. T hree examples of t his ty pe of cuira" are known and all come from southe rn Italy . The evid ence sugge sts t hat they we re restricted to this area, but wit h so few examp les it wou ld he wro ng to '''Sume this . L inen cuirasses had probab ly been In use since lat e .' ptOngS 01. l he fron l Thogll guard. 611'1 ~ 9 f oot ~9 of the grea'e " c"eo' 0 '

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the ho.., 0 1 h.. ca val", to the P. " ,.n, . w ho "'d ' o,med up O t ho oppos'le bon" w ith n the " C,",I," on Ief",c the dca,h of P)'lrhus f" ur AdUle~n to....n. had for med a lea~ue of defence against M acedon which W tn """nme known a. t he I< Achaean I.caguc , Dur ing ' he succeeding , 'ca.. ,i x nt hcr town, jnined .nd in oS'

Sicynn , one of M ambtna'ion of Philip in , ho ,,'CSt and An..ehus in the CUI, An alus af'f'COlled to Rahly equally ,,'t"ofricd ahoot , ho efJC'q' '\[Uoo put '........J. 1tu, -~ u, p....-. f'OOJI' tuUOU!W:>q' ""... '.ll .\u:>q~ u. 'l""-OW "'ll. ' .'~"1\" U! .'1ll1J~, \ ,. D:I l' 1I 0Jl u. Aql"~ II ,,>! . ,,1Id 0,'" II! ~p"W 1I ""'l ~""4 , ow Dm" ", ~IJJ. { " { I ' n",,~, 1""01"1'"0' "'l '" '04 >Jn~lj "mqAI" .1 104' ooho'l"'l ,oll ln. "'I' '",'ncw ''"II' nlu! 40' """;U d p ru- ~~p~I """ ~ '{'.IIIP'''''JlX~ .,O!q -Arod plllW II! ~1I1l.~ '1IOIU'h "'l' ""'1' '~'"""I 'I""w ..,.. xU.l"'Id ""'I') "'l' '"'II 1" ""1""1 {II.J.:I\I ~ ' ! II Xfl"" ->q A[Umu "' "''I' loq '.n,,'""ldwlu. "'I u~., lJ ~ "", u """.J 110111100 \ I.rqoq"S \ Wt ' t '~) 9 1 uq -'II. _ulJuo PftI II ' "'II po. (W{ '9 .,) .. ",'" II '.{tp " 'I " ' " "'1' , w'-P .mq -'1".1 ''''01 (wt " ',) . "q n, t , ,",, , ... _""",,~uol >q1 '01j"W'I')" ,~u.x'IV pu. d'l"'d JO .... c'odw~'u ,~,. '.n " c' 4" -IJlJt:> '''~UOP ':'.l\" "''''II "'l' PO "Pll pUt ,.11> I" '1 ' ~II!'"I " PII~ "1t>",~nl1'''' ',\U" uJ>ll~ ~1Il XU"l"'1" -"' "' 1"4' 1," '\ 'l '1101" >td;>p "'I "'11' 'U.''''~d !luI - IJUp ,,, J"PU"UIV U"'l." ':llI { ~ { 1111111 -X~I V '.p""'ll"~ JO ~11~ "'l l IV ' .( 1Il.Jt lOU .. II ' J~A~"AO H ', H: pon: 6H II''', 'pU"'~'" III UOI lIsod _ "'" p :>]}', -""I . ~'l '~J!) "'I' '11'-" ""1JlIOO ""n -re Uq ~"01j "I:U'" ,."W " pue'1l"" :>IJlJt:> "" 'X1pW>:S"'JJC "'II >ql OS '~'lI l'q "sod .1'1' ~'1I"'''''b ,ou 0'"1 a" 'I," ",II " l!j 01 W~ "" " ", op 4"''1.'' ''''I ..,"d. 'N"I, O a4' II! P~,'Old h" 'w~X!1 ~"III""U'W '{'I p:>SflJ -'p "'""1 'h"'1 PI"'>;> XU I"Il" """P- l'l~" ' -II "~ AP, "" n" O fI " " '1.1 . 'tJ!f'U,;m ,u ,f, J" "" "4' 1"~lldo"" ' ! ''' ' !I" W " ' ""I ' W X!, O' " ! p'p!,\!P'q Ploo." '!X~l 'I'"' 11''1' "" s" o" " " ,'1 lU"~U" II" JO P~W'OJ" I ""'l .I1'11!qoJd ' ,n lq' I"d 'd:x>p l'lll>;> ' ;>so, ' '1' 'J~," '!'I ',ll ,(tt ." ~ ..) .I' " " ,. ,apll""'I'o' ""I '" ' '''I 4' !'I'" 11.111.10 1I0W pliO 91 'of " P hlS= ""';HI , f f III "[O""'~ JO -" . n I. xU.[1''1d SIll dn "'' '1'' " 'pu.""1V "'l l "' 'u.,,.,,,,,, , noJ " 'u, IPL" p '.4' 1l1l'w,l')~ ," on"'l.II"d .(q p;>)OfIb .. '''In. ..... '1"' '1.'' '\",,~, .10) _Ir,....... 'Ut!tJ01"'I1""!lI0 .. UOOll~U ','1"'" p~I'" lllln 1l1l''''.-9~~ JO """"sr,., ~ -xW r-.I!) ~'1' p;>ldOVO >plhtp '"," XII"I~4" 0ll.L ', ' UOIII "" W"" ''1 l " "" ~OOI ''I II''I,~ "ppow IIc'!''1.t lOOJ. W"'l ' ~IIlU"" .Iq x" ol' '1d P'w '''J ~4 i u" p ' ..q 1'11101" 011 ' '''' '1''1'' " 0,"1 ,\JlUO.11I1 .IA"' 4 "Il r;>uJ-JOj '" dl[llld AI""" "4 J" ""llll,p ' 41 p:>SI"' dlll'ld 'wnWIII' W . 01 ',\111-'" '(!"Ir"w ) "" l[UlIJ ""'" "'l l u"'"" ,"""IS 1I~I , "''', "'ll 1""" "'P~ .,"" o. "J.IO." )0 """., lU."UU ~ ...... :>JOw OIl p.....,!"' llllq "-'" Oil" ~l I'll. ""W '""'I I II'", "" " JqI JO """IWnll "'ll "' p>"'!Jl' ...., :U 001 .ute.,.,. "'lJ. 'ull""'","" 00 -"'l U'''''= J1'P (I"""du IJ1t!-llY .. '''''!."oo pooll "OI ."lK"" ." 'X~ 1111'."= ,no I~ U"'l." .~ " "'l ' u .""" .. '''OJ "'. " "'lJ. " I!I [~W""U ~'1' JO '-"" ~O .I.'tp o "-u..-. 0, p;>:>JOJ ~J"" "'''1''1'''' :>.1...... ,

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pham, cena in ly carricd ' hem . T hi, ,m ailer elep hant with its , ad dle back wou ld us"a lly h,,'e ""en r id den like a hor, e. I II 2 1H Be lhe d ep han t reached the height of its fame when Hannibal crossed ,he Alp, at the head of an ar m y which iJ\d uM J 37 elep h"n l< . How cver lh c heyday nf thc elephant was pa" and they fd l out of f,,'our. T he tater Macedon ia", seld om o,od ele phants and cert. inly the y played no signific"", part in the ir cam paign, . ' I 'hi, wa, pro bably bee'au" of the diffi "ulty of obt aining lh em,

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The Later Macedonian ArmyS lo" of ou r know kdgc of ' hc ph" lanx and of lId leni" i" war fare in genera l "omc, from ,he I",er Hdle nistj " period ( 0, n o-,6 HB ~ ) . Ou r principa l so",ce j, l'" ly him, the mo" rdi abk of all the ""eien! historians on mi li' ary matt crs He gi,' e' m" ny descr ir ,ions of batt les in whi c'h the ,\lacedon ian l)'P~ of phalanx was used, and at one po int c,'en de _ , cri bes lh e basic structure and fun" tion

()fl he pha lanx , However , he nc,'er goe, fun her . H e wro t~ a separate tre ati", on thi s sub ject whic'h i. n() longer ."tant, and pm bably for thi, rea, on did Ilc\t elaborate on ,he sllbject in hi, hi" or y Arr ian in hi, AT)' T~a ic" "onfi, m, thc existence of thi, wor k b ut ~iw s no de tails, It is un fon unate tha' l'o lybiu' no,'cr m~n, ioIlS the title of e,'en onc " f the , uhordinalc officers of th e phal. nx . which wo uld gi,'e U> a fO Olhol d whe n ex.mi ning the wr iring, of t h ~ later tac"Clan' By th, ' " ,'en 'ur}' He Ile llenist ic " 'arfare wa, virt ually J c" d and the stu d" of .\Iacedonian taW ", had bc""",e a branch (}f ph iloso phy, Fro m thi, pcr ioJ ,,",lme, the wor k of A,ciepiodotus . I n hi, treati, " he givc, all "CCOUnt of the sm",tu re, dr ill and tactic, of an idealised phalanx . H e gi"C, a com p lct e bre akJown of a phalanx of 16, 384 men. which i, com posed of ',024 files. each Mu""m, Ro m, "Io'e m, , m, II ,nd 'Ouno b3C'

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"",ehe,,'Ioch iu ,) , ' wo 4uarte T.fLie leaders (.nomorare h ,) and a re ar ranKe r (ourago,). It is interesring t" nott how [he tradi,i""al GrecKunit, ' hc Io>ehos and

its , ubd iv i, inn s, ha s ' hru n k, Th e p,n" ko" y is now called a hemilo,hion (half lochOl), the en omolia is " iil ' her e b u' of o nly fot" men , T he in,lividual .. nks ar e called alt erna tely front ranK (p rMo"a",) . nd Ie., ," Tl k (epi" a/C,). A compie'e Inman flIe would m n,i" o( raok I, lo"h ~go" 2 , epi" a" " 3,

""[,,1 the later Macedecd pi ke. S.sm long. lod pIke. liP 10 S.7sm in lcn g'b at~ ptUe"-ed in . be Sew ."""""00C$ ollhe T........ ol London. Pol~biu, . I II~ . lhat Ib~ .. . i,, ~ ~... -'ri&h1N II ,lit- hun end (presumably this ......... tha' il hod a beny ""od. !k!beo eocs on 10 explain how it ..... bdd. Tbe (ron, hand (lcft) 111">1'" ,lit- ",riss.. aboo, 4 pil:e blOk. The hopli'~ . ....o,d remlioed in usl"', ' '''''' .n ' he A'...... 1. 001. 101 01 2 . 3. .5 "'.., t>u1,. P.... . - """"">e,-" "" prong 01 poke ... ""'" ,... '''''''' 01 veo-".....

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'hru.. "-npon . Some have Ini poin" .unable only' fo< 'hruOling ,,'hil... fC", ha,.., oJigl'nly cun'ed sahre-like blIde 'ha' could M uS1t~n m~taJ. Iron weapon~ had to be beat~n ''litO ~ru.pvnana i. unttrt"..... Tho: I "bora t~ I",,,,,,ho ' n'" cuira.. '. ' .' wa. di""overed a' Nar"~ in Etru ria , " WaS lUnd wilh a crr",ed Villanovan helme ' f< whi. h Honk en 'uj[ge". , hou ld be d " ed 10 lhe end " f ,h ~ 8, h . en ' ur )', Th e CUlT... con .i. t. " r a front and ba. k r la' e ""'de in 0"'"' pie r l.,e. were rivet~d 10 eu her end of . 1~'lher belt , Th... ~ belt ,'1 1" cvol" ed int" the , imple later ElTud 970..

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Ofto 000. w"~'~ ".." .t>o-vo ont_ ".'on ".. ".nculptunl nop',"",n'a,ion of a .h,eld .."'n'i.l. i. ide mieal ,he whlnu 0( c. ~oo 8C, lA'as fou nd here, T h i, .,,,,/.. i, crnboo~ 1A"h ",..-nor 6gures ~'ing round Arg i,'c !.c in ,he primc of life we nt nn campaign , T hi, Wa' ' he , tr ucru r e of lhe Elrun> i. rr.ditlona L On the other h. nd they might h. ve been u,ed in , ing le comba" such a. that , hown n scu lpture of tW (} hoplites frum !'akri i Vetere, . T hese are armed entirely in the Greck fa, hion except , h. t one wield, a , hort cu rved dagger. \);'hate\'e r may be the rea,on fOT the inclu,io n of t hese weapoll> , ' hey ,"o"" '" I'm,", 'WOld, blonNbone ;nl.... lIomoochM " >eVm. 9 S och' o< n U1 p" Ul"W>J 4'14A , d.1 1 ' p , d" I1'" ' 41 .' q p " p, ,,o d n, " I" l" [d - W" ) u "Q p " ~ ,d" OS lp ' Idp , ' 14 ' .'m Ju 'J 1'" ' 41 All '00 'd uo p , ,, no' lp " " , !d V "4" J O "dA I lOU" r " 41 JO UI~ 'J!d V ' 'I ' p"d"ll "~< q l!-'tl s l "w l ' ~ ;'~I ..",, ~, 1101:lA1.1 :) '" qUlOl AJ nI U' , ' -~I t ~ ~, UI SP 1] ~' ~~ J . 'J" ' JnIU~ J ~, t '~ I WOIJ .11"11 Ul p UMJ I" w pq JO ta lOJ ", u"wwo ~ " ~, . w o" q pUE o/ ' 41 .10 ~Jt lU ~U1.\j ll U' PI , ql "" )q " "' q 1'I~lW IS>" "'J>., "Ucn . ql lc~l "p npuoo S p U" (I t 'd ) 'I II do ~ u ~ ' ," d S t .10 . !l, nnl' " 41 u o u ,,,0 4' .1 'I "!~ ,,,, " .on " p oq "ll"WWU l'lU l~ ~ JO ~dA, "'I' 'ItnO~l!V

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' P Ul P 'I ,od J" " wou I "'-'u,~ ~ ~l "'pu " , ,, ~ 0 ] p , ,, , p J SI 'lU l" 1 h m lU ' J -~ 1 9 JO dn oJ ~ " WOJJ P"-'IOA' ~d.;;1 "W[ ' q l , d ,' l "q,L '(J9 ),S " ) p[n,\ ,e ' OU1 .-\ \ ' '11 JO q u' 0.1 :lIP [UOJJ S ~ W O" ' Id m "" ~l q B I " p 1"11 '" ' ~'I.1 'Jg H f u , >ew n J JO ' Ill tq It , " U " 'I I , I. , u"" nJlCl " '1 ' ill()l.l II p.1JnJd n p 04 O~II\ lU\ ISW ' 4,1 'pu noJ ' ,",,, W '~l J O P q w n u " ~ 1 " 1 " ' ' ' '1.'' .' '" I, oS n,\ U1 , t"llI h " J' IJ " p~W " U ' , d .11 n" ~ , ." ' 41 ' "11\ .W Il d in ,he Tomh or S.... n Roo m. a t 0Mt1O ..... Lake 1loIs ........... or I 1yplCai Enusc.n mu.cl.d cui ra.., 10.. classlcll ~a vcs. Arziw s11 ldd and I Mon tcforlino h,lme ' wl' h Wpl, di.c check plec In neld or weaponry I considerable cho nge had Iaken pl. " . A I ' h "u ~ h the hopli" . word remolned In usc lhe w 'upersed'd by heavy lovelln

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poo boeca.

p '''.

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w h'ch w as ", 'oppeTOIl7>: hacked wi.lI iron . The example $ho"'"Il here i. fn'm lhe roecro-po li,.' Alfedona. The di...... are ~ 3_ Scrn in d i.tme-ter (they are l e""nlly beI..""o J O and ~~crn ..ime eu mplc. ,lie Jec"Ora,ion io in";"".1, The iron b"" king, wllich lI ad IWo . emi-d rcular p;cce, cuI oul of 'he c-entre. is rolled over 'lie cd~e of th e dioc ,, " , he front an d hamme red no..larger l hao1~

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ITALY AK D T HE W EST ER N M E DI T ER RANE AN

N um ber 3 is unusual_ only lWO examples have been found. T his , peci_ men, which has no p, ovenance , is in Ihe M u, eo Gregoriano at the Vatican, It is int ereSl i n~ because of ilS broad bri m ,- the doseS! yel found 10 Ihe immen,e bTim of the ,--"pestrano " ",ue. 11 has a pronou nced CTest cha nnel obviously adopted from the lllyrian helmet. T his is a very nO liceahle characte ti " ic of the Yugo, la\'ian pOI belmcts . T ype 4 is common arou nd the nort bern Adrialic and in lhe Po valley. It is clea rly of the , ame fam ily a, lhe Negau lype hut i, gcncrally mueb broa dCT in the cap, N umber 5 has rece ived lhe na me of 'Cannae helmet' beca llsc lwo examples were found in Ihe region "f Ihe haltle_ field of " annac where the R" mans were dcfeated by Ha nn ibal in 2161lC, T hese two helmelS, which are in lhe Bri lish Museum, were long Ihoughl 10 come fro m the l>atl le and were used 10 cia" and dale ol heT examples , Fortunalely an exee llent specimen was found in a grave at Campo\'alano which pb ced il firmly al Ihe end of Ihe 61h c-.,ntury. T he 'e helmets , of wh i~h aoout ten example, exi" (half of lhem bave no provenance) would seem 10 be limiled 10 Ihe Adriatic ~"a" hetween An,'ona and Hari. T hey aTe characteTised b y an in,el ere st channel at the fro nt , a pro nounced wai" like Ihe Ne ~au lype and Iwo h emi.phCTi~al ho,"s which are ri\'eled to the , ide . T he ,e Ix,,,e' are made of beaten bron ze filled with lead and backed wil h on iro n disc, T he Cc rto, a , iwla , how, a peculiar helmet made up of Ix" " , or dis cs (6a), Examples of helmets of this type have been found in Yugoslavia (6), T hese are made of a wicker cap covered wilh bron7 di,~ . The gaps ocl ween .., lhe discs are filled with bro nze . lud, Cuirasses made in a similar fashion have also bee n found in Yugoolavia , T he last Iyp< (7 ), which is shown on t he Bologna ,iwla (7a), i, c o n i~a l in shape, It was nol \'ery IX'Pular and cert ainly nO! as effeCli\'e as lhe brimmed lype" hut a fcw example. ha\'e becn found T he one shown here is fro m Oppeano near Verona , It is made in lwo pieces tiveted 10geIher and has a ~a" bron ,.., topknot. T here arc two , mall bTonze loops on the inside for fa s teni n ~ a chi n strap , The othe r types

wete also held on by a chi n strap which wa, umall, ' allached to t he lini ng ,'ap and is often , 'i, ihk on the ,iwla. T he watrior of Ca pe'trano i, weaTing a throat ~uard : a very similar example wa, foun d at Alfedena, On his upper left aTm he wears an armband . Such armbands have bee n found in POSilion arou nd the left h ume.-", in t he warrior graves III Alfedena, which brin.o;s to mind the stor,. of T ar peia, t he Roman maiden .t lhe lime of Romulus, who betrayed lhe C. pi101 10 lhe Sabin.. in relurn for Ihe gold bracdets that lhey wmc on their left arms . There i, so often an underlying tr uth in the old legend" Even lhe sequel may havc a grain of tru th in iI, for Ihe Sabine, pTOha bly spoke O""an and they may ha\'e had difficu hy in undcT"anding what Tarpeia ""a",ed when she lX'i nlcd to whal lhey were wearing on theiT left arm, and o/feTed hn Iheir , hield s, T he warr ior of Ca pe" rano has no shield and no shield remain. have bee n fou nd at the excavalions. It th erefor~ seems mOSllikely lhat lhe non-metallic ' CUl um in one of its for ms was used . A d""or ated brcast dis" fTOm Ihe Anco na area further nor th shows a fallen warrim holding wha l must be an Argive ,hield . The Ancona area ha. produced abundant evidence t haI the full h(}pJi te equipment had been adopled there, but lhere is no similat evidenc~ for its adoplion in the central area , G re~ k arm"ur wa. having only the slightest infl uence in lhe c~ ntra l area . Of all the ~ra v es exea \'aled at Alfedena and Ca mpovalano unly one ha s yielded any G reek armour; Ihe unique OscoCorint hian helmCl (sec p . 6', ' 3) and a 6th_century Gt~ek greave (.ee S, p . '03) were fou nd logelher in a grave at Campovalano. T his greave is eKeep lio nal, and lbe warr i"r of C aI'C' trano cert ainly doe , nol wear an y, Further nort h , pro bably under lhe influence of the G reeh . nd Etru.~ans , gTea\'cs hecame com mon p la~e and. pair were found in the famous warrior gra\'e at Sesto C olende , A very sim ple upper and lower ann guard were also found at AlfeM n. bUI Ihe, e 100 are unique. Armour uoually comi ' ted only of a cui" ," and helmet. Su . pended fro m the harness of hi, cui rass on lhe right side, lhe Ca pestr ano warrior has an elaboralely decoraled

swor d . An almost identical sword was fou nd", Alfeard, thaI have bee n found. T hc," SW'Tds are all of Greek hoplile lype probably ado pted from lhe Etruscans. T heir hlade length, \'ary octwcen 60 ancl ,ocm . ' I'he handles and the top and Ix)[[om of Ihe scabbards of these , word, aTe made of bone covered with iron . T his iro n facing ofren has pierced decoralion so lhal Ihe Ixmc ,how, Ih ro ugh. The handles "fR oman dagge", of lhe caTly empiTe are made in exact ly the same way. T his and the wides pread remains of hoplile swords fw m Ihe Po valley 10 Apulia and from Ihe Adriati,' [() Corsica, wilhoul ",unling the areas such a, Hruttium, Lucania, Ca m p.nia an d Sicily which came direcl ly under Greek influence, leave no c10uhl Iha' Ihis wa' also the primary sWOTd used by Rome and the I.a lin League before lhe introduction of the S panish lype in lhe 3rd century , On t he Capesltano sta lue a small knife is visible a11a~hed to t he fronl of the swt>Td ,eahhard . S imi lar knives, with a blade lenglh of 20- 25cm, have been found lying on to p of th e sword scabbard in the gr",'es al C. mpovalano. So me of the gravc' eon lained iro n daggers complete with their iTon scabba rds and chains for attaching them to , he belt. The blades (}f these weapo n. werc 25-30metim", an axe . "" hen two 'pears .re shown one rna,. rcason . hly ' uppo,e lhat lhey are lhrowable. Ch" ri,,!S arc a regular fealUre of warrior bu rials. On ' he si",lae , hey are usually shown in a ceremonial ~~m te xt and il ",em, unlikely that lhey were u.ed in hattie, e,pecially as fighting hor,emen of,~n appear on the si'ulae, T he Vace clasp show, 'wo hor,~men fi ght ing wi,h spea rs and axes. O ne w~ars a po' helmet but neithe! h. ve shield. A similar un,hid d ~d ho,",e man arme d wilh an axe appears on 'hc C ~ r lO,a , i",la . T his suggest' lha, ar",md JOO Be eavalry did not carry , hields, bu' ' he , hghtiy 1 ", Arnoaldi " ",Ia m sho"-,, a .."alryman , till wearing a I"ll helmel hut armed with two javelin, and . n Argive lype shield , T he Sa mn ;le . Wilh lhe defeal of [he ',loisci, who ()Ccupi~ d ,he L epini ,nd Au, oni hiih which hem mcd in La, ium 10 'he ~a" , the Latin I."ague ~ame into di r"Cl conlact wilh lhe S"m niles alon~ the river Li ri, . S, mnium wa, ,hat area of the ce ntra l highland, hmitc d by the ri"er Sangr o in the non h and the Ofanlo in the soulh and it "-'as with the people of lhis .rea Ih", lhe Samnite war s were fough,- However, , he area o~"upied by tr ihes direc~ l y rd ated to lhe Samnites was for greater. Soon after

500 Re , following ' he collap", of Etr u' _ < main bc:p n in 3Zg and conti"u~d, ..,en wore a brea.. plll' e ,,'hieh L vy con . 0 ' poIlIl'C (~..)" This QOUId be in,eI~r> wou ld prefer an earlie' J a't, "" rc "'..... decoratio n "n 'hee side "f , he cuir~ .., " 'hieh i. a popu l. r Samni' e mo i""late the ' ''ltanisati''n and laet;.. of the S.mnite ar my fro m the jumble nf ."ntr adietor y informati"n ,o:;'' 'n in U,'y an d Dion,.. ius i fr uitl.... u . k, Lh'" call. the d"i,;on. of , he Samni'e army legjon. whcRas. Dion""n.. call. 'ltc-ir banle Ii... a ",,",lam . whieh is ~uaIl Yu...nlighfenifill, In all probabili')' ne11he. ci 'hem had the . ligh'''f idea nf ' br Sarnnn" form. ' ion .nd they ,hc-tcf hegan to m" ve into ' he Balkan" and a' , he beginning of t he 3rd centu ry, laking ad"antage of the lack of strong governmen, in M ace_ donia and T h ra c ~ , t h ~ y ow rr an ho, h tnnntr ie, and spilled over in'o Asia .\ \ inor whe re lhey fi nally sen led in Gala,i a. The lau er are usua lly referre d to a' Gala ta. (Galatians) , During 'he 4th cen lury the G" uls moun' ed a , neco"i on of plundering .. ids in cent ral Italy. u sua lly 'hey wero deflected by , he stronger groups- th o Etru, can" L atins and Samnites-a nd were channelled into Apuli" , where it is po" ihle tha' they I(lunded permanent commun1ltes, T he Romans treated the Ce lts as they , rcated no otheT nali" n , They sy,tematically ma"acrod t hem in nmthern Italy, Sp ain and France , T ne reCnn quo" of the Po valley after lhe H anni balie war wa, carried out with such brutality , hat in t h~ midd le of t h ~ 2nd century Polybius could say , hat t h ~ Celts r~m"i ned only in '. few regions under lhe Alp" . M"" of our knowledge of the Celts unfortunate ly comes to n' only tnrough ,heir eoemies, the G reeks and Roman, lJiod nrus , th~ Sid li" n historian, paints

a ,'ivid picture of these warriors, de sC ing the ir colourf ul clot hes, long Tih mou'tacno, and h,iT that wa, wa,hed with lim e to make it sta nd up like a horse's ma ne, I nitially the Romans were terr illcd hy these huge men who lowered above them , But l"" r, whe n they were able to recognis~ ,nd exp loit the C""llie weakne " e" they became C'lnlemptuou , of tne unruly barbarians , L ivy's accou nl of the Celt ic wars very much refl ects this view But contemptuou, though t h ~ Romans may naw been, under " g(xld general t he CeI" made excellent sold ie" , T hey formed half of Han nibal' s army which for 15 years d" mi nalr... m.... "'"" champion ..""Id ..ep 0cir ..-aJ'< d " IlJrnllC "'a' acted .he dumpi",... on , rue bart>aric f""hion. '...lUJd break imo song. ex,oIling ,he dc-ed. of hi. a""",,'o" and bo3s' ing of hi. ow .....'com r!ishmcn.. ,,hil.. a' ,he ..."'" nme I""mng scorn on ,he c hallenl!"r. T he Ruma "s tw",'u",d . ...' e"l "f 'heir general. "'hi' had a,",er ' ed ,he challenge and killed a Cel.ie ch am pion in 'i ngle comha" They "'rre rewa,ded hy hring pc,miued !O dedic~" ' he ,pu ils (prima ' f'< ,lt a) in the ' em ple "f Jupiter I'c, el,iu. , T herc "'e'C al,o .w ndQ and I""a ,polia , which dcp.:nded on ,he rank of t he winner, Ti, u, Manli us. in ' he 4lh cen' ury, ,e ru'edly "vercamc a gigan,ic Cell and m irpcd h im of hi. golden ' ''''lue, lh u. ""'eivintl- lhe c"lt""me n of T orqualu, The mo.,., ",..ewonhy of th... hen"" "'a' . l at'Cll. C1ludi ....\ lo rttllt" . who \

"r

killed ,I>< G illic chid l. in Viridumaru. in single '~""Nl in 22: IIC. lie "en' un hecome R""""s ......, ...=sful l!"nc,al . tl-l',n.. lI a nnibal during his Clmpaill"" in haly. \I'''''n I>< had killed hi. enemy, ."" C.d'ic "..rnor cu, " lJ his heaod and hung i' frunt his hone 's ned . He ....,.,ld . hen .. rir l he body and hi. oqui,e carry oil l he bloo.J__nerN .poi," ..hil.. he s" ng a racan .,.."" ,hem. '1''''' . poil s ""re ...,Ied 10 , he ....II of h is house. T he htaoh of his fl'lOS( disungu..hcd """"";", "...,.., cmboolmcd in ado' oil. T he head oJ ,he cons,,1 Luciu. Poo,,,mi,,s, ,,'ho "'I' killed 1:>y the Celt. in 'he 1' 0 Yalley in 2 [6. " 'liS d"rla~'Cd in I le...ple. The cxca,~,ion. carried ,lU' II En.remo."" ha,'C r",...,.led lha' 'he "",'ered hc. ,Jo "'e'e fa r more 'ha n meTe , r" phies and hrt:onlC pan of a relig;ou. r;' ual. Al En tr emont bead, we, e d i s rl a~' cd in nic h ~s a",und a .-.: , em"" ial ~ .t ,'w ... . llef,,' e m,,,,ing on 10 a dotai led exami,,,ti,,,, " f Ceh ie eq uipment it m i~hl he helpful '" make a few commcna alx,u' (:': hic warfarc in general It w.. lhl: g< ""..1"rini"" " f ' he ancient o" th" " lha ' lite Cell It,,wod no app' eci, ' i"n "f 1",'1;" ,,,. ,,,a,el\Y, Polybius "''"''"'''' . hem "f h.,'ina: ""ither a r lan ,>/' cam l"'ign ,," r judgemen, in ",,,...:un na: i, . and add. ' hal they did ,,'hate' 'CT .he heal " f I"'" ion a>m-

'0

Ito,..,

manded . Thi .... v giY Ihe impression e tlta' , he Cel.. f""ght a. a rabble. bu' ,he inel", ,,,n of " andards anJ 'ru mpet' alff(>nll l ite Celt,c .",~t. , I>:' '''n on ,he areh of Oranl!" I fairly rigid orga ni... 'iI.... and C........ description of pol., rteranc ,he Vt1'lllpping "'odds of , he Ctll. m , rtftr '0 a do.c:_kni' pltalln. ,,h...-h """ i' can""" ......, bet.. ,he n...rmal Celt ic formalion s........ , bar , hey could i". is full oJ adm ,rali".. f" r .hio Ii... " r and ...y [hal '. Ct...,n in hi. do~'. 7~ )" ~~ bIer. i' was l hi,,,. The " '"" of thc ' -n i. a"".."d 1' P"I~t'iu . and i, ' '''''''n O il a ",litf from ",mllio in n,..,hcrn Italy l ie." ,I>< hornblower i. 'huwn wit h a m und . pinod ,hiold .imil"r 10 ,he ty pe u>cd hy , h" ~av alr y . T ho ,am" ,eulplure ,huw, a " and"rd be.",r wear ing a hor""d l'elliau helmet and carrying a Ji'l in" li,'d }' , haped ""ield, A , imilar .h ield "'0 he ,,,n on ,he 'om!,one of I Roma n aoxilia'}' ,,"ndard hca,-er from Il lod ril " "' Wall. The oddt) ,haro::d .pear"""d at . he I ar~ .!leo,a! b}' PoIlhi... . The hca,"}' infantf)', KOOI"din l '" all , he ancien, sourtt>. " "'" primaril}' . ..-ord>m _

" ........ c......

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...- ,....,.,d,. Tt_ '*"' twO..._ "10 _ _" _2 Tho _of. """"', ..... ....,.,

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.. Colt>< _ .......... ""'" Deu.''''''", ScooIo"" '_~~._ l J 00>Qw ,_",'C" '0 to,,, nt ' hO BD"'''O

n .

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ITALY AND T H E W E ST E RN M ED IT ER RAN EAN

. 250 120 8

hlade did nol come imo fa.hion un. il 'he la,e J .d to lOt cenlune. IOC. Hundred' of Cellic .word. have bee n found of whic h a . m.1I .. mpl( is hown he",. T hey Ofe grouped by the tradi'ion.1 I.. Tone daling >y>lem,,'ilh approxim.'e dalC$ The sword. from Lo Ttr'le I (c. 450250 IIC) have hlades thaI a", ,.,......lIy ~ 55 _nd 6sem long, Num~r I, which has a bbde of lloem. is ..,,,:epo 'ional. Th..... 'WQI"ds a", .n douhle. edged and poin.ed and are of cul~nd thru.t 'ype. The mosl characteris' ic f... 'ure of 'hese .... Iy weal""'" is lheir pronounced dlape . Daggers ....... abo common dunne Ihis period. Theei. hladt. vary from broad, almos' . ....nlrUl.r, ...,.... fO .hin uilello Iypes anod .... ,.........lIy l S- JOCf" in length. Dunng . be I.... Ttnc II period (c. lcrea'IC:d in length umil blades of 7S-lloem were commonplace . Such a .....-d. comp!ele wi.h handle , would "-cish a tilograrn. Alrl>o@;h the early dlape form. con.inued in ,be Ralbns, in .......em Europe ,he chare was modified .o fol_ II-.: dolely the contour of lhe ...."d. Hundred. of 'bese . word. have heen dredged from ,be lake a, Lo T t ne in Sw inefland and although 'hrte are rqoonol dltr......ncn ....hich .ho..- ma,nly in ,he scahbard, lbe Lo T tnc Iype may he accc-pted .. T1c"n do ubled up .Iong eilher enJ , A reeta ngul" iron pla' e the edge to reinfor"" Ih e rim . An ~x wa, na iled . eros, .he fronl a .. wooden . hicld. wcr 1", ened by b.J:j na: . al\.. her ,hield. The or igin of lhi. Iyp"'ure The , imilarilie, be, ween Ihe other c-eremo nials a' Ihey obvious l;- Roman ",.m"" and lhe ('.chic ,hield are """re ,n pr imilive UreMu"um

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ITA L Y A ND T HE

W ES TE R~

M EDITERRANEAN

ch.F" om G," I., th ' ' ;'-1'0 of C,o,., " . W OO" a n ito o 001",,, . od "" , , h" t H" long , w ",~ o,"gs 00 h i, 'ig h' " ip. Swot

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' ......... 80-

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20 kon ChH. - " ..""' ........ s, a--n21 ' '''' hoi...., O,an",. .

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[TALY AND n lE W liS TERN M EDl T ERRAl" EAN

Altl>ough Ihe Cell. had been almo;l dri,'.n OUI f hal )' b)' Ih. fi",' quartet ofille 2nd ",n1ltty II. it, "OC' bttarnt ",id.. preaJ in 'M 'st c..,mury 1lC . R eumple ofo hor""" ~ial hellner ..... found in lhe Thamco at \t"' 1 .. lhe bqinning of ,he 1st cenl"ry Be. A , .. -em tury Celtic chec k piece from Alcoia in eentnl FnnO _ _

A,,,,,......... . ;ghl

COIllle "'hi,h is " rapped on or a comple,e cui,,... deco,," "d in form . This . h lue ",,"not ~ co,,.i' . uCtts. f,,1 form. Stn bo rde." "m.il Celtic . T he

.arlie", ",main. come from Celtic gra,-"" and the Celt. were the gr , iron WOlke.. of the andent world . Severol statue, of w.rrio.... from southern Fr an,,, which have bce f"",. oI. l hc shin , ~ is in II"" M.h II>e fw enc", ohooo-n on the sculplures from fthy ' o Pol ybi.... !>cause they.nll f.......' in lhis fashion whcr~ t he "'her Gouls did nor. They wore the ir troUOCn and light d "",ks.T OO onQO

Tou't>o ,n

f"""" S, G.,.,.. n "'",""m,,""' .. , bom _H~

trom T Somme ' ....In ",",ual

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"" . . - ..................... """"" !IIOn. oars ,ha, ttlc lia.!he arm ~' had 2O,lXlO ""\1llry and ehano... Thi. is ,1"0< I.., ref~r~n,..., ,,, ehariol. being ua" e ~n d,ocovercd in France. (;nfon una' el~' mos, or ,he ,,,,hiclM appea r I" have ~n dlOman,led before buria1. .\\ony ur , he me,al pan. of ehorim. have ~n pre'erved in ,he.. gra" ... Amung ,he ar e art icu la,ed hamessings (""e p. ' 34, 5 . 6 ond t ) .' which con onl)' hav. hee n ",cd feack. 11 ,I>na bl. ' 0 conclude from ,hi, pcN"ive .~ i de nce ,ha, ,he Ceh. indeed prod uc. d lNe cO\'alr y. M any Celti. hur..bi" ha,'e bITn fuull d. These are u'uallj' uf ,he , naUk ')'pe T hesclIlpm r. " n 1', III (u) , how,

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a ""'-an !In,..' lhe Grttk... ,h;, " ",< four_pommelled oaoidle .......-n '" "",Ipout. i. Celtic and ""'" Roman. n.e Gundcouup CI..ldron al.., . ........ ,hr discs ,hoi ,,~ u"",,, 10 O l,ie hones-. Some of .1>cK, made of .. IWI', hov-. bn r nd in nonhern llaly. Thcor f>Ir-. l>e< ,am. ,h. }'(lunger and Ie" di"in~ui,hed men (, ,,,,, , ;,) . nd be hind th ,h

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,. nw pu r ' W!' "!'l l Ir ""n OJ' ~"'''' "IW ,"' ~ ' .x\ '01'''''''' pur ("/"Il ,~ P"'l ."'41 , I' ....oq"l"d h " I ' p>oWJ" 'u,. "..,.... pur JOJ:>J'"l1 ..nw . ,,'.... " pur J" Im n '1:':-1 ." ,"", 981 f*I ""1 ""'" oql 10 "un 'I-:! '000'. .... 'I """''' uodJf "'-1.1. ' UIP-'rl l"'" Jr>dt 'II'" powrr ("'''1) sd!We a c"incidenct ,hal Uvy s iegion, from which 'he hopl;te, had di"lppeartd. eonsislS of 4S units (1.\ Q,di" " in 'he , .~ r line and 15 maniple, t ath in Ihe midd le and fronl line), Allhou g!l the veSliges of the old class 'y" em " iii remain. cI. " es onto'wo . nd th ree seem now 'n he grouped '''gether . nd divided by . ge and not weaith; the younge>! form ,he hastati, those in Ihe p, imo of lifo the pr incip" . " d the oldesl the "iarii Th e rorarii and $am nites Th e I,,'elineers at the f", nt m3Y have beon p. Tl icul..ly desig ned 10 wilh ' tan d and h'eak the force of the Cdtic char ge

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ogn, k~ ,,,to too< arod too' .hields ' 0' ''" 9 "1lainst U...... t0 nOmll>lt'ed. " uo.wly by 'M d>C>ltlOf AI,.. , h. ir .lee Uon tb e co nsu la oppoinltd 2~ mill",,,. .l1bunts. T. n 01 tlint ~ ","', rnbu on. .-i,h ar Ieul ltn m rs ..,rviC", 'h. OIb.. J 4 n.od only ,,, have ....,n fiv. yean ..,nrIc~. Th. fi... tw o .. n,o, 1ribun~. n"mina,~d "er. "ppCf\I1ce. 0I'l an .ppoin..d day etC h y. .. . 11 c IU z. n ligibl e for milit..y .~rv i ce .... mbl~d on ,he Capllol He lt 'h ey were divIded "cord ing ' n p",pe"y T he p'''" '

dozens _'. Itn, ... "'~ na...,.. 'The ""XI group (th~ -";tb ""...... or 0 ....' 400 d..cbm ) ..,,,,.d in the 'nfantry, and th. rich. " ",~d io ,h~ Clvalry The 1,200 men needed for 'h e ,"volry "'~rt ,.Ie"e d hy Ih. c~n .or her" .. Ihe ~.ner" 1 ~n r " l m e n l b . ~ an Th re e hundred of ,helt we re . "ached 10 eh I'gion. A ca,,"lryman b.d to ...... fo, ten ye..o and an Inf.n ,ryman for ,6 yea.. before h. reached 'be.,. of 46. [0 um. or ~. , danger a .. infantryman migh' ho.... 10 ......, lor ao yeats. ~ thooe .UlPbl. fo, 'nfanny >ervi"" hod be.n .epar,u.d 'hey ..... divid.d in,,, ,h~" "U>.. F,om n ch Inbe four m. n "'ere ..Iled of about Ihame age and build . nd btoogh' before ,be trlbll"es. Th~ Iftbunes of lhe I~ g i o n had n", ChOice. , hen ' hc ,,,'ond and third, tb. f" urlh legion taking Ih~ one that wa. !tn. \l'h~ n ,h~ ..cond gtoUP of f"ur was brough' fOnl;a, d tb. . .cond I'Kion hod nUl c boice ond th. firs, legio n look ,he man that "'.. I. ft. So th~ ... 10o ronhnutd unr~ 4.200 had been d .... n lor each Iepon, In lim.. of n ceptlonal danKer lhe legio n .,rt""h .... raiKd ,,, S.ooo. II m... , bt p" in 'ed Oot lhat .Is. .. b... Polybiu. st" te. ,hal ' he leilon .tr. n ~lb ...... 4.001I Infantry and 200 c..alry an d ,h. , ,hi' was ra ised to S,O inf,n try .n d 300 OG c, ""l ry In lim o f gre.. d a n~. r. It . ..ms unfair 10 day that f'o lyblu, i. co n" adicling him.elf, U 'he.. flKUIC. mus' ha\lt' ... ri.d con.idenbl,. Once . h nrolm.nl had b.... compled . be oalh . 'U r. ke n One m Iec ted bJ rio. t" b.. nts to co m. r" d ond ..... r ' 0 obey hi. office nd .."".... th.i, orde far .. in hi. power. The o'he 'he n com< fo""a,d on. 01 'imnd ''''Ort th.t they would do ' he . am. . . th< ftrst man ('Idem in mi l Th. ,,' hunc. then g. Y< a !>IOIer and despatched 'h.m When 'h. y anived a' 'b. rend..vou, Ihey we .. " n cr mo rt d ivIde d Int o

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each .~oo>Iron ~ lellOn lh. younK'" and 1'00"" 1.l00 fo rmed lh. I!~hr armed (wlim), Of ,h. o,her 3,000 ,he ~ " u n ~ . S1 UOO formed th. first line of h vy Inf, ntry (ha" M i) . tho. e in th. prime of Ilf. form. d th. second line (p.ine;pe,) . [.0 1.~on ."ong an d tb. otdeS! formed 'he ' hlrd line (,,".rii or pilr) _ Re~rdl ... of lh..... ot lbe letion. the .ruori; weft al..ays _ ..",ng 1lle olh.. 1rOOpf _ft increaoed prnporti(>tuoltly. From .och of th.... voups. -";,h ,bt nce pllon of ,h. ~d". ,h e 'n bune. . I"" ,ed 'en crn' u" on......o in tum .ach nomln ote d 0 p. rtner who ""as .1.0 called 0 ce nturion Were caUed p, ia. 0" 0.1 po"" i" r, ' he elH ' ed Ce nturl"," he lng lilt p.;o, centurion), The fin t centu rio n .ltcted In the le~l o n (p.;.. . . , il".) had . . . ., wit h 'he tribune. on the milillry cnu ncil. Th. cen,urlon o "He cbn.. n for lh.l r ....dine... Th. cen '.."on. ~.cb aI' _ po' nted a ....gu ..d Om etT (.....ri..) Polyblu. catt. ,Ilem ". ,,,,~i, .quati..g them "lIh the ...' ranke.. in ",. Gftd ..m,ca. The lribun~. and crnlOriou. divid. d .ach d .., (Jt4Har;, " in, ;, .. a nd "i 4d ;) in to lt n unllS (m. n lpl.. ) wh lionally one mample '" ha>ta'i, " "e of pn~,ip0 .......... """"" piuO 00 _ ,

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RO.\\ E n S- I40 Be THIi ROMA '\ A R.\l Y "e

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guUing a nJa[] described by Livy in th e ' econd .\ \acedonian war of 200-1 97 6e thro" n back TI,e e. rlieS! ex,mpl.. of the n" ' tanged type were found at Te l' mon in southern Etruria, pro bably from the banle to ught there ,,, n s >lC Th ~ , e were ;,ery d lOrt weapo ns , o, - 35em lo ng, Sim ilar s ho rt "",ap"ca,,"r. A re c ...,,,",,,

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"om 1""'''''1 ~_,"_ 3 encamped. A, the cen,,,, of Ihi. .' I~d",rllan s~ ..... ,l' umi"l into blink line the lribu ne >mpanicd the nn_ ","ds ""re .,..tahli.hed he could ma.k guard ro make sure the mute "-as dear OOllhe It"" for ,he dllCh and rampart. ~. Each maniple "liS ollourd of ,he Offlturiom ...-Ito .."re spccilkally OCClioon of lhe lkfencn, The a nt .. rion> eho.ll"'! Wl.h the duty of sclting ,he rhecked tlu. the: wod " 'as done pr.... site of 'he e"""",pment " "Cre oent on pe.ly " 'h, l11 t"" tribu"",, su pe.yiselfcr CO'"Cf T he hagpge InUn " 'u plactd behind 10 lhe .......y and had to be dose to lbe line of the rampan (""/' _). The .'alCf. wli..., ""',ahy and half the heaty H" 'ing decided ",here the ci< ,ns ed 10 which ..ake; no. "... i, e.,y t" I'u ll '"'" one by itself. A. the)- "'t'rc planted ,efl' dose toget"'" il " .... difficult for more lhon one a"ack.. to .... hold of . he same .. ake , and the!' """,ld g:osh ,heic ""noJ. , ry ing to oJ '0 O O e the d. k ncc. wrre 'ecure , the " w ldi.rs could set up thr com p , The 1a~"Ul of , he ",,-m l" w"' alway. lbe ... ~ and ",'er)' man kne'" ",aJi, and on cit"'" .ide of ,be The eavalf}' ,,'cIC rnc"",ped ,,""" b)' ' u r""" f.ei ng , he ",'~ 1"a~'on~ . the Ii,,, W r m a being neacost thr p rueluri" m and t tbe rampart_ T he thr tentll neK """,', "'ere encamped bact '" hack 10> ,he ca,..lf}' "i,h II>< li", manipk """'est tbe ""atl....t_. Th... the JWi..... of ..... 11 Ieg;.,n Wt>Uld be the nearnt centurion 10> the general'. trnt. In ftunt of ,be Icn" of ,he """,n ran another rood 15m wide . lo ng which the p ri~ dp .. were .pea... The space beh,nd the tribunes' ICO" on ei,he. side of the 1"_ '''''''''' ".... used ror , he mark ct ([""",) on one ,it wcre encamped ""yond 'he ~,,,..,,""'''' and I"'h'" on either side. They wo" in " " " tant attcnd.n,,,

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I T A L Y ASD T H E WESTER!>: MEDl T ERRAl'EAS

on the ~om u l. T he ""t or the ~ .val , y and infant ' y or the exm w rdinarii w... encamped behind 'he /W!Utorium ; n I similar fa, hion [he Ofl> '" .... lacao 01 ..... - . . . 7 ... """" '''POn hom N"""",;. >pa;"

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"l ua.., ,ncludlng IU )' ....'P"'. T I",y "'..,.., m:odc of "'~'M' and M id ~igh, men and 'MIf "'luip"",n" Otti,..,n' ,en,s '" ",-ell", ' huoc: of 1qJonor.... are ,ho""n an Trajan's Column Al'O\Ind , he .. hol~ a",. marked ou, for ,he ....mp a,. d, .. ance-of zoot, from lb< 'en', , he dneh :and palnak "'..,..,f~,

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Ca m pdu.;oes Ai l... en,,,,,,,,hlng ,he amp ,he lribu.,.,. admini..ered 'M o," h indi" idUlllly '0 ill ....i, hin , he camp includ ,ng ,he .~,..,.. Each ....n .""'" >leal ""' hing fro m the camp .nd '" hri ng an)~ hing It< fou nd the ' rihu"", . Th~ cam p dUllC'S ....e re d1\'i. ,he guard, . tread}' men' k,ned , . , nigh, ,he,. "'e'e u,ua ll)' th"", pieke.. gua,d ing the " ore, " the qu" ",,,.-iu,,, and ,wo a' the [e"l> or .ach of the I0 v"lun,ee n be1id~ 'he ~,,,",,... and 1_.... A gUllrd ""'" 21$0 1l 10 the tden tab ln.

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called hi. friend. t" ,,'nne" i nd W< wall. A man who ,",cd the life "f anolher ,oldier . wh etheT eiti>;en or all}', wa' ,:",wne d with an oak wreath (carm ll' ci~ica ) h )' the man he haotDy on such .n ~ " .... ded peat. An infan,ryn>an,,'hohad t illed and ..riJ'PCd an e...my =ei\'! cup. H....... t... ppins> ""..., ."..r.tN to .he ,,",.11;' for .imilar f"",o,

"""ld otter _ r,fie""" each morning and ha"e lhe orom> r""d by ,he aug........1to ...... t>m!"'nied lhe ;ormy bcr""c offering " banle. \I'hen t>auk had bodcned d)'no mi",' . l''''''h m.n had hto regul a' j'>l nt "",ms to he d..illned for jll" ' h" placc in ,he ra nk and fi le ;u,,~, h. had purrtI " rde. heh ind " hod~ e of

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RO .\tE Zn -l40 T ilE RO.'IA. i AR.'I" ' " "

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T HE G REA T W AR S R~ no..' """, ,,>lIed , he " 'hole of renin.uw h al )'. The Iqtions .... d f~d up to the .\I... edonian phaLlnx undn" the DJmmand of one of , he e rro.,n , ge....r.oI. of tbe a"'-->en, ....,.-Id a"d had tha' they "'e'e ellUal .")'thi ng Ih., wor ld '''old p, ,>d o, e. In the ..lUth ,h" Roma" , n" ..' p;,,,,d ,he "rai" of ,l,tn,ioa to Si.-il)', h ..... ine...i,. hk tho' Rome'.npansion ..,."h_ ..-ards """,Id Mna: her inlo heood-on coIl ~" ..',h , he gtn'n' .......1 0( ,he . deriO~ "'ou " ' '11 'I l!.~ 'WI'I' oh: 'OJ "", '" ~'II pu y 01 p"~eu"w pue IJ"l [.1 owoJun, ~ ~p.w 'U"W0'll ~ 'II 0>< UI '.OIUOIO' ~ru"d ' 'II JO lUelJWI' 01 AJl 01 P'P'~'P "'Ill ' '']1u.,u~w _, :>I0" JO .(~ Id" p I" pJq 01 AJ I '" P~PlO~p ,"'II puo ''11 I\I~Y 0) " ' " 'I Plno" ""\11 '"Il' P>S\I"~' "'OU SU"j Uj~ ",! IJ 13J ~IlJ, '>sudJns "q .' P 10ld -wm ,u",mS" 'l lJ":) ~'Il ~OOI \I~! 'I'" ~Il' jO . ," ~\ll 01 " lm"W , np , ' a,,, SI\I,L '">S ''l l JO I,,,, um w~Il ' Su",,8 ','''''OA"u' \I~'dWo " ~ un", 'ppo ' \11 nu "U ,, ~" PUg on~ I ' W JO J ln:l' ' 1]1 U! " ~ II )lUnd ~Il' p,Sdu, J>pu,"w~, 'Ill '~~n.ll' :l'UI"'-l M" lq" ,no'l" '" '""lU '~"\ll - '~J ' \ll 01 IPJ ' ' In,u,'' . Il ' -'' ' >uo PU" ' " d ' 4' ">'I'JO L' ISJ!! ''l,L ''l ' nI'" P'I '"' muwoli >\11 u>w pue p." p' UO' - " ~ S U " JO 10'11 ~,\I"" W J1>'1l 'Ill.~P~UI"J I - [[1

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SI," P sue wo}! ~Il' ""'I''''' UO IU I:l'"'llJ "J >'11 "Ul ~~" ~) U~'I~ ou po,,,, .I'll' ,"', ,, p"u~uodx> _UI Il 11M l"\ll :,Iu "' I~'"tI ' p'\I~u n"1 '" ," ' UI\I' 0'" JO l'~II " ' 'IIUOW O'"'U!Illl ''' pUR P P" W 0 st p ~, n ," OU ' "," sl'll P;'lnld "~ "''''-l pue pu nm:l'u UUJ pU'l ro'Il' ' LUn,1 ~41 Je ~UO AIP jS 01 :lUI""" ,' OJ~ ," muw"li ' 41 u>'I," 'ISllU J j ~S ISJ!l ~'ll :lU!Jn O 'u" ~Il ' '" '~"I 0'1" IGnW "~'II SWJ~I len b~ uo ~, odw,,' 01 ~J~ ," A~IlIJ ' I"'l l ,u ~ wo li ~'II 01 , e ~p ,~,,, ' I '''01 u''''-l P~'I , e\ll 'U , 01 mww ' wo' P~U '"~" " U~,," PU" "lell pue " l'~I S -'0 WO)! 9J" IlJ . \l '.';P P ld wo, P>JOU ~ I OJ" ,"" m ,,, "\11" ~'Il U.>lJO pUR ;>" u' p~'OJcI u,~,~ s, e I" " 1l~"jPv-'d '! ,n!q,'lod ' " " pnl' SI'II uI ',,",u' Pyuoo _U" 'I'! '" ' P;)l[U :>q ' 4 u", , n ,q" lon'ed Sardinia in q nical dioreprd of the 11'Cl1}lhal she had j\lOl .worn. Can hagc's sit ualion ...... deore n,~ . S Ol only had . he loot .n her ~ off ,he Italian """"' but in .... ~ffon. 10 KUin her posi.ion in Sicil~ .be had been comrell~d 10 diven all her reoouroeo 10 , he i.l~n d and ,n conocque""" 1"'1 her v~rnmc n t ...hich had bellay~d , he ar my in Sici ly, " !f"'ed hi. serYi"". f" r , h~ r. D T HE W ES TERS MED ITERR AS E....N '

ellnie, at Rhod c and Emporia0,000 African infan,ry, 1OPOO Span"h inf.n,ry, 6,000 Swni _ dian cavalry an,J 6,000 S pani. h "",'alry, the expe-ndable ekmen,a being S pani.h. The "",jon'y o f ,Itt 't'OOP' lighting f.,.- tltt < .ymhol. ap""ar , horr ,ul ' and -thrust sword, They wore , hoTt white tunics bord ered Wil h pur ple (by ,hi, he probably mean, cr im, on), Scu lplUre, from Osuna in , ,,ulh em Spain show "-"Trio" ,,-ho fit Po lybiu,' description well. A seoond type of infantry who were probably iaveli neers are me" ' ioned hy D;od oru, _ Tn~ y are ar med wit h round shield' a" d "ppe" to be the s.me as the light ly ar med troops c.lled w n rw i by C.e,.r, Li,'y u sc, lhis wotd to describe !he pe lm", of Philip V', ",m y_ T he, e are ai'" shown on l he O,u na relids_ Their shields h.-'e a eentr. 1 bms and ' hey wear louse moics which come dow n to june , and in order to .void encount ering him while he was tryin~ to cross , he river he continued in a n o rt h . ea S! ~ rl y dl re ~tio n, planning 10 cwss nca r ;>,vig_ non and : umidian c'aval, y with orders 10 eros, lhe Durance and chec k the whereabout< and numbe" of lhe Romans Meanwhile Som~ Cch ic chieft ains who had ","'sed lhe Alps 10 meet lhe army we' e introduced 10 lhe soldie". They eneoura~ed the trOOp', telling them of the welcome and lhe Ixx,ty lhat . w.i ,e d them be yond lhe Alps, and pfOmi'ed 10 lead them by an ea,y wule across ,he mountains, Amid con Hicting Teport' Scipio had , ent our his c",'alry I reconnoitre . When the K umidians encountered them lhey naturally wilh_ drew at to p speed to repofl to Hanniba l. T he Ro m~n c. ,'alr y, interpreting lhi , wit hdrawal a, Highl, claimed a ,'ietory and pursued the :-J umid ian, to within sight of the camp on lh e ea" ,ide of the Rh6ne befor e returning at to p spee d to make a Teport lu Sdpio, Ha nnibal , bI t.-""o ,... ,_ and " ' _ . . , , _ ....,. 'h." Quo" _ ' ... ",ot.' Tho ..""""" _ . u""",,,,.......

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T H E W ESTER S MEDI T ERR A:SEA N

pas""d t ne Cel(i~ 'I rong nold' a I (;norg~' and Embrun which had been paid off (he previous winter and was approaching the junction of (hc (iuil . Here the}' were met by nativ e" fm m higher up tht "a lley , tarryin~ olive branche, and wrea, h, a, signs of friendsh ip, T hese were pm hal>l y willow hran~hcs, which arc plentiful in t l> i, area wherea, oli.'e lree s are not . The nali, 'c, otfe reJ guide the . rmy along the n e ~ t part icu larl y difficult stretch of lhe roUle , Han nil>al wa, , m picious bUI felt il be st to .c~e pt (I> eir offcr. A , a precaution he placed lh e ca" alry.t (I> e head of (he co lu m n and lhe infant r y at the h ac ~, wi(1) , he I>aggage train in (he ce ntre For , everal day' (he ar m y had been marching lhrough open ~ oun t r y, I>U( now the mountains began to ~rowd in again . On (he eighlh day of the .,,;ent they r eac h ~d the poim ju,t nor th of mod ern I'Ar gcntiere_I. _lk osee, where the D urance pass e, th' ough a narr ow go rge, Here the ro ad take , to the hill_ , ide' and once more lhe lroop, were , tru ng out along a narrOw path , T he ar my wa, carr yin g wit h it an im me nse amo unt of go ld Hl P" y for lhe

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mer cenarie' Hannib" 1 planned 10 hire in Italy, Fo r sa fc ~ e e p i ng thi, " 'as l>! l() O Sp ain. T ho route over the Alp, to Spain was superseded in about itS BC hy the Rom. n Vi. Domilia. Th is po ses the que" ion weTe the Vi. D omiti nd the Tome of Her~uks one and the , arne ' T he suggest ion that t he Romans eut an en, irely new route thro ugh the Alps when they buill the Via Dmnitia is d early ludicro u,. T bi, wa, ne ither pr"Cl i~a l nor the lhmlan way T he easiest way would have . Iready been e". bli, hed hy " .vellers and merchants who had ' ",dden thi, route for ttnlUries. The Romans would merdy have improved and paved wha t was . lrc. d y there. T his ro.d is the lowest , widesl md eas;est TOu te thTt)ugh the Alpo,.,.iog the p,"cip ito ", _cent the re is, perm"en ' '. nd, """ or,. where '0' rnoy , ,,,nc r." CO"""" (I,tt ' M m,,,,-," of p'c'u" l

alx,u t the time of Ilannih. l_ m nl'Trm thi , whcn he rcree. t() an Alpine route on which one h, d to pay" toll to the CdlO-Liguri, n people living along it. J"hi, mu " be a Tefere nce 10 the , arne sou, hern route , a, the l. iguTian, c" uld hardly oc e(}nnected with a nOr( her n mute. It may the refore be st ; ted t h.t thore wa' a wd l_k nown rOU,e fro m Spain a CTOSS t he Alps u' Ita l;- which ",as in use "t the time of Ha nnihal and that it followed the sam e route a, the Roma n Via Dom itia.

l'o(,'biu' Vol. ! , p. 373 and Vol, []!, p. 76h), T h ~ rOule of t he Roman t o. d ca n be d early traC on the we>!ern 'ed , ide orthe Rh6 ne between ...I,mtpd lier and N imes. H ere it fo llows the ridge of high gTound ; kirl ing ,he coas ta l ma"he, .bout nine kilome tTe' fro m the pre, ent coa.lI ino. \X' hen we take into acrot",t the clim. t ic cond ition, de, cribed above, the pos ition of the road is n", ' urpri' ing. E.'en tod. ;, the coast is m. " hy Tbe ,'oa" line i, consta n ,l}' c ha ng i n~ as the Rhone bring. down an estim.ted 20,000,000 tonnes of sill Pu lybiu s' tb r ee ~ h ec k poin'. y~ar . M ost of tbi, i, caTried westward , In hi, acco um of ,he journey from the fm ming red, . nd lag()()n, . 11 ,h~ w. y Pj-"Tenee' to the Po valley Polybius gives along the ~O"' t to S pain . I n prehi" ClTic u. three ~'heckpo i nts: th e h rSl i, the tim.. the coas t would have beon milc h roaJ fro m the Pyronees 10 the Rh6 ne; nearcr , he road, the 'ec"nd i, a >!t etch of land called the Polyhim gi,-e' us , et of Jistances ' Island' whi says that tho road mu ltiple. of eight .oM "'.C, ,-,d "'on"",. '" ' 'otO m".... "" "m.o k OIOCkl ,,,,,

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RO ME

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B(;

TI lE GREAT WARS

I b nniN I ",ok he mon, h, [ 0 reach Italy from Ca r1a,na. ll e [he rerore left csos""d a, , he The di.. a "C' from f..... pooiac (Am C --anagena. abou[ [he midd l. or M ay. p wia ' " lkaucaire can be p " ged 'Iocre is ... , " ... y h" wuld hn e kaCbc-d from lbe Roman im perial itinerann. , he R hOne by e". ly J"I)'. A' "." di. _ It i. ' 9'J R< n mlln ur 29 5km . ruool did .. ...,n fn. I lannil>al' . choice of crossing not hear of ScipiO" pre""ncc a' the poinl a' Avignon he . in , he movement mOUlh of.he RMne un'il afle r !>e had (or ra,her la"k nf m,>Vemcn') or Scipio. w.,ed ,he ,i" er , I lere h. i. on"e ag. in Poiybiuo ,elis us , hal Scipio ,c' , ail in r gini a" bt, a hair ' , h,nd!h . If Scipio f.miliar wilh l>t h lhe newl}' introouced reached [he Rh6"" earlier , !!>cn HanJulian t'O k-ndar and ,he earlier Ro.....n nihal knew al>""" [hII, tbe lq:ionI "'. re close of J"ne , A_her problem .. puoN by ,be lxhind . hem and rur [hr. raoon he limine of Ihnn,I>aI . am,-"I ,,' . be .ba~d hi. rlan ... rol""" ,he rou ,e RhOne . Poly"'''' .. ~-. ,...., he reached or Hen:ule-o anJ ,"" ead .umed up!be sumrn.i. of the A I", 'dooere w., a ron,in",,,,. mi~ra!ion do"'n t!>e Roo"" \'Illq .. ~,,,:h tri be pu.heJ. he nex, une f"rth.r do,""n T he. e muS! ha,'c also been in.er- lfiN I ...... A. ,he .im~ of HanniNI .... ca n"", e"en be cen ain ,lUI, , he IId " e[ii had o",:u p;" d S..itzerland ..,i, h [he " phno,'a1 , ha[ IOu", haee

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H annibal in 'w ned Ie a diopone in ,he ' ls1anJ. This hi. led oome """"""",,[on w r"",,"1 [be area bn"... n ,he I ...... and t he RM ne .. duri nl!:' , he .m('li", ,his ...... , he hoIne or , be .-\llobrt:>in. and Pol)'billl ""pressl~' Hannr l>otl later had ,rouble ,,';[ 1'0 [he .-\llottrogn. Hu[ a. " " ....,c """n, i. is Im!'< ....nd :u~ .. btg a. t l>< S il< llelta II>< oizc an I>< illnorN. 11 " impossi ble '0 com"",n. on ,I>< P"f'tlla. ion-o"" con only poi nl 10,1>< a~. A, fo.- th ~ abundantt of cum, w hil~ il must I>e admllt ~ d lh:.>t lhe Aill"e. a,..,. is mo"e fe rt ile, Ih~ lse..~ arc a, t>< Chan........ ;\b.. if and II>< .\ Ionl du OUt. In addilion i. .. p....ecIed by II>< La k ~ of Bout,n and if< ma.."'" ..-hlCh "'en today ocrveh 10 . h< bonk. of Ih< R.........,.

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1"'1 I'" '00"" \e>< himself e'o>""d " h e paso' . II i' de ription of Ih e .ol,lief< ,Ii di n~ O il Ih~ congealed , n" w corro borate' t hi' ;t is 100 \'ivid to hoc , ""'nnd- hand . l'rom the Greek hi"",i.n, ...;o" n' u it I"",ihle 10 d ... .., ..,v~ r. 1 du." Olh e ide n, ilY of II>< pa," , The ' ix main d ..... are h'led helow ' I. T he ...... should Ito, ddik ...i lhi n do )" , maKh 01' i.. ..."''''il _ Th;, mUS! be ..... lhan :t< heigh. of Ih< pau. PoIybtu> sa), 1"'1 tl>< """... of the Alp' ...-.:K '''''''''-em'CKd . 1I 1h< )"CI" rou nd. " ... n hi: mne-s ' hit .. at~mcn. h< mool be incl uding .... 10..''''' ras-scs , u.h as t he .\ lonlg e"",\"Te and th~ L ittle S, Iktnat d a, these an: lhe only passe, in Ihe w ,," l ~'n Alp' that we knn '" We'~ in u," . 1 Ihi. time, Thi' w"uld accnrd well wit h I I II, l."m hs

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S. T he far ' ide of II>< p;o" . """ld he Ihlft d.~, ma... h (< fbI l.Ind , " 0 ... ' hould be aN< '" OC'C haly frum lhe of , ... pus. Only Ih< """en main claiman.. need on be ~""m i ... d here. ( A ) The Col de La ..,he (alt, 1.9';ttm ) til' only ..-I,,;"'" 2 and S. h . a~" run. fm m no rt h_....... . o IlOUlh-eI. , II;, l'h~ CI d~ la T r.'. roelle (alt. 2,9 14m ). T hi. i. lhe net! in ",lo,i"n '0 I"" .\ lon'ge""'""'. The", il room for H.nnibal,,, cam p his onn y on ,he p"ss, The axis of ,he pas l il direc,ly """,h_ non h. It has an u,,,,mell' precipi'ous de..en'. ,E) Col du Clal'ier (olt. J,4NJm), Thi, fits only c"ndi,;,,", and J T he ,,,,,..ing i, made t",m ,he nor th- we" 'n ,outhc",'. H the I'rcvinu, year's , no".-

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01I di mh tM pa,h up 'M d ill f..... from ,he valley of ,he Ambin. It has I Sleq) bu, no;>( I""ciri'''''' ~ n' . .\\y w if~ and I ..... ou, ....). ~ndinc Ihi o pau In .he a",,,mn of '96lI, fin.olly ~ndi ... by- , be dried_ Ul'''''''''' bfttl: ,he: ri,t,. ~I ueh .... hccn maJe of ,he ri ,'e,. Some " 'an, tU make i' ' he Rh6 ne, " l hcr< 'he Sh r. , and o' her< a mix,ure of lhe R hI\ne and at>O! her ri ver , T he JI""",n, " ri,,... . Wi lh 110 l imercstinil ,,, note ho... od .", oommc-",alO" Iu,-e been ron--cd to w e Hannibal c",fote the "",d had t" go over the hilk Dc

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Gri"""", in 'JlUt ot ,hoe fau, to nq"' io. e ,hoc dilficull gorge< ol the D rac and il " as ........., ,lut , ..., Allob""lC' 'occu pied ,he t t y poin', ab,"'t ,hoe vinc. F.om .he ~,,,.~.. "I the Drac the a. my made go"d p'rough, them do,,n in,o lhoc "allty .r ,lit; Dur. ..... I"-",.ihl)' nca r Eml>.un _ . distanc"" of ."" " t 9Okm. From I", .\ tur i. 'M ""01 ol the individual .lis.....,.....

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~rsc . He rcn like Stndoolla. F ur_ .her.......... Jl PIacen. ia .... al Pia..-.:nza. Polybi ",' "' n. of lhe a" bocqucnl hatlk of Tr~bbia mak... no """",,. On Ihi. basi s , be aUlhur has no hesitali"n in pla"i n~ 1'1.~enlja al S"adclla. S~ i