grammar notes - touchstone 2

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Unit 1 – Lesson A Grammar Simple present and present of be” (review) (Student's Book p. 3.) This lesson reviews simple affirmative and negative statements, yes-no questions, short answers, and information questions with be” and other verbs. Form Check the tense chart at the end of this document Use The simple present is mainly used for: • repeated activities and routines (e.g. We usually go out on Thursdays.). • permanent states, or things that are true all the time (e.g. I have a brother. I'm from Tokyo.) . • verbs for expressing likes and dislikes (e.g. I hate mornings.) . Unit 1 – Lesson B Grammar Responses with too and either (Student's Book p. 4) The chart in the lesson introduces short responses to affirmative and negative statements using too and either. Form • Use too or Me too to respond to affirmative statements: A: I'm allergic to horses. B:I am too. / Me too. A: I watch pro soccer. B: I do too. / Me too. A: I can shop for hours! B:I can too. / Me too. • Use either or Me neither to respond to negative statements: A: I'm not an animal lover. B:I'm not either. / Me neither. A: I don't watch much television. B:I don't either. / Me neither. A: I can't afford anything new. B:I can't either. / Me neither. Use

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Grammar Notes - Touchstone 2

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Unit 1 Lesson A

Grammar Simple present and present of be (review) (Student's Book p. 3.)

This lesson reviews simple affirmative and negative statements, yes-no questions, short answers, and information questions with be and other verbs.

FormCheck the tense chart at the end of this document

UseThe simple present is mainly used for: repeated activities and routines (e.g. We usually go out on Thursdays.). permanent states, or things that are true all the time (e.g. I have a brother. I'm from Tokyo.) . verbs for expressing likes and dislikes (e.g. I hate mornings.) .

Unit 1 Lesson B

Grammar Responses with too and either (Student's Book p. 4)The chart in the lesson introduces short responses to affirmative and negative statements using too and either.

Form Use too or Me too to respond to affirmative statements:A: I'm allergic to horses. B:I am too. / Me too.A: I watch pro soccer. B: I do too. / Me too.A: I can shop for hours! B:I can too. / Me too.

Use either or Me neither to respond to negative statements:A: I'm not an animal lover. B:I'm not either. / Me neither.A: I don't watch much television. B:I don't either. / Me neither.A: I can't afford anything new. B:I can't either. / Me neither.

Use These responses show you have something in common with or agree with someone.

Unit 2 - Lesson A

Grammar Verb forms (Student's Book p. 13.)

This lesson focuses on verb forms after other verbs. The lesson reviews the modal verb can / can't. It also reviews the verbs following love, like, hate, prefer, would like with to-infinitives and the use of the Verbing form (gerunds) after them. It also presents the Verb-ing form (gerunds) after prepositions.

Form can / can't subject +can+ (V1)

can't

Examples: I can draw. I can't paint.

love, like, hate, prefer, would like = (d like)

love

like

subject +hate+ to + (V1)

prefer

would like = (d like)

Examples:I like / love / hate to spend money.I prefer to watch TV.I'd like to learn a new language.

love, like, hate, prefer, enjoy

love

like

subject +hate+ V-ing (gerund)

prefer

enjoy

Example:I love / like / hate / enjoy swimming.

PrepositionsAfter prepositions, use the V-ing (gerund) form.I'm good at drawing cartoons.

Unit 2 Lesson B

Grammar Object pronouns ( Student's Book p. 15.)

The subject pronouns: Iyouhesheitwethey

The object pronounsmeyouhimheritusthem

In statements, subject pronouns usually come before the verb; object pronouns usually come after a verb or preposition.

Grammar Everybody /everyone, nobody / no one

Everybody, everyone, nobody and no one are pronouns. When they are used as subjects, they take a singular verb: Example: Everybody likes mysteries. Nobody is coming tomorrow

They are also used as objects: Example: He reads his poem to everyone.

Unit 3 Lesson A

Grammar Simple present and present continuous ( Student's Book p. 23.)

FormPresent simple

Check the tense chart at the end of this document

Present continuous

Check the tense chart at the end of this document

Use The present simple is used to talk about regular or repeated events or routines (e.g. We exercise six days a week.) and situations that are true all the time (e.g. I eat everything I want.).

The present continuous is used for activities and events that are temporary, or going on "around now" (e.g. I'm trying to lose weight.). It is also used for activities that are going on at the time of speaking (e.g. I'm running to class.).

Verbs such as like, love, know, want, and need which describe permanent situations, mental processes, and feelings - are usually not used with the present continuous.( Im wanting water.)

Unit 3 Lesson B

Grammar Joining clauses with if and when ( Student's Book p. 25.)

In this lesson when means whenever or every time (e.g. When I have a sore throat, I drink tea with honey.).

If/when clauses can come first in the sentence or after the main clause. If they are first, the two parts of the sentence are separated by a comma.

Example: If I have a headache , I take an aspirin. When I have a headache , I take an aspirin.

If they are after the main clause, the two parts of the sentence are not separated by a comma.

Example: I take an aspirin if I have a headache. I take an aspirin when I have a headache.

Unit 4 Lesson A

Grammar Future with going to ( Student's Book p. 35.) be + going to + V1 is one of the most common ways used to talk about the future.

Form Statements

subject + be + going to + V1We're going to go out for dinner.

Yes-No questionsbe + subject + going to + V1?Are you going to have a big wedding? Information questionsquestion word + be + subject + going to + V1 V1?What are you going to do for Bid?

Use Be + going to is used to talk about personal plans and intentions, especially when a person has already made a decision to do something.I'm going to buy Mom something special.

Be + going to is used to make predictions about future actions or events, especially when the person has reasons or evidence to predict them.She's going to be a great lawyer.It's going to rain.

****************************Grammar Indirect objects ( Student's Book p. 35.)The chart on page 35 shows the word order for sentences with two objects: a direct object and an indirect object.Example: I'm going to buy my mother a necklace indirect object + direct object

In the sentence I'm going to buy my mother a necklace, the indirect object is my mother; the direct object is a necklace. The indirect object comes first. The indirect object is often the name of the person who receives the action.

The person receiving the action (indirect object) can come after the direct object, but a preposition is used in this case (e.g. to or for).

Example: I'm going to buy a necklace for my mother direct object + preposition + indirect object

FormObject pronouns are used for indirect objects.I'm going to give my parents a card.I'm going to send them a card.

The school is going to give our class a graduation party.The school is going to give us a graduation party.

Unit 4 Lesson B

Grammar Present continuous for the future; going to ( Student's Book p. 37.)

This lesson introduces another way of talking about the future: using the present continuous.

People often use the present continuous to talk about arrangements that they have already made.What are you doing for National Day? = What arrangements have you made?

Going to suggests the idea of intentions.What are you going to do for National Day? = What do you intend or plan to do?

Going to, but not the present continuous, can also be used to talk about predictions of events.It's going to snow. = predictionIt's snowing. = ongoing action

Unit 5 Lesson A

Grammar be born ( Student's Book p. 45.)The expression be born is used to review the past of be.

Subject+ was/were+ born Example: I was born in 1990. They were born in Jeddah.

Grammar Simple past (review)( Student's Book p. 45.)This lesson reviews simple past affirmative and negative statements, yes-no questions, and information questions with be and other verbs.

FormCheck the tense chart at the end of this document

UseThe simple past is generally used: to talk about single or repeated actions, events, and situations in a definite, finished time in the past.Example: As a child, I spoke Chinese at home.

with a past time expression.Example: I lived there from 1997 to 1999 / until I was five.

Grammar Time expressions ( Student's Book p. 45.)The time expressions in the chart express the duration of events and points in time in the past.

Form for for + a period of time (e.g. six years / a long time)Example: I lived there for six years / a long time.

in in + a specific point in time (e.g. month / year)Example: We moved in May / in 2004.

from __ to __ from __ to __ + specific points in time (e.g. months / years)Example: I taught there from May to July. / We lived in Brazil from 1986 to 1992.

ago time expression + ago (e.g. ten years ago, three days ago)Example: My family moved to the United States ten years ago. until until + clause with a specific point in timeExample: We lived there until I was six.

until until + a specific point in time (e.g. year / month)Example: We lived there until 1992 / February.

then / (and then)(and) then + a sentence / clauseExample: We lived in Brazil. Then we moved to the U.S.Example: We lived in Brazil, and then we moved to the U.S.

when when + clause with a specific point in timeExample: We left when I was six.

Use (for) long(For) long is used in questions and negative sentences, but not in affirmative sentences. In affirmative sentences, (for) a long time is used.

Examples:Did you live there (for) long?We didn't live there (for) long.We lived there (for) a long time.

Unit 5 Lesson B

Grammar Determiners ( Student's Book p. 46.)The determiners all, most, a lot of, some, few, no, and none are also called "quantifiers." They are used before nouns to say how much or how many of something we are talking about.

Form General statements (determiner + noun) When all, most, some, and a few are used to talk about people or things in general, they are used without of :all / most / a lot of /some / a few / no + plural noun

Examples:

All high schools have math teachers.Most Canadians speak English.A lot of people don't like math.A few people get scholarships.No students like exams.

(Note: No can also be - followed by a singular noun [e.g. No student likes exams.] .)

Specific statements (determiner + of + determiner + noun)When they refer to more specific people or things; before other determiners such as the, my, you, this, that; or before object pronouns such as us or them.

all (of) / most of / a lot of /some of / a few of /none of + other determiner + plural noun

Example: All of / Most of / A few of / None of my friends go to the library after school.

All is the exception because it can be used with or without of before determiner + noun.Example: All of my friends go to the library after school OR All my friends go to the library after school.

Specific statements with object pronouns (determiner + of + object pronoun)

all of /most of / a lot of /some of / a few of /none of + object pronoun

Examples: All of us enjoyed the art classes.Some of them joined a study group.

The exceptions are a lot of, which is a fixed expression. With all, of is optional before determiners, but not before object pronouns.

All my friends study English.All of my friends study English.All of us study English.

No is not followed by of or by a determiner.No students like exams.No students completed the exam in the time allowed.

Unit 6 Lesson A

Grammar Is there? Are there? ( Student's Book p. 55.)

Is there and Are there are used to ask questions about the existence of places.

Form Questions with Is there . .. ?Is there + a / an + singular countable noun?Example: Is there a bank around here?

Affirmative and negative answers to Is there . .. ?Examples: Yes, there is. / Yes, there's one on Main Street. No, there isn't (one).

Questions with Are there . .. ?Are there + any + plural countable noun?Example: Are there any pay phones around here?

Affirmative and negative answers to Are there . . . ?Example: Yes, there are. / Yes, there are some on Main Street. No, there aren't (any).

With Is there, one can be used in the answer to avoid repeating the noun in the question.A: Is there a cafe around here?B: No, there isn't one. [one = a cafe around here]

With Are there, some or any can be used in the answer to avoid repeating the noun in the question.A: Are there any restaurants around here?B: Yes, there are. There are some on the next block. [some = restaurants around here]orB: No, there aren't any. [any = restaurants around here]

Note: Some and any can also be used with the noun in the answers (e.g. Yes, there are some restaurants on the next block. No, there aren't any restaurants around here.) .

Unit 6 Lesson B

Grammar Offers and requests with Can and Could ( Student's Book p. 57.)

Can is used in requests (e.g. Can you help me?) and in offers (e.g. How can I help?). Could also is used to make polite requests (e.g. Could you give me directions?) .

FormCan / Could + Subject + V1Unit 7 Lesson A

Grammar Infinitives for reasons ( Student's Book p. 67.)

Form ( to +V1 )

Main clause + infinitive for reason (to + V1)Examples: I have to go online to find a flight. I'm going to Puerto Rico to see my relatives. He has to go to the bank to change some money.UseThe infinitive with to can be used to give a reason or purpose or to answer the question why.

****************************

Grammar It's + adjective + to ... ( Student's Book p. 67.)

Form Affirmative statementsExamples: It's + adjective + to + infinitive It's easy to find cheap flights online. It's fun to meet new people. It's good to know a little of the language.

Negative statementsIt's + not + adjective + to-infinitiveExample: It's not hard to do.

Questions with Is it . . . ?Is it + adjective + to-infinitive?Example: Is it easy to find bargains online?

Unit 7 Lesson B

Grammar Advice and suggestions ( Student's Book p. 69.)There are many ways to give advice and make suggestions. Here are some of them.

Form Should (not)subject + should (not) + V1Example: You should take some insect repellent. You shouldn't carry a lot of cash with you. Could (not)subject + could (not) + V1Example: You could borrow your dad's hat. She couldn't eat her meal.

Need tosubject + need to + V1Example: You need to take a hat.

Questions with Why don't you + V1 ? and Do you want to + V1?Examples: Why don't you take my jacket? Do you want to pack some other shoes?

The expression It's a good idea to ...It's a good idea to + V1Example: It's a good idea to have something warm.

ImperativesExamples: Take a hat. Don't forget to pack a jacket.

Unit 8 Lesson A

Grammar Whose ... ? ( Student's Book p. 77.)

Form Whose + singular / plural noun + is/are + pronoun?Examples: Whose coat is this? Whose earrings are they?

whose is NOT who's (= Who is).

****************************Grammar Possessive pronouns ( Student's Book p. 77.)

Possessive adjectives are (my, his, her, your, our, their).

Possessive pronouns are (mine, , his, hers, yours, ours, theirs).

Possessive pronouns allow the speaker to avoid repeating the name of a noun already mentioned.

Form Possessive pronouns are used after verb be:Example: The coat is mine. / It's mine.

They are also used as subjects.Example: Mine is red. Yours is blue. His is over there.

Unit 8 Lesson B

Grammar Order of adjectives ( Student's Book p. 79.)Before a noun, the usual order of types of adjectives is: opinion (beautiful); size (big); color (blue); shape (square); nationality (Thai); material (wool).

Example: She bought a beautiful big blue square Persian wool rug.

****************************Grammar Pronouns one and ones ( Student's Book p. 79.)

One(s) is used to avoid repeating a noun that was mentioned earlier in the conversation.

Form One can replace a singular noun.A: I like the green rug. Which one do you like?B: I like the blue one in the middle. Ones can replace a plural noun.A: Those speakers are cool. Which ones do you like?B: I like the silver ones.

One(s) is often used after adjectives.I like the blue one(s).

One(s) is also used with prepositional phrases.I like the one(s) in the middle.

One(s) can be used after which, this / that, these / those:A: I like this rug. Which (one) do you like?B: I like that (one).

Unit 8 Lesson C

Do you mind . .. ? and Would you mind . .. ? are used to make polite requests and ask permission, especially if the speaker does not know the other person very well.

Form Do you mind + if + subject + V1+ object ?Do you mind if I use your phone?

Would you mind + V -ing (gerund)?Would you mind helping me in the kitchen?

Use The forms can be used to ask permission to do something.Do you mind if I open the window?

They can also be used to ask someone to do something.Would you mind giving me a pencil?

To agree with requests with mind (answering no), the following expressions can be used:

No, go (right) ahead.No, not at all.Oh, no. No problem.

Examples:A: Do you mind if I use your phone? B: No, go (right) ahead.

A: Would you mind chopping the onions?B: No, not at all.

Unit 9 Lesson A

Grammar Past continuous statements ( Student's Book p. 87.)

Form Affirmative statementssubject + was / were + V-ingExamples: I was talking. They were watching TV.

Negative statementssubject + wasn't / weren't + present participleExamples: I wasn't paying attention. We weren't looking.

Use: The past continuous is used to talk about actions and events in progress in the past.

It is also used to set the background for a story, telling about longer actions and events.Example: I was going to work, and I was talking to my wife.

Simple past with past continuousThe simple past is often used for shorter actions that happened during the time of another, longer one (past continuous).Example: A friend of mine deleted all my files (short action) when she was using my computer (background, longer action).

Unit 9 Lesson B

Grammar Past continuous questions ( Student's Book p. 89.)

Form Yes-No questionsWas / Were + subject + V-ing?Examples: Was he skiing by himself? Were they skiing on the weekend?

Affirmative short answersA: Was he skiing by himself? B: Yes, he was.A: Were they skiing on the weekend?B: Yes, they were.

Negative short answersA: Was he skiing by himself?B: No, he wasn't.A: Were they skiing on the weekend?B: No, they weren't.

Information questionsquestion word + was / were + subject + V-ing?Examples: What was he doing? What were you doing on the weekend?

****************************

Grammar Reflexive pronouns ( Student's Book p. 89.)

Reflexive pronouns are: (myself, himself, herself, yourself, ourselves, themselves, yourselves)

Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of the verb refer to the same person.Examples: I hurt myself He cut himself

They are also used with by to mean "alone" or "with no one else."Examples: I went by myself He did it by himself

Unit 10 Lesson A

Grammar Comparative adjectives ( Student's Book p. 99.)Comparative adjectives can be used to talk about the differences between two things, people, or events. The comparative form is often used with than.

Form For most one-syllable and some two-syllableadjectives, add -er. quick quickereasy easierExamples: E-mail is quicker than regular mail. It's easier to solve problems on the phone than in e-mails.BUTfun more funExample: Bowling is more fun than golfing.

For most other adjectives of two or more syllables, use more + adjective.personal more personalExample: Letters are more personal than e-mail.

Less is also used with adjectives in comparisons. It expresses the opposite of more.less + adjectivepersonal less personalExample: E-mail is less personal than letters.

Some adjectives have irregular forms for the comparative.good betterExample: Real cards are better than e-cards.

bad worseExample: Spam is worse than regular junk mail

Spelling rulesHere are the spelling rules for adding -er. For adjectives ending in -e, add -r.nice nicer

For adjectives ending in a consonant + y, change the y to -i and add -er.busy busier

For most adjectives ending in a vowel + consonant, double the final consonant and add -er.big bigger thin thinner

However, do not double the consonant in words ending in w:slow slowerUnit 10 Lesson B

Grammar More, less, fewer ( Student's Book p. 10l.)

This lesson teaches you how to make comparisons with nouns and verbs.

Form With countable nounsmore / fewer + countable nounExamples: I get more calls than you (do). You get fewer calls than I do.

With uncountable nounsmore / less + uncountable nounExamples: I spend more time on the phone; you spend less time. She gets less mail than he does.

With verbsverb + more / less + thanExamples: She talks more than he does. He talks less than she does.

Do / Does after thanDo / does is often used after than so that the verb isnt repeated.Example: I talk more than you do. (than you do = than you talk)

Unit 11 Lesson A

Grammar Describing people ( Student's Book p. 109.)

Describing peopleThere are a number of expressions used to ask and answer questions to describe people.

Form and Use Look like What + do / does + subject + look like? is used to ask about someone's physical appearance.A: What does he look like? B: He's tall and thin and wears glasses.

Who + do / does + subject + look like? is used to ask about whom someone resemblesA: Who does he look like? B: He looks like his father.

Look alikeDo + subject + and + subject + look alike? is used to ask if two people are similar in appearanceA: Do Bill and Stewart look alike?B: No. They look totally different.

Yes-No questions with haveDo / Does + subject + have + described feature?A: Does he have curly hair?B: No, he has straight hair.

How + adjective questions with beHow + adjective + be + subject?A: How tall is he?B: He's six foot three.

****************************

Grammar have got ( Student's Book p. 109.)The verb have got is another way of saying have => have got = have /has go = has

I've got red hair. = I have red hair.He's got short hair. = He has short hair.

Unit 11 Lesson B

Grammar Phrases with V-ing and prepositions ( Student's Book p. 111.)

The following can be used to identify people or things:

A phrase beginning with a V-ing to describe what someone is doing or wearingHe's the man standing by the table.

A preposition after the noun:He's the guy with the curly hair.He's the guy next to the window.

The pronoun one or ones followed by a preposition or a V-ingHe's the one with the curly hair.They're the ones standing next to the window.He's the one with the green sweater.

Unit 12 Lesson A

Grammar Future with will, may, and might ( Student's Book p. 119.)

FormSubject + will / may / might + V1School will end in June.I may travel to Italy this summer.He might buy a car next year.

The negative is formed by placing not after the modal verb. The negative short form for (will + not) is (won't)

Short forms are not usually used for (may + not) and (might + not)I won't decide until next month about the trip.I may not be able to afford a trip.I might not go on a trip this summer.

Use Will / won't is used to give simple facts about the future.I'll be 65 in June.

Will / won't is used to make predictions based on your opinions.It won't be easy to get a new job.

May, might, and will with I think, I guess, maybe, probably, etc., are used to talk about future activities, facts, situations, and predictions when the speaker is less than 100% sure about them.

I may go on for a master's degree.It might rain.We'll probably move to Arizona.

Going to is used to talk about plans or decisions already made.I'm going to retire in June.

Going to is used to talk about events that are already in progress or on the way.We're going to have a baby.

Going to is used to talk about predictions based on current evidence or knowledge.It's going to snow tonight.

The present continuous (am/is/are + V-ing) is used to talk about planned events and activities. It is often used to talk about fixed arrangements with times and places.What are you doing this weekend? = What arrangements have you made?I'm graduating in June. = This is a fixed dateUnit 12 Lesson B

Grammar Present tense verbs with future meaning ( Student's Book p. 121.)

This lesson presents a common pattern for sentences with clauses beginning with if, when, before, or after that refer to the future. In these clauses, a present tense verb is used even when the verb has a future meaning.

if + Verb present simple

I /we /they /you + V1 he/she/it + V1+s

before

when

after

If I get good grades, I will / may / might go to law school.

(not If I will get)

I need to decide before he goes on vacation. (not before he'll go)

What are you going to do when you graduate? (not when you will graduate)

The Tense ChartTenseSignal wordsUseFormExamplesaffirmativeExamplesnegativeExamplesquestion

SimplePresentevery dayalwayssometimesusuallyoftenhardlyneverfirst ... then- something happens repeatedly (routine)- how often something happens- one action follows another- things in generalI /we /they /you + V1he/she/it + V1+sI work.He works.I go.He goes.I don't work.He doesn't work.I don't go.He doesn't go.Do I work?Does he work?Do I go?Does he go?

PresentContinuousNowThese daysAt the momentLook!Listen!- something is happening at the same time of speaking or around itI

he/she/it

we/they/youam

is

are+ V-ingI'm working.He's working.Were working

I'm going homeHe's going home.Were going homeI'm not working.He isn't working.We arent working

I'm not going home.He isn't going home We arent going homeAm I working?Is he working?Are we going home?

Am I going home?Is he going home?Are we going home?

SimplePastlast ...... agoin 1990yesterdayaction took place in the past, connected with an expression of time (no connection to the present)Subject + V2--------------------------V2 = (* regular: V1+ ed)V2= (* irregular: Look at the tableof irregular verbs)I worked.He worked.I went.He went.I didn't work.He didn't work.I didn't go.He didn't go.Did I work?Did he work?Did I go?Did he go?

PastContinuouswhile- an action happened in the middle of another action - someone was doing something at a certain time (in the past) - you don't know whether it was finished or not I

he/she/it

we/they/youwas

was

were+ V-ingI was working.He was working.We were working

I was going homeHe was going home.We were going homeI was not working.He was not working.We were not working

I was not going home.He was not going home We were not going home.Was I working?Was he working?Were we going home?

Was I going home?Was he going home?Were we going home?

The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (helping verb) or a main verb in English.

be as a main verb in the Simple Present (am, are, is)

affirmativenegativeyes/no question

I:

I am from England. I am not from England. Am I from England?

he, she, it:

He is from England. He is not from England. Is he from England?

we, you, they:

We are from England. We are not from England. Are we from England

be as a main verb in the Simple Past (was, were)

affirmativenegativeyes/no question

I:

I was here. I was not here.Was I here?

he, she, it:

He was here.He was not here.Was he here?

we, you, they:

We were here.We were not here.Were we here?

be as a helping verb in the Present Continuous (am, are, is) +Ving

affirmativenegativeyes/no question

I:

I am reading a book.I am not reading a book.Am I reading a book?

he, she, it:

He is reading a book.He is not reading a book.Is he reading a book?

we, you, they:

We are reading a book.We are not reading a book.Are we reading a book

be as a helping verb in the Past Continuous (was, were) +Ving

affirmativenegativeyes/no question

I:

I was reading a book.I was not reading a book.Was I reading a book?

he, she, it:

He was reading a book.He was not reading a book.Was he reading a book?

we, you, they:

We were reading a book.We were not reading a book.Were we reading a book