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Microelectronics

Initially, only a few gates or memory cells could be reliably manufactured and packaged together.

These early integrated circuits are referred to as small-scale integration (SSI).

As time went on, it became possible to pack more and more components on the same chip.

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Moore’s LawGordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, propounded Moore’s law in 1965.

According to Moore’s law number of transistors on a chip will double every year.

Since 1970’s development has slowed a little. Number of transistors doubles every 18 months.

The consequences of Moore’ law are philosophical:• Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged.• Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance.• Smaller size gives increased flexibility.• Reduction in power and cooling requirements.• Fewer interconnections increases reliability.

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Growth in CPU Transistor Count

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IBM System/360

In 1964, IBM replaced 7000 series with the System/360 family.

360 product line was incompatible with older IBM machines.

System/360 was the industry’s first planned family of computers.

The models were compatible in the sense that a program written for one model should be capable of being executed by another model in the series.

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IBM System/360

The characteristics of a family are as follows:• Similar or identical instruction sets. A program that executes on one machine will also execute on any other. • Similar or identical operating system.• Increasing speed.• Increasing number of I/O ports. (i.e. more terminals). • Increased memory size.• Increased cost.

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IBM 360 FamilyC

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DEC PDP-8

In 1964, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)produced PDP-8.

PDP-8• was the first minicomputer.• was small enough to sit on a lab bench.• did not need air conditioned room.• used bus structure that is now virtually universal for minicomputers and microcomputers.

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DEC PDP-8

PDP-8 bus• is called Omnibus• consists of 96 separate signal paths, used to carry

controladdressdata signals

OMNIBUS

ConsoleController

CPU Main Memory I/OModule

I/OModule

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DEC PDP-8

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Generations of Computer

• Generation 1: Vacuum tube - 1946-1957• Generation 2: Transistor - 1958-1964• Generation 3: Small scale integration - 1965 on

Up to 100 devices on a chip• Generation 3: Medium scale integration - to 1971

100-3,000 devices on a chip• Generation 4: Large scale integration - 1972-1977

3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip• Generation 5: Very large scale integration - 1978 to date

100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip• Generation 5: Ultra large scale integration

Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip

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Generations of Computer

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Semiconductor MemoryIntegrated circuit technology was also used to construct memories.

Initially, magnetic-core memory was used as computer memory.

Magnetic-core memory was• fast• expensive• bulky• used destructive readout (act of reading a core erase data stored).

In 1970, Fairchild produced semiconductor memory.

This chip• was about the size of a single core• could hold 256 bits of memory• was nondestructive• much faster than core

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Microprocessors: 4004

In 1971, Intel developed its 4004 which was the first chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip: microprocessor.

4004 can add two 4-bit numbers.

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Microprocessors: 8008

In 1972, Intel developed 8008 which was the first 8-bit microprocessor.

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Microprocessors: 8080

4004 and 8008 had been designed for specific applications.

In 1974, Intel developed 8080 which was the first general-purpose microprocessor.

8080 was an 8-bit microprocessor.

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Microprocessors: 8086

At the end of 1970s, general-purpose 16-bit microprocessorsappeared.

One of these was 8086.

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Microprocessors

In 1981, Bell Labs and Hewlett-Packard developed 32-bit single-chip microprocessors.

In 1985, Intel introduced its own 32-bit microprocessor, 80386.

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Evolution of Intel MicroprocessorsC

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

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Microprocessor Speed

In microprocessors, the addition of new circuits and the speed boost that comes from reducing the distance between them has improved performance four- or fivefold every three years or so since Intel launched its x86 family in 1978.

But the raw speed of microprocessor will not achieve its potential unless it is fed a constant stream of work to do in the form of computer instructions.

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Microprocessor Speed

Some techniques to have more elaborate ways of feeding instructions quickly enough are as follows:

• Branch prediction. Branch prediction increases the amount of work available for the processor to execute.• Data flow analysis. This prevents unnecessary delay.• Speculative execution. This enables the processor to keep its execution engines as busy as possible by executing instructions that are likely to be needed.

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Performance Mismatch

While processor power has raced ahead at breakneck speed, other critical components of computer have not kept up.

Processor speed and memory capacity (density)have grown rapidly.

The speed with which data can be transferred between main memory and processor has lagged badly.

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Performance Mismatch

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Solutions

There are a number of ways that a system architect can attack this problem. Examples include:• Increase number of bits retrieved at one time by making DRAM “wider” by using wide bus data paths.• Change DRAM interface to make it more efficient by including a cache.• Reduce frequency of memory access by using more complex cache and cache on chip.• Increase interconnection bandwidth between processors and memory by using higher speed buses and hierarchy of buses to buffer and structure data flow.

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Design for performance

I/O devices also become increasingly demanding.

These devices create great data throughput demands.

While processors can handle data pumped out by these devices, there remains the problem of getting that data moved between processor and peripheral.

Some solutions:• Caching and buffering schemes.• Use of higher-speed interconnection buses and more elaborate structuring of buses.• Use of multiple-processor configurations.

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Design for performance

Key is balance. Because of constant and unequal changes in: • processor components• main memory• I/O devices• interconnection structuresdesigners must constantly attempt to balance their throughput and processing demands.

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Pentium Evolution

In terms of market share, Intel has ranked as the number one maker of microprocessors for decades.

The evolution of its flagship microprocessor product serves as a good indicator of the evolution of computer technology in general.

It is worthwhile to list some of the evolution of the Intel product line:• 8080

First general purpose microprocessor.An 8-bit machine with an 8-bit data path to memory.Used in the first personal computer – Altair.

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Pentium Evolution

• 8086Much more powerful.16-bit machine.Instruction cache, prefetch few instructions before

they are executed.A variant of this processor, 8088 (8 bit external bus)

used in the first IBM PC.• 80286

16 MByte memory addressable instead of 1MByte.• 80386

Intel’s first 32-bit machine.Support for multitasking, meaning it could run

multiple programs at the same time.

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Pentium Evolution

• 80486Sophisticated powerful cache and instruction

pipelining (a processor organization in which processor consists of a number of stages, allowing multiple instructions to be executed concurrently).

Offers a built in maths co-processor, offloading complex math operations from main CPU.

• PentiumIntroduce the use of superscalar techniques which

allows multiple instructions executed in parallel.• Pentium Pro

Increased superscalar organization.Aggressive register renaming, branch prediction, data

flow analysis and speculative execution.

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Pentium Evolution

• Pentium IIIncorporated MMX technology which is designed

specifically to process graphics, video & audio processing.

• Pentium IIIIncorporates additional floating point instructions

for 3D graphics.• Pentium 4

Includes further floating point and multimedia enhancements.

• ItaniumMakes use of 64-bit organization.

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Intel 80286

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Intel 80386

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Intel 80486

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PentiumC

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More Pentium

Pro

III

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Itanium

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PowerPC

IBM produced the PowerPC architecture.

The following are the principal members of the PowerPC family:• 601

Purpose is to bring PowerPC architecture to market as quickly as possible.

A 32-bit machine.• 603

A 32-bit machine.Comparable in performance with 601 but with

lower cost and a more efficient implementation.• 604

A 32-bit machine.Uses much more advanced superscalar design

techniques to achieve greater performance. CSI

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PowerPC

• 620Intended for high-end servers.Implemented with a full 64-bit architecture,

including 64-bit registers and data paths.• 740/750

Known as G3 processor.Integrates two levels of cache in main processor

chip, providing significant performance.• G4

Increases parallelism and internal speed of the processor chip.

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PowerPC

G4

603601 604

620 640 650