gender and equality problematics
DESCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPT
Agenda
Gender Equality
I
Intro to Equality & Inequality
II
Views on Gender
Equality in the past &
today
III
Policies’ Rationale
IV
Findings & Future
Gender Equality
• Sen: Capabilities Approach; Frazer: Parity of participation.
• "A social order in which women and men share the
same opportunities and the same constraints on full participation in both the economic and the domestic realm.” Bailyn (2006);
• Man and women are equal but not identical “Gender equality does not imply that women and men are the same, but
that they have equal value and should be accorded equal treatment.” International Planned Parenthood Federation.
I
Intro to Equality & Inequality
Gender Equality
• Key to Human and Social Development Freedom to run life one values (Sen);
increase life quality Transform social & economic relations.
• Considered in terms of: Distribution (e.g.education, health) Participation (e.g. in labour force, in politics) Freedom/autonomy (access to legal rights) Decision making (households’ level) Recognition (value/voice in communities, in market)
Emp
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Inclusion, new opportunities, rights
Gender Inequalities
1. Social – education, welfare, household work division.
2. Political – participation and decision making.
3. Economic– exclusion from employment, disparity in wages, rights to land & property.
4. Cultural – harmful practices for females.
Socially constructed roles, Moser (1989) Male: productive, constituency based politics. vs. Female: productive, reproductive (biological, labour power and social), community managing. 1-2 role/s vs. 3 roles.
“While it is estimated that women perform two-thirds of the world’s work, they only earn one tenth of the income, and own less than one per cent of the world’s property.” UNICEF, 2010
Reasons for gender inequalities
1. Structural marginalization; Social structures institutionalize gender differences and limit agency; Dimension of symbols, images (emotions); masculinity and femininity. Notion of femininity forces women to relate to subject positions and negotiate the dominant discourse.
2. Power relations;
Male hegemony, through many ages power was exercised unconsciously; Scott’s (1985) “weapons of the the weak” (early Feminism). Men as being powerful shape social discourse;
Central role of reproduction role; Unequal power relations cause attribution of power to institutions; It relates to multiple identities; Knowledge as power (e.g. of rights); Intra-household distribution of power – ‘cooperative conflict’ Sen (1990); Gender power relations on global, national and local level, claimed, visible, hidden (all
levels defined by Gaventa (2006) are to be found).
Derive from Indivualist – Interactional – Institutionalist Gender understanding
Diversity & Intersectionality of Gender
Diversity
Class
Age
Ability
Ethnicity
Religion
Rural/Urban Origin
Cross-cutting factors of gender relations with other social relations; Examples: 1. Gender and Disability, Gender and Race - increase implications on poverty and social exclusion – invisible intersectionality. 2. Feminism comes from India before colonialism – no recognition, subordinated!
Women experiences of womanhood are different in cultures – gender relations are context specific.
Why is it that challenging gender inequalities is seen as tampering with
traditions of culture, and thus taboo, while challenging inequalities in terms of wealth and class is not?
(Mehta 1991 in DAC Source Book)
Cases underpinning gender theory
• All women share the same history of patriarchy and face problem of male-oriented hegemonic social structure.
II
Views on Gender
Equality in the past &
today
1. Islam – fluidity of gender relations and change over time, role of stereotype.
2. Eve’s legacy – Myth of Women, role of symbol in Judeo-Christian traditions.
3. Women human rights in the past and current approach. 4. Main factors affecting gender inequality: feminization of labour
force and feminization of poverty.
Advent of Islam (622AD) vs. Islam Today as a case of gender fluidity
Originally Islam brought: Human Equality; Women Rights; Justice
Direct impact on females’ conditions:
1. Equality between man and women: "For Muslim [submitted to God] men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah's praise-- For them all has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward" Qur’an (33:35).
"Truly I will never cause to be lost the work of any of you, Be you a male or female, you are members one of another" (3:195).
No Eve’s legacy (Qur’an 2:36, 7:20-24), both Adam and Eve were responsible for eating an apple.
2. Respect for daughters; stop burying alive female infants: "
To Allah belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth. He creates what He
wills. He bestows female children to whomever He wills and bestows male
children to whomever He wills" (42:49).
3. Regulated relation between man and women. " And among His signs is that He created for you mates from among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquility with them and He has put love and mercy between your hearts: verily in that are signs for those who reflect" (30:21). "The believers, men and women, are protectors, one of another: they enjoin what is just, and forbid what is evil, they observe regular prayers, practise regular charity, and obey Allah and His Messenger. On them will Allah pour His Mercy: for Allah is Exalted in power, Wise" (9:71).
4. Women receives rights, examples: a) Property Rights: "From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large --a determinate share" (4:7). b) Political rights: nomination to political affairs, participate in public affairs (58:1-4; 60:10-12). c) Legal rights (full personality, sue for divorce). d) Social (education - 39:9, 58:11)
5. Special recognition for mothers: "A man asked the Prophet: 'Whom should I honor most?' The Prophet replied: 'Your mother'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mother'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your mother!'. 'And who comes next?' asked the man. The Prophet replied: 'Your father'" (Sunna: Bukhari and Muslim). "And We have enjoined on man to be good to his parents: In travail upon travail did his mother bear him and in two years was his weaning. Show gratitude to Me and to your parents" (31:14). 6. Importance of mutual agreement in family decisions (Qur’an 2:233). 7. Respect from husband: “…but consort with them in kindness, for if you hate them it may happen that you hate a thing wherein God has placed much good” (Qur’an 4:19) 8. Equal expectations:
“And due to the wives is similar to what is expected of them, according to what is
reasonable. But the men have a degree over them [in maintenance and
protection]” (2:228)
Patriarchy
What about current gender relations in Islam?
After 3rd generations of prophet Mohammed Qur’anic message started to blur what affected women because of:
• Historical social & political conditions started to prevail the
discourse with disadvantage on a just society and gender equality; • Many sects and male Qur’anic interpretations; In patriarchal societies power of male patronage dominated
original given rights to women . Unlike stereotypes Women rights will be always embedded in
original Islamic scriptures Quran and Sunna. This discourse can enhance power of Gender Identity but it is
difficult to achieve in male hegemonic settings.
Power of knowledge Role of dicourses So
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Judeo-Christian Eve’s legacy as a symbol & creation myth
Women is blamed for committing the first sin. "The woman you put here with me --she gave me some fruit from the tree and I ate it." Genesis 2:4 3:24;
"No wickedness comes anywhere near the wickedness of a woman...Sin began with a woman and thanks to her we all must die" (Ecclesiasticus 25:19,24).
In consequence women have no rights and must be subordinated to man. Old Testament: “The woman being man’s property”; “In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of the
husband only...” The Encyclopedia Biblica, 1902, p. 782, "I will greatly increase your pains in childbearing; with pain you will give birth to children. Your desire will be for your husband and he will rule over you.“ Genesis 2:4-3:24. "The birth of a daughter is a loss" (Ecclesiasticus 22:3). (More look at St. Tertullian 6; St. Augustine (acknowledged women’s sole reproductive role), Ecclesiasticus26:10-11)
New Testament "A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. don't permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and became a sinner" (I Timothy 2:11-14). ” If they want to inquire about something, they should ask their own husbands at home; for it is disgraceful for a woman to speak in the church." (I Corinthians 14:35)
Question to raise for reflection: How the Biblical myth/symbol of creation affected women in the past?
Conclusions
Gender relations are fluid and change over time and within groups in one culture or religion. The same as symbols.
Gender relations are subordinated to cultural and ethnic norms (Levy, 2009, p. 3);
Stereotypes create subordination and discrimination; hinder from understanding complexity of social identity and gender relations;
It opposes universalism and political project of GAD;
Embedded rights and symbols of women and gender equality/inequality in traditions not always mean their exercise.
Women Human Rights in the past
Ancient Ages Modern Ages Modern Times
In India women excluded from right to inheritance . (The Encyclopedia Britannica 1911, p.782)
Japanese Law allowed to sell and buy women till 1845.
(Haqqi 2005).
Right to vote – 1893 – New Zealand
In Rome and Greece total dependency on husband/father/brother. (Allen, History of Civilization, p.444)
In China as ornaments in social meetings and objects of recreation. (Haqqi 2005).
First female Prime Minister – 1960 – Sri Lanka
In Persia regarded
as piece of goods
and was sold as a
slave (Haqqi, 2005)
In England, a property of a wife became possession of her husband. (Badawi, 1980); After 1887 married women achieved the right to own property. (English Common Law; Until 1850 – women were not considered as citizens.
In France suffragettes’ movement – in result women got independent personality in 1945.
Human Rights for Women
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, The European Convetion, the American Convention on Human Rights, African Charter on Human Rights and People’s Rights, Beijing Action Plan, Convention of the Nationality of Married Women, The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, ratified by 185, not US) and more …
Many Women’s Conferences – ‘breakthrough’ 1995 in Beijing.
Contemporary Human Rights Approach
“Systematic discrimination or inequality of condition…cannot be addressed via the rule-based sameness of treatment approach. Indeed, the use of this model virtually makes systematic disadvantage invisilble. By structuring equality around the male comparator, the assumption is made that equality exists…The question then becomes can [international human rights law] support and deliver substantive equality?” Mahoney (Cook, 1994)
Dominated by women from the West, subaltern had no voice – Spivak.
• Human rights approach discounts intrinsic differences (Cook, 1994); • Coomaraswamy (in Cook 1994) presumed that human rights to be
effective they have to become a respected part [or legitimized] of culture and traditions of a given society (local and historical context);
• In many regions the institution of law is associated with hatred
because is seen as a central instrument used by colonizing powers to replace indigenous cultural, religious and social traditions with the mechanism of the modern West (Cook, 1994).
Solutions? • Cross-cultural dialogue to understand and address subordination of
women; • Human rights must take root in civil society, NGOs (Cook, 1994).
Lessons from Human Rights approach
Feminization of labour force - economic restructuring
• Capital’s demand for the economic participation: Tensions in home.
• Global chains of commodities and of care: Flexibilisation of labour; Often unprotected work conditions; Women trafficking.
• Structural Adjustment Programs: Agriculture concentration on export crops –
women workload got intensified; Weak employment creation for women; Bias against small scale businesses run by
women.
Exploitation of women’s formal and unwaged work (unpaid care economy) or liberation from economic marginalization and patriarchal constraints?
Feminization of poverty
Main factors affecting Gender Equality
• Female-headed-households (FHH) - ‘poorest of the poor’ uniform category that they are poor and require help - economic & gender connotation;
• Asset deprivation;
• FHH may be poor in economic terms but is not reflected in social-cultural and psychological terms;
• Can provide ‘enabling spaces’ in which women are better able to exert agency Chant (1997).
References
• Bailyn, 2006 Breaking the mold: Redesigning work for productive and satisfying lives. Ithaca, NY: Cornell.
• Caroline Sweetman (editor), “Gender in the 21st century” in Oxfam Focus on Gender, GB Oxfam 2000.
• Cornwall, A., Harrison, E., and Whitehead, A., “Gender myths and feminist fables: the struggle for interpretive power in gender and development” in Development and change, 38(1), pages 1-20.
• DAC Source Book On Concepts And Approaches Linked To Gender Equality [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/4/16/31572047.pdf], (accesssed 02.12.2010).
• David and Vera Mace, “Marriage East and West”, Dolphin Books, Doubleday and Co., Inc., N.Y., 1960.
• Jamal A. Badawi, “The Status of Women in Islam”, The Muslim Students’ Association of the US and Canada.
• Khadija Elmadmud, “Women rights under Islam” in Wolfgang Benedek, Esther M. Kisaakye, Gerd Oberleitner (editors), “Human Rights of Women, International Instruments and African Experiences”, Zed Books, 2002.
• Khasi’ Haqqi, “Lawful wives or unlawful girlfriends”, Al – Fidrous Ltd, 2005.
• Rebecca J. Cook (editor), “Human Rights of Women, National and International Perspectives, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1994.
• Levy, Caren, "Gender Justice in a Diversity Approach to Development? The Challenges for Development Planning" in International development planning review IDPR, 31(4), 2009,
• The Encyclopedia Britannica (1911), 11th ed., 1911, Vol.28, p.782.
• The Noble Qur’an *www.quran.com+, (accessed 01.12.2010).
• UNICEF, Gender Equality, Big Picture [http://www.unicef.org/gender/index_bigpicture.html], (accessible 12.12.2010).
Bibliography
• The Encyclopedia Britannica (1911), 11th ed., 1911, Vol.28, p.782
• David and Vera Mace, “Marriage East and West”, Dolphin Books, Doubleday and Co., Inc., N.Y., 1960.
• Rebecca J. Cook (editor), “Human Rights of Women, National and International Perspectives, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1994.
• Joni Seager, “The Atlas of Women in the World”, Earthscan, Myriad Editions, 2009.
• Karen Knop, “Gender and Human Rights”, Oxford University Press, 2004.
• Mahnaz Afkhami, “Faith and Freedom, Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim World”, I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1995.
• Khadija Elmadmud, “Women rights under Islam” in Wolfgang Benedek, Esther M. Kisaakye, Gerd Oberleitner (editors), “Human Rights of Women, International Instruments and African Experiences”, Zed Books, 2002.
• Kathryn Ward (editor), “Women Workers and Global Restructuring”, Cornell University Press, 1998.
• Tracy Skelton and Tim Allen (editors), “Culture and Global Change”, Routledge, 1999.
• Hannan, Carolyn, 2000, "Policy rationales for gender equality" in Promoting equality between women and men in bilateral development cooperation : concepts, goals, rationales and institutional arrangements by Hannan, Carolyn, Lund University, pages 148-172.
• Caroline Sweetman (editor), “Gender, Development and Diversity” in Oxfam Focus on Gender, GB Oxfam 2004.
• Caroline Sweetman (editor), “Gender in the 21st century” in Oxfam Focus on Gender, GB Oxfam 2000.
• Cornwall, A., 1997, ‘Men, masculinity and gender in development’, Gender and Development, 5(2), pp.8-13.
• Cornwall, Andrea, Elizabeth Harrison, and Ann Whitehead, 2007, ‘Gender Myths and Feminist Fables: The Struggle for interpretive Power in Gender and Development’, Development and Change, Vol.38, No.1, pp.1-20.
• Davids, Tine and Van Driel, Francien, “Globalisation and Gender: Beyond Dichotomies”, from Schuurman, Frans, Globalisation and Development Studies pp.153-175, London: Sage ©
Bibliography
• DAC Source Book On Concepts And Approaches Linked To Gender Equality [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/4/16/31572047.pdf]
• Bailyn, 2006 Breaking the mold: Redesigning work for productive and satisfying lives. Ithaca, NY: Cornell.
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• Khasi’ Haqqi, “Lawful wives or unlawful girlfriends”, Al – Fidrous Ltd, 2005.
• Jamal A. Badawi, “The Status of Women in Islam”, The Muslim Students’ Association of the US and Canada.
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• THE MYTH & THE REALITY” *http://www.themodernreligion.com/women/w_comparison_full.htm#_Toc335566656+, (accessible 15.11.2010)
• UNICEF, Gender Equality, Big Picture [http://www.unicef.org/gender/index_bigpicture.html], (accessible 12.12.2010).