Grammar notes

relative pronouns in relative clauses

Relative pronouns in phrases of quantity:some of which + subject + verb + complementone of which + verb + complementall of whomeach of whom etc.These clauses are non-defining.Ex: A witness to a crime has to identify the suspect by viewing a line-up of people, one of whom is the accused person.As an experiment, the television station decided to show only movies, most of which I had already seen. Relative pronouns in phrases of quality:the more + adjective + of whom/which + verb + complementthe mostthe leastthe less etc.These clauses are non-defining.Ex: Ten sports cars, the most expensive of which was the Super X, were rated in Auto Journal.I talked to three salesmen, the least helpful of whom was Mr. Carr.Relative pronouns are replaced by personal pronouns if these clauses follow: a/ a comma with and or but: , and/butb/ a semicolon: ;Ex: I talked to three salesmen, and the least helpful of them was Mr. Carr.I talked to three salesmen; the least helpful of them was Mr. Carr.Relative clauses vs absolute phrasesPersonal pronouns are always used in absolute phrases. Ex: The university has a lot of world-famous professors, most of them (being) great inventors.The university has a lot of world-famous professors, most of whom are great inventors.The university has a lot of world-famous professors; most of them are great inventors.

To be + to-infinitive

With to-infinitive as:1/ Complement: to is optional.The decent thing he should do is (to) resign. (resign: complement; resign = the decent thing: the same thing) What I want is (to) work for a big company. (work: complement; what I want = work for)2/ Predicate: to is essential.This house is to let. (to let: predicate, expressing purpose; this house to let, different things) The books are not to sell. (to sell: predicate, expressing purpose; the books to sell, different things)With to-infinitive expressing:1/ Near future/future arrangement: Theyre to get married next week./The President is to visit Nigeria next month.Was/were+ perfect infinitive: showing that a planned event did not happenThe plane was to have landed at 9:00 am, but because of a technical problem it arrived 10 hours late.2/ Possibility (usually with a passive infinitive): Hes not to be found anywhere./ Theres nothing to be done.3/ Commands/obligations: Youre to finish the work before 5:00 pm.Nobody is to leave here./ Youre not to be back late.

to have

1/ have + object +do something- to cause to, as by command, invitation or instructions: Have him come here at five./ The teacher had the students do all the exercises in chapter 2. to hire/ ask someone to do something I had a mechanic repair my car. to experience: I had a very strange thing happen to me when I was fourteen.2/ have + object +doing something to cause/make/teach: He had us laughing all through the meal.Ill have you driving in four weeks./ Ill soon have your car going. wont have= wont allow/tolerate: I wont have you ordering me about.3/ have + object +done: passive meaningHave you had your car repaired?

Modals

Will

1/willingness, threat, promise, decisions on the part of the subjectHe will pay you what you asked./ Can someone drive me to the airport? I will.Ill take revenge./ Im sorry. I wont do that again.2/ requests, orders, offersWill/ Would you bring me the check, please?/ Come this way, will/ would you?/ Will you be quiet?/ All staff will submit weekly progress reports.Will you have another drink?/ Would you like another drink? Wont you have another drink?/ Wouldnt you like another drink? In requests and offers, would is politer than will. In offers, wont and wouldnt are pressing (difficult to refuse or ignore)3/ habits and characterisicsBoys will be boys./ Dogs will usually obey their masters./ Hell keep telling people what he thinks of them.4/ wont is used for refusal: He wont pay his electricity bill./ My car wont start.

Should

1/ advisability, obligation: Everyone should wear car seat belts./ You shouldnt stay out late.2/ unlikelihood, unexpectedness (in if-clauses): If you should meet her3/ deduction, likelihood: Henry should (= will) get here soon; he left home at six. You should (= will) receive the package by Monday.4/ after some verbs: advise, ask, demand, order, suggest, urge, propose, insist, recommend, request, requireI order him to go as soon as possible. = I order that he should go as soon as possible. some adjectives: advisable, certain, essential, fair, important, necessary, reasonable, right, urgent, vitalIts important that she should talk to me when she gets here. Is it necessary that the boss should be informed? Some nouns: advice, request, requirement, hope, wish: Its his wish that the money should be given to charity. Our advice is that the company should invest in new equipment.5/ after so that, in order that, lest: They kept watch all night lest robbers should come. 6/ after wonder why, dont know why, dont see the reason why: to express surprise, an angry or aggressive reply to a suggestion, request:I wonder why she should want to go out with me. I dont see why we should have to pay for your mistake.

would

1/ past habits: He would phone me late for nothing important at all.

would: for actions, not states wrong: She would be very thin./ There would be an old theater here.used to: for actions and states He used to get up late./ There used to be an old theater here.2/ past determination, refusal: He would come to work late, disregarding the regulations. I asked him very politely, but he wouldnt tell me./ My car wouldnt start again this morning.3/ polite requests: (on the bus) Would you please move along? / Would you mind moving along?4/ polite offer: Would/ Wouldnt you like a sandwich?