Grammar Lessons

Junior/ Senior Elective2014-2015

PARTS OF SPEECHChapter 4

Lesson 4.1 Nouns• Nouns—words that name persons, places, things, or ideas• Abstract nouns—name ideas and things you cannot touch• Concrete nouns—name things you can touch, taste, see, hear, or

smell.• Proper nouns—name particular persons, places, things, or ideas and

need capitalization.• Common nouns—name general people, places, and things and don’t

need capitalization.• Collective nouns—name a group of people, animals, or things.• Compound nouns—consist of two or more words.

– Run together: cookbook– Hyphenated: ninety-one– Two separate words: House of Representatives

Lesson 4.2 Pronouns

• Pronouns—words that take the place of a noun• Antecedent—the word or group of words a pronoun

replaces• Types of Pronouns:

– Personal: refer to specific people or animals– Indefinite: express and amount or refer to a unspecified person or

thing– Demonstrative: point to specific people or things– Interrogative: begin a question– Reflexive: end in –self or –selves and refer to an earlier noun or

pronoun– Intensive: add emphasis

Lesson 4.2 Pronoun ListsPersonal Possessive Indefinite Demonstrative Interrogative Reflexive and

Intensive

I, me, we, us, you, he, him, she, her, it they, them

my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, their, theirs

all, any, anyone, both, either, everyone, few, most, nobody, no one, several, somebody, another, anybody, each, everybody, many, neither, non, one, some, someone

That, this, these, those

Who? What? Whose? Whom? What?

Myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself, himself, itself, themselves

Lesson 4.3 Verbs

• Verbs—words that express an action or a state of being.– Some actions are seen (run), some are not (imagine).– Verbs change form to indicate time. (work, works, was

working)• Linking verbs—join the subject of a sentence with a

word or words that identify or describe it.• Verb phrase—contains a main verb and a helping

verb – ex. should have been

Lesson 4.4 Adjectives

• Adjectives—modifiers that give information about the nouns and pronouns they modify.– They answer what kind, how many, how much, or which one.

• Types of Adjectives– Definite and indefinite articles: point to particular nouns or

any one member of a group.– Proper: begin with capital letters.

• ex. Persian rug, African tourists

– Predicate adjectives: follow a linking verb• Nouns modifying other nouns work like adjectives

– ex. desk drawer opera house

Lesson 4.5 Adverbs

• Adverbs modify—or tell more about—verbs, adjective, and other adverbs

• Many come before or after the verbs they modify.

• Many adverbs end with the suffix –ly.• Intensifier are adverbs that answer the

question to what extent?

Lesson 4.5 Adverb ListsAdverbs that DON’T end in -ly Intensifiers

Almost, already, also, always, fast, here just, late, more, much, never, not, now, seldom, soon, still, then, there, today, tomorrow, well, yesterday, yet

Less, least, more, most, nearly, only, quite, exceptionally, extraordinarily, rather, really, so, somewhat, too, truly, very

Lesson 4.6 Combing Sentences: Inserting Single-Word Modifiers

• One short sentence after another can be very boring. Combine short, choppy sentences by inserting the key word or words in one sentence into another sentence.

• You can change the form of a word or the order of the modifiers to help you combine sentences.

• Steps for Combining Sentences1. Identify the sentence that gives the central information.2. In other sentences, find key words and phrases that you can insert

into the sentence you identified in Step 1.3. Change key words as needed to create a smoothly flowing sentence. 4. Read the combined sentence to see if it sounds natural.

Lesson 4.6 Examples

Original: Yellowstone Park has geysers and hot springs. The geysers erupt regularly. The hot springs bubble and boil.

Combined: Yellowstone Park has regularly erupting geysers and bubbling, boiling hot springs.

Lesson 4.7 Prepositions

• Prepositions connect another word in a sentence to a noun or pronoun to form a prepositional phrase.

• If a word is an adverb and a preposition, look for a prepositional phrase to make the distinction.

Commonly Used Prepositions Compound Prepositions

about, as, below, during, from, near, on, since, until, with, outside, inside, through, at, above, by, into, of, our, to , up, along, before, over, under, like, off, across, against, around

according to, due to, in addition to, in spite of, apart from

Lesson 4.8 Conjunctions and Interjections

• Conjunctions join words or groups of words.• Coordinating conjunctions join words or groups of

words that are equal in importance.• Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. – The words or phrases joined by a pair of correlative

conjunctions should be parallel.• Subordinating conjunctions connect adverb clauses

to main clauses.• Interjections express mild or strong emotion. Set

them off with a comma or an exclamation point.

Lesson 4.8 Conjunctions and Interjections

Coordination Conjunctions Correlative Conjunctions Common Interjections

ForAndNorButOrYetSo

both…andeither…orjust as… so (too)neither…nornot only…but alsowhether…or

Ah, aha, alas, bravo,,, hey, oh no, oops, ouch, ugh, well, wow

Lesson 4.9 Determining a Word’s Part of Speech

• Many words can function as more than one part of speech.

• How a word is used in a sentence determines its part of speech.

PARTS OF A SENTENCEChapter 5

Lesson 5.1 Using Complete Sentences

• Every sentence starts with a capital letter and finishes with an end mark of punctuation.

sentence— a grammatically complete group of words that expresses a thought.

sentence fragment —a group of words that is not grammatically complete.

• 4 Sentence Purposes: 1. Make a statement: Declarative2. Make a command or request: Imperative3. Ask a question: Interrogative4. Express strong feeling: Exclamatory

Lesson 5.2 Subject and Predicate

• Subject—the part of a sentence that names the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about

• Predicate—the part of the sentence that tells what the subject does, what it is or what happens to it.

• Simple subject—the key word or words in the subject• Simple predicate—the verb or verb phrase that tells

something about the subject.– not or n’t in a contraction is never part of a verb phrase

• The verb doesn’t always come after the subject. In a question, the verb often comes first.

Lesson 5.3 Correcting Sentence Fragments

• Strategies for correcting sentence fragments:1. Attach it. Join the fragment to a complete

sentence before or after it.2. Add some words. Add the words needed to

make the group of words grammatically complete.

3. Drop some words. Drop the subordinating conjunction that creates a fragment.• Ex. After, as if, because, since, that, when, which

Lesson 5.4 Combining Sentences: Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs

• Compound subjects can solve the problem of repetition, which wastes space and wears out your reader.

• A sentence with a compound subject has two or more subjects sharing the same verb.– Use a conjunction to join the separate subjects.

• A sentence with a compound verb has two or more verbs sharing the same subject.– Use a conjunction to join the separate verbs.

Lesson 5.5 Finding the SubjectSometimes, less common sentence constructions or word order see to bury or camouflage the subject.Finding the subject:1. Find the verb or verb phrase.2. Ask Who or What before the verb.– The girl in the red shirt won the match.– Verb=won; Who won? =girl

• Inverted sentences– the verb comes before the subject.• There and here are never subjects.• The subject is never part of a prepositional phrase. • In an imperative sentence, the subject is always you.

– The word you is called the understood subject.– Even in direct address—which includes the name of the person being spoken to—the

subject is still you.• Caitlin, [you] call the doctor and ask for her advice.

Lesson 5.6 Compound Sentences• A compound sentence combines two or more simple

sentences into a single sentence.

• In a compound sentence, each simple sentence has at least one subject and one verb.

• Strategies to make compound sentences:1. Use a comma and a conjunction 2. Use a semicolon 3. Use a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb

List of Conjunctive Adverbs:accordingly, also, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, similarly, still, therefore, thus

Lesson 5.7 Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence is made up of two or more sentences that are incorrectly run together as a single sentence.• Strategies to Correct Run-ons:

1. Separate them with end punctuation and a capital letter.2. Use a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or, nor,

yet, so preceded by a comma.3. Try a semicolon to separate the two sentences.4. Add a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb and

comma.5. Create a clause. Turn one of the sentences into a

subordinate clause.

Lesson 5.7 Run-on SentencesTime Place Cause Comparison Condition Purpose

after,as long as, as soon as, before, since, until, when, while

where, wherever

because, since,

as, as much as, than, whereas

although, as long as, as if, even though, provided that, though unless, while

so that, that, in order that

Lesson 5.8 Direct and Indirect Objects• direct object-

– a noun or pronoun that receives the action of an action verb. – Finding Direct Objects:

1. Find the action verb.2. Ask the question whom or what after the action verb.

• indirect object- – a noun or pronoun that follows comes before the direct

object.– Finding Indirect Objects:

• Find the action verb.• Find the direct object.• Ask the question to whom, for whom, to what or for what after the

action verb.

Lesson 5.9 Predicate Nominatives and Predicate Adjectives

• COPY PAGE 121• NO NOTES

PHRASESChapter 6

Lesson 6.1 Prepositional Phrases• Prepositional phrases:

– Begin with a preposition and end with an object– Add information to a sentence by modifying another word in the

sentence– Have 2 forms: adjectival and adverbial

• Adjective Phrase – modifies a noun or pronoun – answers the questions which one or what kind

• Adverb Phrase– modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb– answers the questions how or to what extent

Lesson 6.2 Appositives and Appositive Phrases

• appositive-a noun or pronoun that identifies or explains the noun or pronoun that precedes it

• appositive phrase- a phrase made up of an appositive and all of its modifiers

• Punctuating appositives:– if the phrase is essential (necessary to the meaning

of the sentence), do NOT use commas– If the phrase if nonessential, use a comma before it

and after it

Lesson 6.3 Participles and Participial Phrases• Verbal- a verb form that functions as a different part of

speech. f

• Participle- a type of verbal; a verb that acts as an adjective, modifying a noun or a pronoun

– Types of Participles:1. Present: always have an –ing ending2. Past: often end in –d or –ed

• Participial phrases:– Made up of a participle and all of its modifiers– May contain objects, modifiers, and prepositional phrases– The whole phrase acts as an adjective

Lesson 6.4 Gerunds and Gerund Phrases

• verbal- a verb form that functions as a different part of speech.

• gerund- a type of verbal; a verb from that ends in –ing and acts as a noun.

• Gerund phrases:– made up of a gerund and all of its modifiers and

complements– modifiers include adjectives, adverbs, and

prepositional phrases– the entire phrase functions as a noun.

Lesson 6.5 Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases

• verbal- a verb form that functions as a different part of speech.

• infinitive- type of verbal; a verb form that is almost always preceded by the word to and acts as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

• Infinitive phrases:– made up of an infinitive and all of its modifiers and

complements– may contain prepositional phrases– Sometimes have the word to implied

Lesson 6.6 Combining Sentences: Inserting Phrases

• Ways to combine sentences:1. Creating compound sentences2. Creating compound subjects3. Creating compound verbs4. Inserting phrases

• Sometimes your need to slightly change the phrase you move.

• Sometimes you just move it as is.• There is almost always more than one possibility.

CLAUSESChapter 7

Lesson 7.1 Independent and Subordinate Clauses

• Independent (main) clause- expresses a complete thought with a subject and a verb.

• Compound sentence- sentence made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction.

• Subordinate (dependent) clause- has a subject and a verb but DOES NOT express a complete thought

• Subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they are sentence fragments.

Lesson 7.2 Subordinate Clauses: Adjective Clauses

• Adjective clause—a subordinate clause that:1. functions as an adjective2. modifies a noun or pronoun3. Follows the word it modifies

• Adjective clauses are often introduced by:– relative pronouns: that, which, whom, those, who, whose)– Relative adverbs: when, where

• Adj. clauses sometimes omit the relative pronouns and adverbs. These are called elliptical.

• The adj. clause can be essential or nonessential. Nonessentials are set off by commas.

Lesson 7.3 Subordinate Clauses: Adverb Clauses• Adverb clause—a subordinate clause that

functions as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb

• They tell how, how much, when, where, why, to what extend, or under what circumstances.

• They are set off by a comma if they come at the beginning of the sentence.

• Often introduced by subordinating conjunctions:After, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as , as soon as, as though, because, before, even though, except that, if, in order that, provided that, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether, which, while

Lesson 7.4 Combining Sentences: Using Subordinate Clauses

• Combining with Adjective Clauses– Begin that adjective clause with who, which, that, those,

whom, whose, when, or where.– Use commas if the clause is nonessential.

• Combining with Adverb Clauses– Being the adverb clause with a subordinating conjunction.

Time Place Cause Comparison Condition Purpose

After, before, as long as, as soon as, since, until, when, while

Where, wherever

Because, since

As, as much as, than, whereas

Although, as long as,even though, as if, though provided that, unless, while

So that, that, in order that

Lesson 7.5 Noun Clauses• Noun clause—a subordinate clause that functions as a

noun.

• It can be :– a subject– a predicate nominative,– a direct object, – an indirect object, or– an object of a preposition.

• It can come at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.• Words that introduce noun clauses:

– How, if, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, why

Lesson 7.6 Four Types of Sentence Structures

Four Ways to Build a Sentence1. Simple Sentence

•Has one independent clause and one subordinate clauses.

2. Compound Sentence •Has two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.

3. Complex Sentence •Has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence•Has two or more independent clauses and at least on subordinate clause.

• Different sentence structures add variety to your writing.

Lesson 7.7 Effective Sentences: Parallel Structure

• Parallel sentences uses the same part of speech or grammatical structure to convey equal or related ideas.

1. Sentence parts linked by coordination conjunctions.– Time of day, amount of light, and distance from the subject are all

factors in taking photographs.• Noun followed by prepositional phrase

2. Sentence parts linked by correlative conjunctions– He is responsible not only for leading us but also for feeding us.

• a correlative conjunction followed by a prepositional phrase

3. Sentence parts that compare or contrast– I was more interested in what the exhibit showed than in what Martha

said.• Noun clauses both precede and follow than

Lesson 7.8 Effective Paragraphs: Varying Sentences

• Three Ways to Vary Sentences1. Vary beginnings (use different phrases and clauses)2. Use a variety of sentence structures• Simple• Compound• Complex• Compound-complex

3. Vary the lengths of your sentences. • Place short ones between long ones.• Use short sentences for emphasis.