Pl. 14 Color plate of Fig. 20.1. The crimson blood streaming from Chinnamunda's neck is a dramatic symbol of spiritual sustenance and immortality. PI. 14 Color plate of Fig. 20.1. The crimson blood streaming from Chinnamunda sneck is a dramatic symbol of spiritual sustenance and immortality.

PI. 15 Sirnhamukha, Amdo region, Tibet, nineteenth century. Pigment and goldon cloth, 18.25 x 13 in. (46.35 x 33 ern). The Newark Museum, Holton Collection,1936; 36.518. Photo: Newark Museum/Art Resource N.Y. Roaring exultantly,Simhamukba personifies pure, untamable power.

BUDDHIST BUDDHISM

CHINNAMUNDA

402 CHAPTER 19

female Buddha evokes the spaciousness that Buddhists envision as envelopingand permeating phenomenal reality. Nairarmya, as her name indicates, em-bodies the Buddhist verity of selflessness (niriitman), the absence of concrete,independently real persons and phenomena. The correlate of this truth is theBuddhist vision of reality as a vast web of interdependence and interconnec-tedness. Her cerulean body is a translucent shell inscribed on the face of reality,proclaiming that all bodies and all phenomenal appearances hover in emptyspace. Nairatmya, having realized this truth, responds to the illusory nature ofphenomena by rejoicing and dancing to liberate others.

Femaleness is consistently attributed to generative phenomena in Buddhistsymbology, including womblike space, the nurturing earth, the letters of thealphabet, and mantras. The earth, which gives rise to all the life upon it, ispersonified as a goddess. Space, as the generative matrix of heavenly bodies andof all matter, is associated with female deities. Sound, the alphabet, and lan-guage, conceived as subtle layers of reality that underlie and shape phenomena,are commonly envisioned as feminine in Indian metaphysics and in Buddhismas well. Through her identification with the letter "A," the primal sound, theprimordial vibration of space and consciousness, Nairatrnya personifies theorigin of all phenomena and mindstates. She also represents the force of theirdissolution, as the heat of yogic fire and the principle of emptiness.

As the source of phenomenal reality, Nairatmya encompasses the universewithin her being. All reality is contained within her, as are the processes ofarising and dissolution. Therefore, to contemplate Nairatmya is to behold "theessence of ultimate reality.,,49 "Ultimate reality," dharmadhatu, all that exists,is the totality of existence. Nairatrnya is what is known in the broader Indicperspective as a world mother, source of all that is, designated in that context asAdi Sakti (primordial female energy) and as Mahadevi, goddess supreme.Buddhist writings express that ultimacy in terms of emptiness and bliss, spaceand consciousness. To those unfamiliar with the tradition, "emptiness" mayhave a negative resonance, implying an absence of purpose or meaning. In theBuddhist context, however, emptiness is an exhilarating and inspiring concept,a liberating principle of ontological openness and existential freedom. Thus, asthe "Lady of Emptiness," Nairatmya is supremely blissful, embodying thetranscendent happiness enjoyed by those who realize the truth of emptiness.There is no greater joy than discovering that suffering is an illusion and nogreater pleasure than dancing in infinity.

r CHAPTER 20 ~~L-- ~

CHINNAMUNDA

The holy, adamantine Yogini, yellow with a red luster,Has cut off her own head with a chopper andBears the head aloft in her left hand ....

She lunges with her right foot forward,Crowned by skulls, naked, with freely flowing hair.Envision the Buddhadakini in the center,

Her body draped with five bone ornaments;From the neck of her severed head,

A stream of blood gushes upward into her own mouthAnd into the mouths of two yoginis at her sides.

-Meditation manual by Laksmlrikara'

Chinnarnunda (pronounced chee nah MOON DAH), the "Severed-Headed God-dess," offers a startling, even shocking, portrait of ultimate liberation. Heryouthful body, golden yellow with a roseate luster, is charmingly adorned bybone jewelry. She lunges forward in a spirited and vigorous manner, her armspoised dancelike in midair. Yet her head has been severed from her body, cut offby her own hand, and blood streams from her headless neck. The sight ofChinnarnunda confronts the viewer with a paradox. She should be lifeless, butshe is overflowing with vitality as she feeds herself and two female companionswith the liquid that flows from her body. The inherent contradiction posed bythe image of Chinnamunda points to a realm of awareness that defies ordinarylogic and conventional concepts, including the seemingly ineradicable duality oflife and death. Her image conveys the truth that when the illusory self, the falseego, dies, new modes of awareness and action become possible. One who mastersthe yoga of Chinnarnunda literally transcends death and attains the Buddhistequivalent of immortality, namely, the deathless state wherein, no longer subjectto the laws of karma and rebirth, one is free to re-create oneself eternally, in

403

404 CHAPTER 20

innumerable times, places, and bodily forms, out of compassion, to lead othersto the same state of liberation.

Chinnarnunda is a female Buddha, which means that, as a fully enlightenedbeing, she occupies the vantage point of ultimate truth. She is a Buddhadakini,or "Fully Enlightened pakinI.,,2 She is in fact regarded as a manifestation ofVajrayoginl/Vajravarahl. The three figures are ultimately equated with oneanother but are understood to appear in different bodily forms to manifestdifferent nuances of enlightenment. Because of their underlying unity, they maybe invoked by the same mantra, which conveys the energy essence of a deity insonic form: Om orrzorrzsarvabuddhatfakinfye uajrauarnaniye uajrauairocaniyehurrz hurrz bum phat phat svaha.3 Although the names VajravairocanI andVajravarnanl appear in the mantra, they figure only in the visualization ofChinnamunda, as described below.

In many respects, Chinnamunda resembles the other forms of VajrayoginI.She wears bone ornaments and a crown of five skulls that represent the five aspectsof enlightened wisdom. Apart from these Tantric adornments she is naked, herlong hair unbound, and she brandishes a dakini chopper. However, her ico-nography also differs in significant ways. Whereas most forms ofVajrayoginI arered, Chinnamunda is often envisioned as yellow, perhaps in allusion to the goldenradiance of transcendent wisdom (prajiia). In her left hand, in place of the usualskull bowl, she displays her own severed head, waving it aloft with a triumphantflourish (Fig. 20.1, PI. 14).

Chinnarnunda is accompanied by two divine yoginis: green Vajravarnanl("Adamantine Hue") on her left and yellow VajravairocanI ("AdamantineBrilliance") on her right. The companion yoginis, too, are naked, with boneornaments and loosely flowing hair, but their heads are intact and they bearskull bowls and small choppers in their hands. The dramatic focal point of theimage is the three streams of blood that arch from the headless neck of thecentral female Buddha into her own mouth and the mouths of the yoginis ather sides. The three figures are envisioned in the midst of a fearsome cremationground.' The epithet Trikaya-VajrayoginI, "Three-Bodied VajrayoginI," refersto the fact that three figures are integral to the iconography. 5

Chinnarnunda takes her place among a range of Indian divinities who drinkblood, receive offerings of severed heads, or dismember themselves as a salvificact. Chinnamunda (along with her Hindu counterpart, Chinnamasra) is dis-tinctive in that the blood she drinks is her own, the severed head is her own, andshe does not die in an act of sacrificing herself to nourish others. She also standsapart from a tradition of Buddhist figures who offer their mortal body as thesupreme gesture of selfless generosity.6 Thus, although her iconography may havebeen informed by those motifs, it differs significantly and demands its own

20.1 Chinnamunda, Amrit Karmacharya, Patan, Nepal, last decade of twentiethcentury. Paubha, detail. Pigment and gold on cotton, 2l.5 x 16.75 in.(54.6 x 42.5 em). Author's collection. Severed-headed Chinnamundd nourishesherself and her companions with the elixir of nondual awareness and immortality.(See PI. 14)

404 CHAPTER 20

innumerable times, places, and bodily forms, out of compassion, to lead othersto the same state of liberation.

Chinnamunda is a female Buddha, which means that, as a fully enlightenedbeing, she occupies the vantage point of ultimate truth. She is a Buddhadakini,or "Fully Enlightened QakinI.,,2 She is in fact regarded as a manifestation ofVajrayogini/Vajravarahi. The three figures are ultimately equated with oneanother but are understood to appear in different bodily forms to manifestdifferent nuances of enlightenment. Because of their underlying unity, they maybe invoked by the same mantra, which conveys the energy essence of a deity insonic form: Om om orrzsarvabuddhatjiikinrye uajrauarnaniye uajrauairocaniyebicm biim hum phat phat sviihii.3 Although the names VajravairocanI andVajravarnani appear in the mantra, they figure only in the visualization' ofChinnarnunda, as described below.

In many respects, Chinnarnunda resembles the other forms of VajrayoginI.She wears bone ornaments and a crown of five skulls that represent the five aspectsof enlightened wisdom. Apart from these Tantric adornments she is naked, herlong hair unbound, and she brandishes a dakinl chopper. However, her ico-nographyalso differs in significant ways. Whereas most forms ofVajrayoginI arered, Chinnamunda is often envisioned as yellow, perhaps in allusion to the goldenradiance of transcendent wisdom (prajiiii). In her left hand, in place of the usualskull bowl, she displays her own severed head, waving it aloft with a triumphantflourish (Fig. 20.1, PI. 14).

Chinnamunda is accompanied by two divine yoginis: green Vajravarnani("Adamantine Hue") on her left and yellow VajravairocanI ("AdamantineBrilliance") on her right. The companion yoginis, too, are naked, with boneornaments and loosely flowing hair, but their heads are intact and they bearskull bowls and small choppers in their hands. The dramatic focal point of theimage is the three streams of blood that arch from the headless neck of thecentral female Buddha into her own mouth and the mouths of the yoginis ather sides. The three figures are envisioned in the midst of a fearsome cremationground/' The epithet Trikaya-VajrayoginI, "Three-Bodied VajrayoginI," refersto the fact that three figures are integral to the iconography. 5

Chinnamunda takes her place among a range of Indian divinities who drinkblood, receive offerings of severed heads, or dismember themselves as a salvificact. Chinnarnunda (along with her Hindu counterpart, Chinnamasta) is dis-tinctive in that the blood she drinks is her own, the severed head is her own, andshe does not die in an act of sacrificing herself to nourish others. She also standsapart from a tradition of Buddhist figures who offer their mortal body as thesupreme gesture of selfless generosity.P Thus, although her iconography may havebeen informed by those motifs, it differs significantly and demands its own

20.1 Chinnamunda, Amrit Karmacharya, Paran, Nepal, last decade of twentiethcentury. Paubha, detail. Pigment and gold on cotton, 2l.5 x 16.75 in.(54.6 x 42.5 ern). Author's collection. Severed-headed Cbinnamunda nourishesherself and her companions with the elixir of nondual awareness and immortality.(See PI. 14)

406 CHAPTER 20

interpretation. Elisabeth Benard's comprehensive study of Chinnamunda locatesthe primary significance of the self-beheading motif in its reference to internalyogic practices, attributing its mysterious, awe-inspiring quality in part to the factthat it is a "magnified depiction of something invisible to ordinary vision."?

ALLEGORY FOR INNER YOGA PRACTICES

Chinnamunda and the two yoginis who accompany her offer a visual allegoryfor advanced yogic meditations known in Buddhist terminology as perfectionstage yoga (utpanna-krama) and in the Hindu context as kurzr!alini-yoga. Thisinner yoga, which comes at the end of a long course of meditative training andesoteric initiations, involves the movement and concentration of psychic en-ergies within the subtle yogic anatomy of the body. The central energy pathwaytraverses the body along the spine and continues around the crown of the headto the forehead. Two ancillary channels run parallel to it. The channel on theright is known as rasand, the one on the left is termed laland, and the main,central pathway is the auadhiiti. The two side channels coil around the avadhiitiat four main junctures, or chakras, at the navel, heart, throat, and forehead. Thepsychic energies or winds (priirza) which carry a person's thoughts and emo-tions normally course throughout the body in a network of seventy-two·thousand psychic veins and in the two side channels. The dispersion of theenergy corresponds to the myriad thought processes that mire the mind inworldly existence. Underlying the seemingly infinite variety of dualisticthoughts, however, is the fundamental division of the world into self and other,or subject and object. The right channel and subsidiary branching veins supportthe subjective portion of experience; the left channel and veins carry thoughtconstructions pertaining to external objecrs.f

The winds do not ordinarily enter the central channel of their own accord.The goal of inner yoga is to gather all the energy into the central channel, use itto open and untie the knots at the chakras, and direct it in specific ways togenerate subtle realizations and states of bliss. When the energies abide in thecentral channel, they no longer support dualistic thought. Conceptualiry, de-prived of its foundation, automatically disappears, baring the natural essence ofthe mind and restoring its capacity for direct, intuitive wisdorn.f Geshe KelsangGyatso explains that when the energies are gathered in the central channel, "thedualistic conceptualizing mind-the source of cyclic existence-will no longerhave any foundation and will therefore disappear .... The myriad of negativethoughts powered by the dualistic view will all vanish automatically, withouteffort."lo Normally all the energies enter the central channel and dissolve intothe heart chakra only at the moment of death, giving rise to a fleeting experience

CHINNAMU~I?A 407

of illumination and a vision of the clear light. Inner yoga practitioners seek toreplicate this process during life and to integrate the resultant nondual wisdominto daily, waking consciousness. II

In the yogic interpretation of her iconography, Chinnamunda embodies thecentral energy pathway of the body, or avadhiiti. The companion yoginisrepresent the two side channels: Vajravarnanl on her left corresponds to lalana,while Vajravairocani on her right personifies rasana. Several stages of the inneryoga are represented by the image, for the nature of the exchange among thethree yoginis changes as the meditation unfolds.

The practitioner first envisions the triad on a red or multihued lotus at thenavel, where the side channels intersect the central channel. Initially envisioningthe three goddesses at the navel chakra draws the energy from the two halves ofthe body to the place where the three channels meet, in preparation for bringingthe energy into the central channel. 12

In the next stage of the meditation, the energy is concentrated into threeluminous drops (bindu) at the lower ends of the three channels: a red drop onthe right, a white drop on the left, and a blue drop in the center. The two outeryoginis are envisioned as exhaling into the central channel. Their breath pushesthe red and white drops into the blue one, accomplishing the transfer of energyinto the avadhutt. The unified drop is then drawn up the central channel andabsorbed into the heart chakra, where nondual awareness dawns:

The two goddesses exhale, which makesThe left and right drops dissolve into the middle one ....Envision it merging into the HU¥ at the heart.That (heart drop) is clear and stainless,A non dual drop of intrinsic awareness,Free from all happiness and suffering-Pure awareness, emptied of worldly appearances.How wonderful!Practice yoga-attain nondual wisdoml'"

This is not the end of the meditation, however. The next step is to kindle aninner fire of psychic heat at the navel that melts the drop at the heart, generatinga stream of blissful nectar. The nectarine fluid is then directed in various ways togenerate further nuances of insight and bliss. The highest states of transcendentbliss are produced by its upward movement along the central channel, cul-minating at the crown of the head.14

At this stage of the visualization, the central font of blood that streams upwardfrom Chinnamunda's neck assumes a primary role. The liquid that flows into herown mouth represents the melting drops that rise in the central channel and flood

CHINNAMU~I?A 407406 CHAPTER 20

ALLEGORY FOR INNER YOGA PRACTICES

of illumination and a vision of the clear light. Inner yoga practitioners seek toreplicate this process during life and to integrate the resultant nondual wisdominto daily, waking consciousness. II

In the yogic interpretation of her iconography, Chinnarnunda embodies thecentral energy pathway of the body, or avadhurl, The companion yoginisrepresent the rwo side channels: Vajravarnani on her left corresponds to lalana,while VajravairocanI on her right personifies rasana, Several stages of the inneryoga are represented by the image, for the nature of the exchange among thethree yoginis changes as the meditation unfolds.

The practitioner first envisions the triad on a red or multihued lotus at thenavel, where the side channels intersect the central channel. Initially envisioningthe three goddesses at the navel chakra draws the energy from the rwo halves ofthe body to the place where the three channels meet, in preparation for bringingthe energy into the central channel. 12

In the next stage of the meditation, the energy is concentrated into threeluminous drops (bindu) at the lower ends of the three channels: a red drop onthe right, a white drop on the left, and a blue drop in the center. The rwo outeryoginis are envisioned as exhaling into the central channel. Their breath pushesthe red and white drops into the blue one, accomplishing the transfer of energyinto the avadhutt. The unified drop is then drawn up the central channel andabsorbed into the heart chakra, where nondual awareness dawns:

interpretation. Elisabeth Benard's comprehensive study of Chinnamunda locatesthe primary significance of the self-beheading motif in its reference to internalyogic practices, attributing its mysterious, awe-inspiring quality in part to the factthat it is a "magnified depiction of something invisible to ordinary vision."?

Chinnamunda and the rwo yoginis who accompany her offer a visual allegoryfor advanced yogic meditations known in Buddhist terminology as perfectionstage yoga (utpanna-krama) and in the Hindu context as kur.z4alinl-yoga. Thisinner yoga, which comes at the end of a long course of meditative training andesoteric initiations, involves the movement and concentration of psychic en-ergies within the subtle yogic anatomy of the body. The central energy pathwaytraverses the body along the spine and continues around the crown of the headto the forehead. Two ancillary channels run parallel to it. The channel on theright is known as rasand, the one on the left is termed laland, and the main,central pathway is the avadhutl. The rwo side channels coil around the avadhiitIat four main junctures, or chakras, at the navel, heart, throat, and forehead. Thepsychic energies or winds (prar.za) which carry a person's thoughts and emo-tions normally course throughout the body in a nerwork of seventy-two .thousand psychic veins and in the rwo side channels. The dispersion of theenergy corresponds to the myriad thought processes that mire the mind inworldly existence. Underlying the seemingly infinite variety of dualisticthoughts, however, is the fundamental division of the world into self and other,or subject and object. The right channel and subsidiary branching veins supportthe subjective portion of experience; the left channel and veins carry thoughtconstructions pertaining to external objects. 8

The winds do not ordinarily enter the central channel of their own accord.The goal of inner yoga is to gather all the energy into the central channel, use itto open and untie the knots at the chakras, and direct it in specific ways togenerate subtle realizations and states of bliss. When the energies abide in thecentral channel, they no longer support dualistic thought. Conceptualiry, de-prived of its foundation, automatically disappears, baring the natural essence ofthe mind and restoring its capacity for direct, intuitive wisdorn.f Geshe KelsangGyatso explains that when the energies are gathered in the central channel, "thedualistic conceptualizing mind-the source of cyclic existence-will no longerhave any foundation and will therefore disappear. ... The myriad of negativethoughts powered by the dualistic view will all vanish automatically, withouteffort."lo Normally all the energies enter the central channel and dissolve intothe heart chakra only at the moment of death, giving rise to a fleeting experience

The two goddesses exhale, which makesThe left and right drops dissolve into the middle one ....Envision it merging into the HU¥ at the heart.That (heart drop) is clear and stainless,A non dual drop of intrinsic awareness,Free from all happiness and suffering-Pure awareness, emptied of worldly appearances.How wonderful!Practice yoga-attain nondual wisdornl'"

This is not the end of the meditation, however. The next step is to kindle aninner fire of psychic heat at the navel that melts the drop at the heart, generatinga stream of blissful nectar. The nectarine fluid is then directed in various ways togenerate further nuances of insight and bliss. The highest states of transcendentbliss are produced by its upward movement along the central channel, cul-minating at the crown of the head. 14

At this stage of the visualization, the central font of blood that streams upwardfrom Chinnamunda's neck assumes a primary role. The liquid that flows into herown mouth represents the melting drops that rise in the central channel and flood

408 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUNDA 409

the crown chakra, giVIng rise to supreme bliss.15 Life-giving blood is an aptmetaphor for the yogic nectar in which the life essence is concentrated. The term"nectar" (amrta) applies here in both of its meanings, as the ambrosia of bliss andelixir of immortality. Flooding the crown chakra, in essence "feeding oneself' withthe nectarine drops, is the psychophysiological basis of transcendent bliss, as well asa source of profound regeneration and renewal. In this respect, the severed headborne aloft in her left hand corresponds to the skull bowl displayed by other femaleBuddhas. Both attributes reflect mastery of the inner yogic practice in which theconcentrated life energy is brought into the crown chakra, turning it into averitable cranial chalice, overflowing with radiant nectar of bliss and immortality.

process of yogic purification, as the mind IS withdrawn from sense objects andworldly appearances and immersed in its intrinsic luminosity and blissfulness. Evenbreath may be suspended during this state, as the entire psychophysical organismbecomes self-sustaining. 17 Thus, the dissevered body of Chinnarnunda is really animage of wholeness, proclaiming the possibility of tapping an infinite stream ofenergy within oneself. She holds her head at arm's length because she requires andreceives nothing from outside herself. Liberated from worldly experiences, senseimpressions, and even respiration, she drinks perpetually from an inner wellspringof joy and knowledge, the nectar of bliss and wisdom, the elixir of eternal life.

Chinnamunda portrays the paradox inherent in the process of spiritualawakening. It is at once a psychic death, insofar as experience of oneself as anindividual, permanent self with fixed boundaries is eradicated, and a spiritualrebirth, the dawning of universal awareness and infinite expansiveness of being.The cremation ground in which Chinnamunda is envisioned dramatizes thedeath of selfhood at the heart of this transformation. The site of the combustionof the physical body is a fitting symbol for the yogic dissolution of the psycheinto its purest form as luminous, blissful consciousness. The cremation pyressymbolize the flames of wisdom, kindled within as a yogic fire that incineratesthe states of mind that feed the ego. Thus, Chinnamunda's stand upon thecharnel ground represents the victory of one who has undergone psychic deathand emerged, triumphant, on the other side.

PHYSICAL RENEWAL AND SPIRITUAL REBIRTH

Following this interpretation, the streams of liquid that feed the companionyoginis may refer to a subsequent stage of the meditation, when the energyaccumulated in the central channel is spread outward again to purify the rightand left channels and peripheral veins throughout the body. The practitionerconsciously directs the energy to remove blockages in the network of subtleveins, repair them where they are broken, restore them where they have shriv-eled or become brittle, and render them smooth and supple. The diffusion of theenergy regenerates the body, restoring youthfulness and bestowing perfecthealth. 16 This yogic purification process accomplishes a profound healing onthe metaphysical level, which underlies organic sickness and health. At this finalstage of the inner yoga, the crimson liquid that pours from Chinnamunda'sheadless neck is a Tantric fountain of eternal youth.

Thus, the image of self-decapitation, perhaps seemingly gruesome, is actuallya dramatic image of regeneration and spiritual rebirth. The associated yogicpractice bestows youthful vigor and flexibility on the body and restores theoriginal purity of the heart and mind. One who becomes adept at this yoga is alsoprepared for a conscious, enlightening death experience. Persons who experiencethe clear light of mind for the first time at death are not prepared to merge into itsengulfing brilliance. The force of egoic attachment compels them to revert toindividuated consciousness and continue on the afterdeath journey throughrealms of terrifying and enticing psychological apparition, until settling in awomb or egg for their next rebirth. A meditator who has undergone this psychicdissolution during life, however, can merge fully into the clear light and expe-rience visionary encounters with enlightened beings in the afterlife, as well aschoose the next form of embodiment that he or she will adopt.

Chinnamunda's headless condition may be interpreted as a symbol of theintrospective and self-sufficient state of consciousness that prevails during this

REVELATION AND TRANSMISSION

The worship of Chinnarnunda was introduced by Laksminkara, a female ma-hasiddha, or "great perfected one," who may have lived in the ninth century.Laksminkara's biography traces her journey to enlightenment, explaining howshe attained the level of visionary insight necessary to receive and impart arevelation of deity. Laksminkara was a princess by birth and a native ofUddiyana,an important Tantric center in northwestern India. She had received training inSanskrit, philosophy, meditation, and esoteric yoga before leaving home tomarry the prince of Lanka. Laksminkara felt revulsion for her fiance when she sawhim return from a hunting expedition with piles of slaughtered animals, so shegave away her dowry, escaped to a cremation ground, and fended off searchparties by feigning insanity. Laksminkara spent seven years in deep meditation inher self-imposed exile. Her efforts as a solitary yogini were crowned with fullenlightenment and a state of visionary attUnement in which she could see andreceive instruction directly from Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

Laksminkara remained in the forest, residing in a cave, and began to attractand train disciples. One day the king, Jalendra, chanced upon her cave during a

408 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUr:<I?A 409

the crown chakra, glvmg rise to supreme bliss.15 Life-giving blood is an aptmetaphor for the yogic nectar in which the life essence is concentrated. The term"nectar" (amrta) applies here in both of its meanings, as the ambrosia of bliss andelixir of immortality. Flooding the crown chakra, in essence "feeding oneself' withthe nectarine drops, is the psychophysiological basis of transcendent bliss, as well asa source of profound regeneration and renewal. In this respect, the severed headborne aloft in her left hand corresponds to the skull bowl displayed by other femaleBuddhas. Both attributes reflect mastery of the inner yogic practice in which theconcentrated life energy is brought into the crown chakra, turning it into averitable cranial chalice, overflowing with radiant nectar of bliss and immortality.

Following this interpretation, the streams of liquid that feed the companionyoginis may refer to a subsequent stage of the meditation, when the energyaccumulated in the central channel is spread outward again to purify the rightand left channels and peripheral veins throughout the body. The practitionerconsciously directs the energy to remove blockages in the network of subtleveins, repair them where they are broken, restore them where they have shriv-eled or become brittle, and render them smooth and supple. The diffusion of theenergy regenerates the body, restoring youthfulness and bestowing perfecthealth. 16 This yogic purification process accomplishes a profound healing onthe metaphysical level, which underlies organic sickness and health. At this finalstage of the inner yoga, the crimson liquid that pours from Chinnamunda'sheadless neck is a Tantric fountain of eternal youth.

Thus, the image of self-decapitation, perhaps seemingly gruesome, is actuallya dramatic image of regeneration and spiritual rebirth. The associated yogicpractice bestows youthful vigor and flexibility on the body and restores theoriginal purity of the heart and mind. One who becomes adept at this yoga is alsoprepared for a conscious, enlightening death experience. Persons who experiencethe clear light of mind for the first time at death are not prepared to merge into itsengulfing brilliance. The force of egoic attachment compels them to revert toindividuated consciousness and continue on the afterdeath journey throughrealms of terrifying and enticing psychological apparition, until settling in awomb or egg for their next rebirth. A meditator who has undergone this psychicdissolution during life, however, can merge fully into the clear light and expe-rience visionary encounters with enlightened beings in the afterlife, as well aschoose the next form of embodiment that he or she will adopt.

Chinnamunda's headless condition may be interpreted as a symbol of theintrospective and self-sufficient state of consciousness that prevails during this

process of yogic purification, as the mind is withdrawn from sense objects andworldly appearances and immersed in its intrinsic luminosity and blissfulness. Evenbreath may be suspended during this state, as the entire psychophysical organismbecomes self-sustaining. 17 Thus, the dissevered body of Chinnarnunda is really animage of wholeness, proclaiming the possibility of tapping an infinite stream ofenergy within oneself. She holds her head at arm's length because she requires andreceives nothing from outside herself. Liberated from worldly experiences, senseimpressions, and even respiration, she drinks perpetually from an inner wellspringof joy and knowledge, the nectar of bliss and wisdom, the elixir of eternal life.

Chinnamunda portrays the paradox inherent in the process of spiritualawakening. It is at once a psychic death, insofar as experience of oneself as anindividual, permanent self with fixed boundaries is eradicated, and a spiritualrebirth, the dawning of universal awareness and infinite expansiveness of being.The cremation ground in which Chinnarnunda is envisioned dramatizes thedeath of selfhood at the heart of this transformation. The site of the combustionof the physical body is a fitting symbol for the yogic dissolution of the psycheinto its purest form as luminous, blissful consciousness. The cremation pyressymbolize the flames of wisdom, kindled within as a yogic fire that incineratesthe states of mind that feed the ego. Thus, Chinnamunda's stand upon thecharnel ground represents the victory of one who has undergone psychic deathand emerged, triumphant, on the other side.

PHYSICAL RENEWAL AND SPIRITUAL REBIRTH

REVELATION AND TRANSMISSION

The worship of Chinnarnunda was introduced by Laksminkara, a female ma-hasiddha, or "great perfected one," who may have lived in the ninth century.Laksminkara's biography traces her journey to enlightenment, explaining howshe attained the level of visionary insight necessary to receive and impart arevelation of dei ty. Laksminkara was a princess by birth and a native ofD ddiyana,an important Tantric center in northwestern India. She had received training inSanskrit, philosophy, meditation, and esoteric yoga before leaving home tomarry the prince ofLarika. Laksminkara felt revulsion for her fiance when she sawhim return from a hunting expedition with piles of slaughtered animals, so shegave away her dowry, escaped to a cremation ground, and fended off searchparties by feigning insanity. Laksminkara spent seven years in deep meditation inher self-imposed exile. Her efforts as a solitary yogini were crowned with fullenlightenment and a state of visionary attUnement in which she could see andreceive instruction directly from Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

Laksrninkara remained in the forest, residing in a cave, and began to attractand train disciples. One day the king, Jalendra, chanced upon her cave during a

410 CHAPTER 20

hunting expedition. Peering inside, he saw that her body was aglow, filling thecave with light, and that she was surrounded by celestial maidens who wereworshipping and making offerings to her. The king returned the next day andrequested her to be his guru. The forest-dwelling yogini knew she was notdestined to be his teacher and imparted that he should instead receive initiationfrom one of her disciples, a low-caste sweeper who was a servant in the king'sown palace. The ruler, following her guidance, became a disciple of his menialhireling. Eventually, Laksminkara and the sweeper traveled through the coun-tryside, teaching and displaying miracles. When Laksrnlnkara died, she as-cended bodily into Khecara, Dakinl Paradise. 18

Two meditation manuals authored by Laksminkara are preserved in theTibetan canon.19 Her portrayal with a sword in one hand and a head in theother also refers to her association with Chinnamunda, 20

Laksrninkara' s biography records that she taught the visualization and inneryogas of Vajravarahi but does not specify the severed-headed form of thegoddess. When the core texts on Laksmlnkara's meditational system were cir-culated in Tibet, they were designated as "the six treatises on Vajravarahi.,,21Similarly, lines of transmission recorded in Tibet place Laksmmkara at the headof "Vajravarahi' lineages.22 This is unsurprising, for Chinnamunda is notregarded a distinct goddess but rather as a form ofVajrayogini and Vajravarahl,synonymous epithets for the supreme Tantric female Buddha. Therefore, theearliest writings, including those of Laksrninkara herself, refer to Chinnamundaas Vajrayogini, Trikaya- Vajrayogini, Chinnarnunda- Vajrayogini, Vajravarahi,and Chinnamunda-Vajravarahj.f ' Accordingly, the earliest known artistic rep-resentation of Chinnarnunda appears in a circa early thirteenth-centurypainting from Khara Khoto that centers on Vajravarahi, casting Chinnarnundaas one of her manifestations.f"

Laksminkara's compositions include a song that the princess-adept used tousher her disciples into the realm of nondual wisdom. T antric teachers gen-erally composed such songs spontaneously for their inner circle of disciples,often in the course of a ritual feast, to transmit esoteric teachings. The poeticimagery, like Chinnamunda' s iconography, defies interpretation from thestandpoint of ordinary logic. The opening verse uses the motif of self-beheadingto introduce the theme, developed in the rest of the song, that it is necessary tosever dualistic thinking at the root if one is to reach a level of direct knowingbeyond conceptual dualities:

Lay your head on a block of butter and chop-Break the blade of the axe!The woodcutter laughs!

CHINNAMUJ:'II?A 411

A frog swallows an elephant!It's amazing, Mekhala,Do not doubt.If it confounds you, adept,Drop concepts now!

My teacher didn't tell me,I didn't understand-Flowers blossomed in the sky!It's marvelous, Mekhala,Have no doubt!If you're incredulous, adept,Drop your doubts!

A barren woman gives birth!A chair dances!Because cotton is expensive,The naked weep!

Amazing! An elephant sits on a throneHeld up by two bees!Incredible! The sightless lead,The mute speak!

Amazing! A mouse chases a cat!An elephant flees from a crazed donkey!

It's miraculous, Mekhala,Do not doubt!If you're stunned, adept,Drop your doubts!

Amazing! A hungry monkey eats rocks!Wonderful! The experience of the mind-Who can express it?25

The preceding verses confirm that for Laksminkara, severing the head sig-nifies freedom from conceptualiry and its limitations. The tool of this liberationis the blade of wisdom. The wielder of the blade laughs, perhaps with aston-ished joy, as the burden of ego is lifted. A small creature, a frog, swallowssomething ponderous, an elephant, just as the realization of nondualiry con-sumes the entire edifice of self and world constructed by dualistic thought.

410 CHAPTER 20

hunting expedition. Peering inside, he saw that her body was aglow, filling thecave with light, and that she was surrounded by celestial maidens who wereworshipping and making offerings to her. The king returned the next day andrequested her to be his guru. The forest-dwelling yogini knew she was notdestined to be his teacher and imparted that he should instead receive initiationfrom one of her disciples, a low-caste sweeper who was a servant in the king'sown palace. The ruler, following her guidance, became a disciple of his menialhireling. Eventually, Laksminkara and the sweeper traveled through the coun-tryside, teaching and displaying miracles. When Laksmlnkara died, she as-cended bodily into Khecara, Dakinl Paradise. 18

Two meditation manuals authored by Laksrninkara are preserved in theTibetan canon.19 Her portrayal with a sword in one hand and a head in theother also refers to her association with Chinnamunda.i''

Laksrnlnkara' s biography records that she taught the visualization and inneryogas of Vajravarahi but does not specify the severed-headed form of thegoddess. When the core texts on Laksminkara' s meditarional system were cir-culated in Tibet, they were designated as "the six treatises on Vajravarahi.,,21Similarly, lines of transmission recorded in Tibet place Laksminkara at the headof "Vajravarahl" lineages.22 This is unsurprising, for Chinnamunda is notregarded a distinct goddess but rather as a form ofVajrayogini and Vajravarahi,synonymous epithets for the supreme Tantric female Buddha. Therefore, theearliest writings, including those of Laksminkara herself, refer to Chinnamundaas Vajrayogini, Trikaya-Vajrayogini, Chinnarnunda-Vajrayoginl, Vajravarahi,and Chinnamunda-Vajravarahl.Y Accordingly, the earliest known artistic rep-resentation of Chinnamunda appears in a circa early thirteenth-centurypainting from Khara Khoto that centers on Vajravarahi, casting Chinnamundaas one of her manifestations.24

Laksminkara's compositions include a song that the princess-adept used tousher her disciples into the realm of nondual wisdom. Tantric teachers gen-erally composed such songs spontaneously for their inner circle of disciples,often in the course of a ritual feast, to transmit esoteric teachings. The poeticimagery, like Chinnamunda's iconography, defies interpretation from thestandpoint of ordinary logic. The opening verse uses the motif of self-beheadingto introduce the theme, developed in the rest of the song, that it is necessary tosever dualistic thinking at the root if one is to reach a level of direct knowingbeyond conceptual dualities:

Lay your head on a block of butter and chop-Break the blade of the axe!The woodcutter laughs!

CHINNAMUNDA 411

A frog swallows an elephant!It's amazing, Mekhala,Do not doubt.If it confounds you, adept,Drop concepts now!

My teacher didn't tell me,I didn't understand-Flowers blossomed in the sky!It's marvelous, Mekhala,Have no doubt!If you're incredulous, adept,Drop your doubts!

A barren woman gives birth!A chair dances!Because cotton is expensive,The naked weep!

Amazing! An elephant sits on a throneHeld up by two bees!Incredible! The sightless lead,The mute speak!

Amazing! A mouse chases a cat!An elephant flees from a crazed donkey!

It's miraculous, Mekhala,Do not doubt!If you're stunned, adept,Drop your doubts!

Amazing! A hungry monkey eats rocks!Wonderful! The experience of the mind-Who can express it?25

The preceding verses confirm that for Laksrnrnkara, severing the head sig-nifies freedom from conceptuality and its limitations. The tool of this liberationis the blade of wisdom. The wielder of the blade laughs, perhaps with aston-ished joy, as the burden of ego is lifted. A small creature, a frog, swallowssomething ponderous, an elephant, just as the realization of nonduality con-sumes the entire edifice of self and world constructed by dualistic thought.

412 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUNDA 413

Laksrninkara challenges her listeners with seemingly impossible scenarios-achair dancing, bees lifting an elephant, a monkey eating rocks-offering a seriesof riddles that the logical mind cannot unravel. The only way to solve the riddlesis to "drop concepts now!" Her song offers a tantalizing taste of the exhilaratingfreedom of nondual awareness that blossoms miraculously, like flowers in thesky, when one passes through the veil of illusion and enters the realm of mir-acles, magic, and infinite possibilities.

Other early teachers and formulators of the practice were direct disciples ofLaksmtnkara or students of her disciples. Laksminkara's closest disciple wasprobably the low-caste sweeper who is the only protege mentioned (albeit notby name) in her biography and who spent many years with her as companionand consort. The sweeper was authorized to confer initiation and transmit herteachings, as he did to King Jalendra, but he does not figure in her discipliclineage. Instead, Virupa is recognized as her immediate successor. 26 Virupawrote several texts on Chinnamu'!q.a27 and was a key figure in the transmissionof the practice to Tibet.

The sisters Mekhala and Kanakhala, who undertook Tantric practice andattained enlightenment together, are important for their formulation of the inneryoga of Chinnamunda. The guru who taught them the practice was Kanha, whomay have learned it from his guru, Jalandhari, who in turn had studied withLaksminkara. 28There is also evidence that the sisters received instruction directlyfrom Laksminkara. Mekhala is addressed by name in the song translated above,and the sisters are designated in the colophon as its rransrnitters.Y

According to their shared biography, Mekhala and Kanakhala fell into disgracewhen the family of the brothers to whom they were betrothed abruptly terminatedthe engagement. The girls decided that, instead of succumbing to despair, theywould undertake spiritual practice together. The yogi Kanha passed through theirvillage and taught the sisters how to meditate on Chinnamunda. Mekhala andKanakhala remained unmarried and devoted themselves to the practice for the nexttwelve years. After attaining enlightenment, they visited Kanha in his hermitage torender homage and gratitude.

The guru pretended not to recognize them, prompting them to relate theirstory. He then demanded their heads as payment for his teachings. The sistersproduced swords out of their mouths and beheaded themselves without hesi-tation, singing:

Dwelling in the blessed unity of vast space and pure awareness,We know no separation between self and others.30

We have blended creative and fulfillment meditation,We have destroyed all distinction between samsara and nirvana,We have united vision and action in perfect harmonyWe know no distinction between acceptance and rejection.

The "enlightenment song" of Mekhala and Kanakhala expresses theirnondual wisdom by evoking the dualities whose underlying unity they haveperceived: worldly life and liberation, acceptance and rejection, self and other.In this respect, severing their heads demonstrated that they had indeed trans-cended the dualities of ordinary awareness, which would hold such an act to beimpossible.

Fantastic as it may seem, in the Tantric context the self-beheading ofMekhalaand Kanakhala would not be regarded simply as a metaphor for nondual aware-ness. Rather, the sisters' stunning feat would be understood as a magical display, anatural result of their meditative mastery and yogic attainments. Supernormalpowers are commonly attributed to inner yoga adepts, for the opening of thecentral channel, untying of the chakra knots, and purification of the network ofsubtle veins are regarded as the bodily basis for clairvoyant vision and extraordinarypowers.i" The sisters displayed other supernatural talents aswell, such as the abilityto pass through solid objects, control people and objects with a gaze, and transportphysical objects through space. When some Hindu yogis were heckling the sisters,they solved the problem with ease, simply relocating the yogis' huts to a safedistance.32 In view of the expectation that magical powers accompany success inTantric practice, the guru's shocking and seemingly bizarre request that the sistersbehead themselves was actually a challenge to prove their yogic mastery.

After their successful demonstration, Kanha restored their heads, acknowl-edged their level of realization, and authorized them to become teachersthemselves. The sisters danced away and devoted the rest of their lives to lib-erating others. When they died, they ascended bodily to Khecara, the paradisalrealm of the female Buddha, leaving behind no corporeal remains-.33

Mekhala and Kanakhala are usually portrayed with swords, either dancingwith the sabers held aloft or in the act of cutting off their heads, illustrating theirmiraculous display of self-beheading.'" Indeed, after they performed this mar-velous deed, people began to refer to them as "severed-headed yoginis.,,35 Thisiconography also alludes to their achievement of unity with Chinnarnunda andtheir role as teachers of the related inner yoga practice. Their teachings on thetopic are preserved in the Tibetan canon.36

LATER INTERPRETATIONS

From India, Chinnamunda practice spread to Nepal and Tibet.37 The practicemay have transmitted to Nepal by Varendraruci, a Newar pundit, in the late

412 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMUJ:',?A 413

Laksminkara challenges her listeners with seemingly impossible scenarios-achair dancing, bees lifting an elephant, a monkey eating rocks-offering a seriesof riddles that the logical mind cannot unravel. The only way to solve the riddlesis to "drop concepts now!" Her song offers a tantalizing taste of the exhilaratingfreedom of nondual awareness that blossoms miraculously, like flowers in thesky, when one passes through the veil of illusion and enters the realm of mir-acles, magic, and infinite possibilities.

Other early teachers and formulators of the practice were direct disciples ofLaksminkara or students of her disciples. Laksminkara's closest disciple wasprobably the low-caste sweeper who is the only protege mentioned (albeit notby name) in her biography and who spent many years with her as companionand consort. The sweeper was authorized to confer initiation and transmit herteachings, as he did to King Jalendra, but he does not figure in her discipliclineage. Instead, Virupa is recognized as her immediate successor. 26 Virupawrote several texts on Chinnamunda+' and was a key figure in the transmissionof the practice to Tibet.

The sisters Mekhala and Kanakhala, who undertook T antric practice andattained enlightenment together, are important for their formulation of the inneryoga of Chinnamunda. The guru who taught them the practice was Kanha, whomay have learned it from his guru, Jalandhari, who in turn had studied with~mInkara.28 There is also evidence that the sisters received instruction directlyfrom Laksrninkara. Mekhala is addressed by name in the song translated above,and the sisters are designated in the colophon as its transmitrers.Y

According to their shared biography, Mekhala and Kanakhala fell into disgracewhen the family of the brothers to whom they were betrothed abruptly terminatedthe engagement. The girls decided that, instead of succumbing to despair, theywould undertake spiritual practice together. The yogi Kanha passed through theirvillage and taught the sisters how to meditate on Chinnamunda. Mekhala andKanakhala remained unmarried and devoted themselves to the practice for the nexttwelve years. After attaining enlightenment, they visited Kanha in his hermitage torender homage and gratitude.

The guru pretended not to recognize them, prompting them to relate theirstory. He then demanded their heads as payment for his teachings. The sistersproduced swords out of their mouths and beheaded themselves without hesi-tation, singing:

Dwelling in the blessed unity of vast space and pure awareness,We know no separation between self and others.30

The "enlightenment song" of Mekhala and Kanakhala expresses theirnondual wisdom by evoking the dualities whose underlying unity they haveperceived: worldly life and liberation, acceptance and rejection, self and other.In this respect, severing their heads demonstrated that they had indeed trans-cended the dualities of ordinary awareness, which would hold such an act to beimpossible.

Fantastic as it may seem, in the Tantric context the self-beheading ofMekhalaand Kanakhala would not be regarded simply as a metaphor for nondual aware-ness. Rather, the sisters' stunning feat would be understood as a magical display, anatural result of their meditative mastery and yogic attainments. Supernormalpowers are commonly attributed to inner yoga adepts, for the opening of thecentral channel, untying of the chakra knots, and purification of the network ofsubtle veins are regarded as the bodily basis for clairvoyant vision and extraordinarypowers.31 The sisters displayed other supernatural talents as well, such as the abilityto pass through solid objects, control people and objects with a gaze, and transportphysical objects through space. When some Hindu yogis were heckling the sisters,they solved the problem with ease, simply relocating the yogis' huts to a safedistance.32 In view of the expectation that magical powers accompany success inTantric practice, the guru's shocking and seemingly bizarre request that the sistersbehead themselves was actually a challenge to prove their yogic mastery.

After their successful demonstration, Kanha restored their heads, acknowl-edged their level of realization, and authorized them to become teachersthemselves. The sisters danced away and devoted the rest of their lives to lib-erating others. When they died, they ascended bodily to Khecara, the paradisalrealm of the female Buddha, leaving behind no corporeal remains-.33

Mekhala and Kanakhala are usually portrayed with swords, either dancingwith the sabers held aloft or in the act of cutting off their heads, illustrating theirmiraculous display of self-beheading.34 Indeed, after they performed this mar-velous deed, people began to refer to them as "severed-headed yoginis.,,35 Thisiconography also alludes to their achievement of unity with Chinnarnunda andtheir role as teachers of the related inner yoga practice. Their teachings on thetopic are preserved in the Tibetan canon.36

We have blended creative and fulfillment meditation,We have destroyed all distinction between samsara and nirvana,We have united vision and action in perfect harmonyWe know no distinction between acceptance and rejection.

LATER INTERPRETATIONS

From India, Chinnarnunda practice spread to Nepal and Tibet.37 The practicemay have transmitted to Nepal by Varendraruci, a Newar pundit, in the late

414 CHAPTER 20 CHINNAMU~,?A 415

eleventh or twelfth century, for he cotranslated two Chinnarnunda texts (one byLaksmlnkara, the other by Virupa) in the Tibetan canon.38 One of the earliestknown artistic representations of Chinnamunda appears in a fourteenth-centurypainting from Nepal, in which composition she is a subsidiary figure, appearingas an emanation of Vajravarahi. 39 It is not clear to what degree her practiceflourished in that country. I have not encountered a Newar text relating to thegoddess, and one finds little evidence of the practice of Chinnamunda in Nepaltoday, although other forms of VajrayoginI playa prominent role in NewarTantrism.

In Tibet, Chinnarnunda appeared in multiple sectarian contexts, includingthe Nyingma repertoire.Y Practice of the goddess in her yellow, severed-headedform is maintained in the Sakya sect, which traces its origins to Virupa.41 Apartfrom this, she seems virtually to have vanished from the active Tibetan pan-theon. However, a range of texts and works of art featuring the goddess suggesther ongoing presence in varying sectarian settings through the centuries. Inthese sources, the goddess is red and appears in diverse of epiphanies. There isan Indic precedent for envisioning Chinnamunda as red,42 but these Tibetansources evince novel iconographic configurations.

A nineteenth-century Tibetan painting portrays Chinnamunda as red, dis-playing her severed head in a skull cup. A mystical staff (khatyiinga) is posi-tioned so that it crosses her headless neck, as if to seal the energy within thecentral channel. Absent are the streams of blood and two companion yoginis.43

This depiction introduces features common to other forms of VajrayoginI,namely, a leftward-facing lunge, mystical staff, and skull bowl. A fascinatingvision of Chinnamunda appears in a mandala centering on the goddess ·in adancing rather than lunging pose, accompanied by her green and yellowcompanions. All three are beheaded and hold their dissevered heads in their lefthand while raising a chopper aloft in the right.44

An interesting meditation practice recorded by Taranatha (sixteenth cen-tury) evokes Chinnarnunda in a sequential visualization. In the initial stage, thepractitioner envisions the Narodakini form of VajrayoginI (PI. 11). In thesecond phase, Chinnamunda appears with a severed head, two companiongoddesses, and streams of blood issuing into their mouths. In the third and finalstep, her head is restored to her body.45

These works of art and Taranatha's progressive evocation indicate thatChinnamunda had retained a sufficiently vital presence in the Tibetan pantheonto inspire new visualizations and iconographic forms, but for some reason thesevered-headed form of the goddess did not compel the same interest as otherforms ofVajrayoginI. The practice of Chinnamunda was perhaps displaced bythat of Chod, which also features a motif of self-beheading.

PARALLEL FIGURES AND PRACTICES

Chinnamunda has a Hindu counterpart in the goddess Chinnarnasta, whose namesimilarly means "Severed-Headed Goddess.,,46 Chinnamasra, like Chinnarnunda,occupies an important but arcane niche in her tradition. There are few images andtemples in active worship, and these are sought out primarily by T antric practi-tioners in pursuit of occult powers and yogic perfection.47

The iconography of Chinnamasta closely corresponds to that of her Bud-dhist counterpart. Chinnamasta is sometimes said to be "bright as millions ofsuns," suggesting a white or golden radiance, but in other cases is described andportrayed as red. The blood issuing from her headless neck streams into themouths of two companion yoginis, who are variously blue, white, or red.Chinnamasta sits or stands on Kamadeva and Rati, personifications of eroticdesire, who recline beneath her in sexual union. Apart from these divergentdetails, the Hindu and Buddhist goddess triads are virtually indistinguishable. hicall 48Iconograp I y.

Chinnamasta figures among a group of ten T antric goddesses known as theMahavidyas and, like Chinnarnunda, is associated with esoteric yogic prac-tices.49 These techniques, designated in the Hindu context as ku,!c!alinf-yoga,are closely akin to the Buddhist inner yogas, as seen in the following descriptionby David Kinsley:

The blood spurting from Chinnamasta's severed throat represents theupward-flowing ku,!c!alinf that has broken through all the knots (gran-this) of the chakras and has cleared the central passage, the susumndniicff.... The power of the upward-flowing ku'!c!alinf, the power of therising spiritual consciousness, hits the topmost chakra, the thousand-petaled lotus, with such force that it blows her head right off, that is, ittransforms all conventional, habitual, limited mental structures. 50

The similarity of the two goddesses, both in appearance and the prac-tices associated with them, naturally raises the question of shared origins orborrowing. Differing views have been advanced, but there is substantive evidencethat the Buddhist goddess is the earlier figure and that Chinnamasta was pat-terned after her. Extant texts and images of Chinnarnunda predate those ofChinnarnasta, and Buddhist terms (notably, vajra) appear in some of the Hindumantras. 51The possibility of an earlier, mutual source cannot be ruled out, but ifthat is the case it appears that all traces of the prototype have disappeared.

The motif of using one's own body to nourish others, seen in the visualizationpractices of both severed-headed goddesses, is rooted in female biologicalexperience and thus arguably has a special resonance for women. Adelheid

414 CHAPTER 20

eleventh or twelfth century, for he cotranslated two Chinnamunda texts (one byLaksrninkara, the other by Virupa) in the Tibetan canon.38 One of the earliestknown artistic representations of Chinnarnunda appears in a fourteenth-centurypainting from Nepal, in which composition she is a subsidiary figure, appearingas an emanation of Vajravarahi. 39 It is not clear to what degree her practiceflourished in that country. I have not encountered a Newar text relating to thegoddess, and one finds little evidence of the practice of Chinnamunda in Nepaltoday, although other forms of VajrayoginI playa prominent role in NewarTantrism.

In Tibet, Chinnamunda appeared in multiple sectarian contexts, includingthe Nyingma repertoire.l" Practice of the goddess in her yellow, severed-headedform is maintained in the Sakya sect, which traces its origins to Vinlpa.41 Apartfrom this, she seems virtually to have vanished from the active Tibetan pan-theon. However, a range of texts and works of art featuring the goddess suggesther ongoing presence in varying sectarian settings through the centuries. Inthese sources, the goddess is red and appears in diverse of epiphanies. There isan Indic precedent for envisioning Chinnamunda as red,42 but these Tibetansources evince novel iconographic configurations.

A nineteenth-century Tibetan painting portrays Chinnamunda as red, dis-playing her severed head in a skull cup. A mystical staff (khatyiinga) is posi-tioned so that it crosses her headless neck, as if to seal the energy within thecentral channel. Absent are the streams of blood and two companion yoginis.43

This depiction introduces features common to other forms of VajrayoginI,namely, a leftward-facing lunge, mystical staff, and skull bowl. A fascinatingvision of Chinnarnunda appears in a mandala centering on the goddess ·in adancing rather than lunging pose, accompanied by her green and yellowcompanions. All three are beheaded and hold their dissevered heads in their lefthand while raising a chopper aloft in the right.44

An interesting meditation practice recorded by Taranatha (sixteenth cen-tury) evokes Chinnamunda in a sequential visualization. In the initial stage, thepractitioner envisions the Narodakini form of VajrayoginI (PI. 11). In thesecond phase, Chinnarnunda appears with a severed head, two companiongoddesses, and streams of blood issuing into their mouths. In the third and finalstep, her head is restored to her body.45

These works of art and Taranatha's progressive evocation indicate thatChinnamunda had retained a sufficiently vital presence in the Tibetan pantheonto inspire new visualizations and iconographic forms, but for some reason thesevered-headed form of the goddess did not compel the same interest as otherforms ofVajrayoginI. The practice of Chinnamunda was perhaps displaced bythat of Chod, which also features a motif of self-beheading.

CHINNAMUNDA 415

PARALLEL FIGURES AND PRACTICES

Chinnamunda has a Hindu counterpart in the goddess Chinnamasta, whose namesimilarly means "Severed-Headed Goddess.,,46 Chinnarnasta, like Chinnarnunda,occupies an important but arcane niche in her tradition. There are few images andtemples in active worship, and these are sought out primarily by T antric practi-tioners in pursuit of occult powers and yogic perfection.47

The iconography of Chinnamasta closely corresponds to that of her Bud-dhist counterpart. Chinnarnasta is sometimes said to be "bright as millions ofsuns," suggesting a white or golden radiance, but in other cases is described andportrayed as red. The blood issuing from her headless neck streams into themouths of two companion yoginis, who are variously blue, white, or red.Chinnamasta sits or stands on Kamadeva and Rati, personifications of eroticdesire, who recline beneath her in sexual union. Apart from these divergentdetails, the Hindu and Buddhist goddess triads are virtually indistinguishable. hicall 48Iconograp I y.

Chinnamasta figures among a group of ten Tantric goddesses known as theMahavidyas and, like Chinnamunda, is associated with esoteric yogic prac-tices.49 These techniques, designated in the Hindu context as kU1}t/alini-yoga,are closely akin to the Buddhist inner yogas, as seen in the following descriptionby David Kinsley:

The blood spurting from Chinnamasra's severed throat represents theupward-flowing kU1}t/alini that has broken through all the knots (gran-this) of the chakras and has cleared the central passage, the susumndniit/i .... The power of the upward-flowing kU1}t/alini, the power of therising spiritual consciousness, hits the topmost chakra, the thousand-petaled lotus, with such force that it blows her head right off, that is, ittransforms all conventional, habitual, limited mental structures. 50

The similarity of the two goddesses, both in appearance and the prac-tices associated with them, naturally raises the question of shared origins orborrowing. Differing views have been advanced, but there is substantive evidencethat the Buddhist goddess is the earlier figure and that Chinnamasta was pat-terned after her. Extant texts and images of Chinnamunda predate those ofChinnarnasta, and Buddhist terms (notably, vajra) appear in some of the Hindumantras. 51The possibility of an earlier, mutual source cannot be ruled out, but ifthat is the case it appears that all traces of the prototype have disappeared.

The motif of using one's own body to nourish others, seen in the visualizationpractices of both severed-headed goddesses, is rooted in female biologicalexperience and thus arguably has a special resonance for women. Adelheid

416 CHAPTER 20

Herrmann- Pfandt endorses the psychological appeal of the imagery for women bycontrasting the motif with the pattern of self-sacrifice associated with the Hindugoddess Durga, In one strand of Durga worship, a male devotee offers himself tothe goddess through a symbolic or ritual self-decapitation. In this scenario, therelationship of the sacrificer (the man) and sacrifice (the man) to the recipient deity(the goddess) is a male-to-female relationship. Herrrnann-Pfandt suggests that thepractice of Chinnamunda was especially appropriate for women because she"personifies in both of her roles as slayer and sacrifice a female-to-female rela-tionship" in which "not only the goddess but also the ego is feminine," so that "awoman identifies directly with both aspects.,,52 This dual identification accordswith the Tantric emphasis on relinquishing one's ego, or ordinary self, whileaffirming one's enlightened essence by visualizing oneself as a deity.

There is evidence that Chinnamasta may have had a special resonance forwomen as well. The Tantrasiira offers the intriguing observation that "if anywoman takes this mantra she not only becomes a tjiikinl along with othertjiikinis but, shedding her husband and son, becomes a perfected yogini whocan move about at will.,,53 Although men as well as women have been countedamong Chinnamasta's votaries over the centuries, this passage speaks to thepossibility that her practice, too, has a distinctive significance for women.

The motif of self-decapitation associated with Chinnamunda invites com-parison with the Tibetan practice of Chad. Both entail a visualization in whichone uses one's own dissevered body to feed and nourish others. In Chadpractice, the meditator envisions himself or herself as VajrayoginI and proceedsto dissect, cook, and serve his or her entire body to a host of hungry, blood-thirsting spirits. Whereas Chinnarnunda is envisioned in a cremation ground,Chad is actually performed in that fearsome setting. Just as Chinnamundaencompasses the offerer, offering, and recipient, Chad texts underscore theunity of the giver, gift, and receiver. In both practices the act of self-sacrifice,although envisioned differently, is a method for overcoming the illusion ofseparate selfhood and cultivating nondual wisdom. 54The practice of Chad, likethat of Chinnarnunda, was introduced by a woman, Machig Labdron. Theimportance of Chad in contemporary Tibetan Buddhism and the virtual dis-appearance of Chinnamunda practice raise an interesting but perhaps unan-swerable question of whether the Chad visualization presently occupies thesame niche, psychologically-cum-religiously, once filled by Chinnamunda.

THE PARADOX OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The bodily manifestation of every Buddha reveals profound truths about thesupreme state of liberation. Chinnamunda's complex image operates on several

CHINNAMUNDA 417

symbolic levels. The reference to esoteric inner yogic visualizations would berelevant for those pursuing these advanced techniques. Her image also conveysa deeper truth, however, at the very heart of the mystery of ultimate liberation.Chinnamunda brims with vitality in a scene of death and destruction, con-fronting the viewer with the most seemingly irreducible opposition in humanexperience, the polarity of life and death. Dancing blissfully amidst the cre-mation flames, she proclaims that death is essential to transformation. Death isto be understood not as the decease of the physical body but rather the demiseof the illusion of separate, egoic existence and passage into a greater reality thatlies beyond and yet within the self. Seeing her image may empower others tocross the ultimate threshold and join her on the other side.

In Tantric soteriology, the realization beyond the death of the self is Bud-dhahood, the state of consummate happiness and universal awareness, attendedby an ability to awaken others to their own inner freedom and capacity forliberation. This state of spiritual perfection is modeled by the severed-headedfemale Buddha, who feeds herself and others with her own vital essence. Hereinwe discover the ultimate significance of Chinnamunda's shocking iconography.As she takes her triumphal stand amid the cremation flames, her body flowswith the elixir of eternal life-the nondual wisdom of Buddhahood, the ulti-mate form of nourishment in the universe.

416 CHAPTER 20

Herrmann- Pfandt endorses the psychological appeal of the imagery for women bycontrasting the motif with the pattern of self-sacrifice associated with the Hindugoddess Durga. In one strand of Durg~ worship, a male devotee offers himself tothe goddess through a symbolic or rirual self-decapitation. In this scenario, therelationship of the sacrificer (the man) and sacrifice (the man) to the recipient deity(the goddess) is a male-to-female relationship. Herrrnann-Pfandt suggests that thepractice of Chinnamunda was especially appropriate for women because she"personifies in both of her roles as slayer and sacrifice a female-to-female rela-tionship" in which "not only the goddess but also the ego is feminine," so that "awoman identifies directly with both aspects.,,52 This dual identification accordswith the Tantric emphasis on relinquishing one's ego, or ordinary self, whileaffirming one's enlightened essence by visualizing oneself as a deity.

There is evidence that Chinnarnasta may have had a special resonance forwomen as well. The Tantrasdra offers the intriguing observation that "if anywoman takes this mantra she not only becomes a r!akini along with otherr!akinis but, shedding her husband and son, becomes a perfected yogini whocan move about at will.,,53 Although men as well as women have been countedamong Chinnamasta's votaries over the centuries, this passage speaks to thepossibility that her practice, too, has a distinctive significance for women.

The motif of self-decapitation associated with Chinnamunda invites com-parison with the Tibetan practice of Chad. Both entail a visualization in whichone uses one's own dissevered body to feed and nourish others. In Chadpractice, the meditator envisions himself or herself as VajrayoginI and proceedsto dissect, cook, and serve his or her entire body to a host of hungry, blood-thirsting spirits. Whereas Chinnarnunda is envisioned in a cremation ground,Chad is actually performed in that fearsome setting. Just as Chinnarnundaencompasses the offerer, offering, and recipient, Chad texts underscore theunity of the giver, gift, and receiver. In both practices the act of self-sacrifice,although envisioned differently, is a method for overcoming the illusion ofseparate selfhood and cultivating nondual wisdom. 54The practice of Chad, likethat of Chinnamunda, was introduced by a woman, Machig Labdron. Theimportance of Chad in contemporary Tibetan Buddhism and the virtual dis-appearance of Chinnamunda practice raise an interesting but perhaps unan-swerable question of whether the Chad visualization presently occupies thesame niche, psychologically-cum-religiously, once filled by Chinnamunda.

THE PARADOX OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The bodily manifestation of every Buddha reveals profound truths about thesupreme state ofliberation. Chinnamunda's complex image operates on several

CHINNAMUNDA 417

symbolic levels. The reference to esoteric inner yogic visualizations would berelevant for those pursuing these advanced techniques. Her image also conveysa deeper truth, however, at the very heart of the mystery of ultimate liberation.Chinnarnunda brims with vitality in a scene of death and destruction, con-fronting the viewer with the most seemingly irreducible opposition in humanexperience, the polarity of life and death. Dancing blissfully amidst the cre-mation flames, she proclaims that death is essential to transformation. Death isto be understood not as the decease of the physical body but rather the demiseof the illusion of separate, egoic existence and passage into a greater reality thatlies beyond and yet within the self. Seeing her image may empower others tocross the ultimate threshold and join her on the other side.

In Tantric soteriology, the realization beyond the death of the self is Bud-dhahood, the state of consummate happiness and universal awareness, attendedby an ability to awaken others to their own inner freedom and capacity forliberation. This state of spiritual perfection is modeled by the severed-headedfemale Buddha, who feeds herself and others with her own vital essence. Hereinwe discover the ultimate significance of Chinnamunda's shocking iconography.As she takes her triumphal stand amid the cremation flames, her body flowswith the elixir of eternal life-the nondual wisdom of Buddhahood, the ulti-mate form of nourishment in the universe.