gender and agriculture annotated bibliography

14
Synthesis Report January, 2010 Understanding Gender in Agricultural Produc3on: An Annotated Bibliography for the Case of Afghanistan Afghanistan Public Policy Research Organiza>on

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The intent in compiling this annotated bibliography was to take stock of the available literature and highlight the elements that could be utilized in developing integrated approaches in analyzing gender and / in value chains, typically examined in isolation. The publication of this annotated bibliography as a public document is to assist other researchers, officials from the Government of Afghanistan, the international donor community and others who have an interest in developing systemic approaches to economic development and those who have a particular focus on gender in economic development.

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Page 1: Gender and Agriculture Annotated Bibliography

Synthesis  ReportJanuary,  2010

Understanding  Gender  in  Agricultural  Produc3on:An  Annotated  Bibliography  for  the  Case  of  Afghanistan

Afghanistan  Public  Policy  Research  Organiza>on

Page 2: Gender and Agriculture Annotated Bibliography

Acknowledgements

This  paper  is  based  on  the  work  undertaken  by  APPRO  for  the  research  project,  “Mul>-­‐Donor  Trust  Fund  for  Trade  and  

Development:  Understanding  the  Gender  Dimension  of  Trade  Markets  in  Afghanistan”,  funded  by  the  World  Bank.  APPRO  

wishes  to  thank  the  World  Bank  team  for  this  project  for  their  construc>ve  comments  throughout  the  wri>ng  of  this  review.

 

The  literature  review  based  on  this  annotated  bibliography  is  published  as  Understanding  Gender  in  Agricultural  Produc3on:  A  

Review  of  the  Literature  and  a  Conceptual  Framework,  available  from  APPRO’s  website  at:  www.appro.org.af

APPRO  takes  full  responsibility  for  any  omissions  and  errors.

 

About  the  Authors

Saeed  Parto  is  Director  of  Research  at  Afghanistan  Public  Policy  Research  Organiza>on.  He  holds  a  doctorate  in  Human  

Geography  from  the  University  of  Waterloo  (Ontario,  Canada)  and  specializes  in  policy  and  ins>tu>onal  analysis  in  developed  

and  developing  countries.  His  recent  work  includes  analysis  of  policy  and  ins>tu>onal  change  in  development  coopera>on,  

waste  management,  and  technological  transi>ons  and  innova>on.  Dr.  Parto  is  also  Lecturer  at  the  Faculty  of  Arts  and  Social  

Sciences,  Maastricht  University,  the  Netherlands.

 

Rozbih  Mihran  is  Researcher  at  Afghanistan  Public  Policy  Research  Organiza>on.  His  areas  of  focus  are  Natural  Resource  and  

Environmental  Management  and  Poli>cal  Economy.

About  APPRO

The  Afghanistan  Public  Policy  Research  Organiza>on  (APPRO)  is  an  independent  social  research  organiza>on  promo>ng  social  

and  policy  learning  to  benefit  development  and  reconstruc>on  efforts  in  Afghanistan.  APPRO  is  registered  with  the  Ministry  of  

Economy  (Registra>on  Number:  1212)  as  a  not-­‐for-­‐profit  organiza>on  and  headquartered  in  Kabul,  Afghanistan.  APPRO’s  

mission  is  to  measure  development  progress  against  strategic  reconstruc>on  objec>ves  and  provide  insights  on  how  to  improve  

performance  against  the  milestones  set  by  the  government  of  Afghanistan  and  the  interna>onal  donors.  APPRO  is  staffed  by  

personnel  with  many  years  of  collec>ve  experience  in  various  facets  of  development  and  scien>fic  research.

i

(c)  2010.  Afghanistan  Public  Policy  Research  Organiza>on.  Some  rights  reserved.  This  publica>on  may  be  

reproduced,  stored  in  a  retrieval  system  or  transmi_ed  only  for  non-­‐commercial  purposes  and  with  

wri_en  credit  to  APPRO  and  the  authors.  Where  this  publica>on  is  reproduced,  stored  or  transmi_ed  

electronically,  a  link  to  APPRO’s  website  www.appro.org.af  should  be  provided.  Any  use  of  this  

publica>on  falling  outside  of  these  permissions  requires  prior  wri_en  permission  and  can  be  sought  by  

emailing  [email protected]  or  by  calling  +93  700  538  081.

Page 3: Gender and Agriculture Annotated Bibliography

Introduc3on

This  annotated  bibliography  is  part  of  the  research  project,  “Mul9  Donor  Trust  Fund  for  Trade  and  

Development:  Understanding  the  Gender  Dimension  of  Trade  Markets  in  Afghanistan”,  funded  by  the  World  

Bank.  The  overall  goal  of  the  project  was  to  the  constraints  and  explore  opportuni9es  for  women  to  par9cipate  

and  improve  their  posi9on  in  the  various  steps  of  selected  value  chains  in  farm  and  non-­‐farm  produc9on.  The  

outcome  of  the  study  was  to  feed  into  the  gender  mainstreaming  strategy  of  the  Government  of  Afghanistan  

and  the  interna9onal  donor  community  involved  in  the  reconstruc9on  effort.  

The  intent  in  compiling  this  annotated  bibliography  was  to  take  stock  of  the  available  literature  and  highlight  

the  elements  that  could  be  u9lized  in  developing  integrated  approaches  in  analyzing  gender  and  /  in  value  

chains,  typically  examined  in  isola9on.  The  publica9on  of  this  annotated  bibliography  as  a  public  document  is  

to  assist  other  researchers,  the  Government  of  Afghanistan  officials,  the  interna9onal  donor  community  and  

others  who  have  an  interest  in  developing  systemic  approaches  to  economic  development  and  those  who  have  

a  par9cular  focus  on  gender  in  economic  development.  

The  literature  search  was  guided  by  the  following  ques9ons:

1.  Which  ac9vi9es  are  fulfilled  by  women  and  men  and  thus  which  roles  /  posi9ons  do  women  and  men  

have  in  selected  value  chains?  Why  do  women  have  these  roles  /  posi9ons,  as  opposed  to  the  roles  /  

posi9ons  held  by  men?

2. How  can  the  value-­‐added  in  ac9vi9es  fulfilled  by  women  be  increased  and  how  can  women  upgrade    

to  new  ac9vi9es  with  higher  value-­‐added  and  income?  What  are  the  opportuni9es  for  men  and  

women  as  far  as  access  to  markets  and  upgrading  to  higher-­‐value  ac9vi9es?  What  are  the  specific  

opportuni9es  for  women?  At  what  point(s)  in  the  value  chains  is  there  poten9al  for  women  to  gain  

higher  financial  rewards  and/or  assume  more  responsibili9es  in  decision  making  over  produc9on  and/

or  marke9ng?  

3. What  are  the  constraints  for  women  and  men  concerning  access  to  markets  at  the  local,  na9onal,  

regional  and,  if  appropriate,  interna9onal  levels?  What  are  the  constraints  in  moving  up  to  higher  

value-­‐added  ac9vi9es  in  the  value  chains  under  study?  What  are  the  specific  constraints  to  women?  

Are  there  policy  constraints  on  women’s  roles  in  these  value  chains,  in  addi9on  to  cultural  and  social  

constraints?  

4. How  can  the  posi9on  of  Afghan  producers  and  specifically  of  Afghan  women  be  improved?  Within  the  

value  chains  analyzed,  what  are  key  steps  and  poten9al  interven9ons  to  improve  their  posi9on?

The  remainder  of  this  document  is  the  synthesis  of  all  the  papers  reviewed  for  this  project.  The  reference  

sec9on  at  the  end  of  this  document  contains  the  details  on  each  of  the  publica9ons  reviewed.  

1

Page 4: Gender and Agriculture Annotated Bibliography

Baden,  S.  1998.  Gender  Issues  in  Agricultural  Liberalisa3on.

This  paper  examines  gender  in  agricultural  markets  under  the  impact  of  agricultural  liberalisa9on  policies.  The  

main  findings  and  arguments  of  the  study  are  supported  by  empirical  evidence  from  Zimbabwe,  Guinea,  

Uganda,  Ghana,  and  Tanzania.    

The  author  argues  that    markets  are  not  abstract  or  neutral  en99es  but  real  processes  of  exchange  embedded  

in  social  ins9tu9ons,  including  gender  rela9ons.  Further,  it  asserts  that  the  benefits  of  agricultural  market  

liberalisa9on  have  skewed  towards  medium  and  large  scale  commercial  farmers,  large-­‐scale  private  traders/

wholesalers  and  processors,  and  transporters  and  other  providers  of  market  services.  Since  the  majority  of  

women’s  ac9vi9es  are  concentrated  in  small  scale  farming,  processing  and  pe[y  trading,  they  have  gained  

rela9vely  limited  benefits  from  liberalisa9on.  Moreover  the  constraints  on  women’s  benefits  from  market  

reforms  are  not  only  due  to  the  small  size  of  their  enterprises,  but  women  are  also  disadvantaged  because  

both  state  and  market  ins9tu9ons  exhibit  gender  biases  which  prevent  them  from  expanding  the  scale  of  their  

opera9ons  and  diversifying  their  ac9vi9es;  and  because,  due  to  intra-­‐household  inequali9es,  they  o]en  do  not  

control  the  proceeds  of  their  labour.  A  set  of  research  and  policy  agenda  items  conclude  the  ar9cle.  

Barrientos,  S.  2001.  Gender,  Flexibility  and  Global  Value  Chains.

The  analysis  of  value  chains  needs  to  incorporate  gender  as  an  essen9al  element  if  their  func9oning  is  to  be  

fully  understood.  This  paper  provides  an  ini9al  contribu9on  to  this  research  agenda.  Its  focus  is  on  the  

employment  and  retail  ends  of  a  buyer-­‐driven  chain,  using  the  hor9culture  value  chains    linking  Chile  and  

South  Africa  to  Europe  as  specific  examples.  

The  paper  starts  by  exploring  how  a  gender  dimension  to  the  analysis  of  global  value  chains  could  be  

developed  at  a  conceptual  level.  It  further  states  that  a  gender  approach  requires  the  posi9oning  of  value  chain  

analysis  within  the  socio-­‐economic  context  in  which  value  chains  are  embedded  in  different  countries.  Central  

to  the  framework  is  the  flexible  employment  and  social  percep9on  of  female  work.    Because  of  their  9es  to  the  

household,  it  is  deemed  “socially  acceptable”  that  women  can  be  drawn  into  employment  for  one  period  and    

return  to  their  “household  responsibili9es”  the  rest  of  the  year,  leaving  them  li[le  opportunity  to  upgrade  or  

advance  in  economic  value  adding  work.  The  framework  applies  this  concept  to  both  the  supply  and  demand  

aspects  of  the  value  chain.

Barrientos,  S.,  C.  Dolan,  and  A.  Tallon3re.  2003.  A  Gendered  Value  Chain  Approach  to  Codes  of  Conduct  in  

African  Hor3culture.

This  paper  explores  the  gender  sensi9vity  of  codes  currently  applied  in  the  African  export  hor9culture  sector  

from  an  analy9cal  perspec9ve  that  combines  global  value  chain  and  gendered  economy  approaches.  Through  

an  analysis  of  these  two  approaches,  it  develops  a  ‘‘gender  pyramid,’’  which  provides  a  framework  for  mapping  

and  assessing  the  gender  content  of  codes  of  conduct.  The  pyramid  is  applied  to  codes  that  cover  employment  

condi9ons  in  three  commodity  groups  and  countries  expor9ng  to  European  markets:  South  African  fruit,  

Kenyan  flowers,  and  Zambian  vegetables  and  flowers.  It  concludes  that  the  gender  sensi9vity  of  codes  needs  to  

be  greatly  enhanced  if  they  are  to  adequately  address  employment  condi9ons  relevant  to  informal  and  

especially  women  workers.

2

Page 5: Gender and Agriculture Annotated Bibliography

Bolwig,  S.,  S.  Ponte,  A.  du  Toit,  L.  Riisgaard,  and  N.  Halberg.  2008.  Integra3ng  Poverty,  Gender  and  

Environmental  Concerns  into  Value  Chain  Analysis:  A  Conceptual  Framework  and  Lessons  for  Ac3on  

Research.

The  paper  combines  exis9ng  but  largely  separate  bodies  of  knowledge  on  ‘ver9cal’  and  ‘horizontal’  aspects  of  

value  chains  in  a  framework  centred  on    changes  in  value  chain  posi9ons  including  inclusion,  exclusion,  and  

changed  terms  of  par9cipa9on  and  non-­‐par9cipa9on  as  experienced  by  small  producers  and  agricultural  

businesses  and  their  communi9es  in  developing  countries.

It  develops  a  conceptual  framework  to  overcome    shortcomings  in  ‘stand-­‐alone’  value  chains,  livelihoods  and  

environmental  analyses  by  integra9ng  the  ‘ver9cal’  and  ‘horizontal’  aspects  of  value  chains  that  affect  poverty  

and  sustainability.  

The  ver9cal  analysis  focuses  on  dimensions  of  value  chain  such  as  governance  and  coordina9on,  standards  and  

cer9fica9ons,  func9onal  division  of  labour,  linkages,  performance  requirements,  and  the  implica9ons  of  these  

dimensions  for  rewards  and  risks  and  the  possibility  for  improving  these  for  “upstream”  chain  actors  in  

developing  countries.

The  horizontal  analysis  involves  poverty  dimensions  like  analysis  of  income  and  resources,  livelihood  strategies  

and  employment,  vulnerability  and  risk,  inequality,  and  examina9on  of  the  terms  and  (pre)condi9ons  for  

inclusion,  par9cipa9on,  exclusion  and  non-­‐par9cipa9on  into  a  value  chain.  It  also  includes  environmental  

dimensions  such  as  the  availability  of  natural  resources,  the  impact  of  the  local  environment  on  health,  and  life  

cycle  assessments.  

Gender  is  treated  as  part  of  the  horizontal  analysis.  The  key  elements  of  the  gender  dimension  are  the  

incorpora9on  of  gender  sensi9vity  into  all  elements  of  the  framework,  recogni9on  of  the  importance  of  gender  

differences  for  changes  in  value  chain  posi9on  and    the  impacts  on  poverty  and  environment,  and  a  view  of  the  

economy  that  includes  both  market-­‐oriented  ac9vi9es  and  reproduc9ve  (unpaid)  work  that  underpins  

produc9ve  work  .    

The  integra9on  of  the  horizontal  and  ver9cal  dimensions    enables  us  to  understand  the  governance  structure  

of  the  value  chains,  iden9fy  ac9on  points,  promote  upgrading,  assess  both  risks  and  rewards,  and  consider  

mul9ple  dimensions  of  horizontal  elements  through  a  broader  framework.    

Brym,  R.J.,  M.W.  Gillespie,  and  R.L.  Lenton.  2005.  In  Faint  Praise  of  the  World  Bank’s  Gender  Development  

Policy.

The  ar9cle  a[empts  to  overview  the  World  Bank’s  gender  development  policies  on  women,  especially  in  the  

developing  countries.  It  outlines  the  standard  cri9ques  of  the  Bank’s  policies  by  social  scien9sts  and  feminists.  

For  instance  ,  the  nega9ve  impact  of  the  Structural  Adjustment  Programs  on  the  poor  in  some  countries  such  

as  Zambia;  biased  support  of  the  World  Bank  policies  by  the  wealthy  countries;  and  the  falling  of  addi9onal  

burden  of  childcare  on  women  due  to  the    introduc9on  of  user  fees  for  educa9on  and  health  services  as  a  

result  of  priva9za9on  are  among  the  issues  discussed.    

3

Page 6: Gender and Agriculture Annotated Bibliography

The  paper  con9nues  with  a  discussion  of  the  challenges  to  the  effec9veness  of  the  revised  Bank  policies  since  

1999  to  address  the  previous  shortcomings.  According  to  the  ar9cle,  there  are  two  constraints  to  gender  

development  policies  of  the  World  Bank.  The  “external”  constraint  relates  to  the  macro-­‐economic  policies  of  

Western  financial  ins9tu9ons,  which  encourage  the  priva9za9on  of  government  services,  import  liberaliza9on,  

the  elimina9on  of  agricultural  subsidies,  and  pro-­‐market  measures.  The  “internal”  constraint  are  products  of  

the  social  structures  prevalent  in  the  less  developed  countries    that  manifest  in  the  economic,  religious,  and  

poli9cal  arenas.  

The  authors  recognize  the  important  role  of  the  World  Bank  in  drawing  a[en9on  to  the  gendered  nature  of  

economic  development,  but  point  to  two  main  flaws  in  the  Bank  policies.  First,  their  policies  do  li[le  to  

improve  the  posi9on  of  women  in  less  developed  countries  and,  second,  the  Bank  fails  to  explicitly  

acknowledge  and  address  the  religious  and  poli9cal  sources  of  local  governments’  resistance  to  gender  

equality.

Chemonics  Interna3onal  Inc.  2005.  Value  Chain  Analysis:  Mapping  maize,  sunflower  and  coOon  chains  –  

Prepared  for  USAID  Uganda.

The  report  describes  a  tool  for  rapid  value  chain  mapping  of  three  agricultural  products  in  Uganda.  The  

objec9ve  of  mapping  the  maize,  co[on,  and  sunflower  value  chains  is  to  clarify  and  quan9fy  the  associated  

risks  and  costs  value  adding  agricultural  produc9on.  The  report  is  intended  as  a  means  to  facilitate  the  

introduc9on  of  focused,  viable,  and  sustainable  sources  of  finance  for  agricultural  value  adding  produc9on  

through  extending  the  services  of  the  current  finance  ins9tu9ons.

The  study  finds  many  low  risk,  short  term  lending  opportuni9es  for  transporta9on,  processing,  marke9ng,  and  

input  supply  have  to  date  received  li[le  a[en9on  from  legi9mate  lenders.  It  also  concludes  that  several  

opportuni9es  exist  for  financing  value  adding  produc9on  when  the  input  and  output  markets  are  be[er  

understood  by  lenders,  governments,  and  the  interna9onal  aid  agencies.  The  study  concludes  by  calling  for  a  

revision  of  exis9ng  policies  so  as  to  relax  or  eliminate  taxes  on  lenders  in  agricultural  finance  and  the    provision  

of  greater  levels  of  credit  to  all  points  of  the  agricultural  value  chain.

Elson,  D.  1993.  Gender-­‐Aware  Analysis  and  Development  Economics.

The  paper  cri9cally  examines  the  extent  to  which  neoclassical  and  structuralist  approaches  to  the  economics  of  

development  are  gender-­‐aware,  and  finds  both  paradigms  seriously  deficient.  It  examines  some  of  the  factors  

that  hinder  the  produc9on  of  a  fully  gender-­‐aware  development  economics  and  suggests  ways  in  which  

improvements  can  be  made.  

It  is  argued  that  both  macro  and  microeconomics  within  the  neoclassical  framework  fail  to  address  gender  

issues  as  the  former  is  gender  neutral  while  the  la[er  is  based  on  the  assump9on  that  ra9onal  humans  make  

ra9onal  choices  based  on  sound  and  complete  informa9on.  According  to  the  authors,  preferences  are  not  

gender-­‐neutral  and  they  are  heavily  influenced  by  the  socio-­‐economic  and  cultural  characteris9cs  of  the  

environment  in  which  the  choice  makers  operate.  In  the  context  of  a  society  characterised  by  gender  

inequality,  women’s  percep9ons  are  constrained  in  choice  making  insofar  as  their  own  interests,  needs,  and  

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rights,  undermine    their  bargaining  powers  within  the  household  as  well  as  in  the  society.  Conversely,  domes9c  

and  other  produc9ve  work  by  women  remains  neglected  at  the  macroeconomic  level.  Changing  these  

inequi9es  requires  more  in-­‐depth  understanding  of  the  gender  aspects  of  the  division  of  labour  in  produc9on.  

This  necessitates  gender  disaggrega9on  at  the  occupa9on  level,  household,  as  well  as  commercial  level.  

Gammage,  S.,  N.  Diamond,  and  M.  Packman.  2005.  Enhancing  Women’s  Access  to  Markets:  An  Overview  of  

Donor  Programs  and  Best  Prac3ces  –  Prepared  for  the  USAID.

This  overview  looks  at  a  number  of  DAC  (Development  Assistance  Commi[ee)  members’  ini9a9ves  “in  light  of  

their  abili9es  to  transform  women’s  economic  ac9vi9es,  increase  their  access  to  markets,  and  ul9mately  to  

secure  equitable  and  pro-­‐poor  growth  by  ensuring  that  women  are  not  excluded  from  the  benefits  of  the  

development.”  To  this  end,  the  authors  provide  a  typology  of  donor  approaches  to  gender  and  development.  

The  organizing  framework  used  to  group    different  approaches  is  the  “en9tlements  and  capabili9es”  analysis  of  

poverty  and  depriva9on.  En9tlements  are  defined  as  the  bundle  of  resources  that  an  individual  or  group  of  

individuals  commands  for  the  purpose  of  consump9on,  produc9on,  or  exchange.  Capabili9es  are  the  

individual’s  or  group’s  freedom  and  abili9es  to  deploy  their  resources.    

The  paper  iden9fies  the  gender-­‐related  constraints  that  limit  equitable  access  to  or  outcomes  in  four  types  of  

markets:  labour  markets,  in  which  individuals  sell  their  labour  and  are  remunerated  by  wages;  finances  markets  

comprising  a  broad  range  of  products  and  services  offered  by  financial  intermediaries,  such  as  banking,  credit,  

savings,  insurance,  pensions,  and  mortgages;  goods  markets  that  summarize  both  the  market  for  inputs  into  

produc9on  processes  and  outputs  from  produc9on  processes;  and  services  markets,  which  encompass  the  

delivery,  purchase,  or  hiring-­‐in  of  services  that  can  enhance  or  upgrade  produc9ve  ac9vi9es.  

A  major  finding  is  that  projects  that  focus  on  capabili9es  are  dispropor9onately  likely  to  have  emerged  from  

processes  that  analyzed  gender  inequali9es  and  sought  to  address  gender-­‐based  exclusions  or  barriers  to  

market  entry  and  par9cipa9on.  Projects  that  focused  exclusively  on  en9tlements  were  more  likely  to  have  

emerged  without  an  explicit  gender  analysis  or  focus.    

Further  findings  show  that  ac9vi9es  concentrate  dispropor9onately  on  microfinance,  diversifying  agricultural  

produc9on  and  rural  livelihoods.  Far  fewer  projects  address  training  and  workforce  development;  labour  

market  intermedia9on;  and  generalizing  financial  instruments  for  insurance,  social  security,  and  pensions.  The  

majority  of  projects  and  programmes  pursue  an  en9tlements  approach  concentra9ng  on  direct  inputs  such  as  

credit,  storage,  and  transport.  Fewer  projects  and  programmes  are  based  on  a  capabili9es  approach  to  

increase  women’s  ability  to  enter  markets,  nego9ate  with  buyers  and  sellers,  and  posi9on  themselves  higher  

up  the  value  chain.  Projects  that  provide  capabili9es  and  en9tlements  may  be  more  successful  when  nested  

within  programmes  and  sector  wide  ac9vi9es  that  address  structural  exclusions  and  barriers.

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A  number  of  recommenda9ons  conclude  the  paper:

•    use  of  gender  analysis  tools  to  design,  implement,  and  evaluate  projects  and  programmes

•    undertaking  a  value  chain  analysis  to  iden9fy  opportuni9es  for  women’s  broader  par9cipa9on  in          

  markets

•    improving  micro-­‐  meso-­‐  macro-­‐linkages

•    pursuing  a  lifecycle  or  livelihoods  approach

•    suppor9ng  en9tlement  and  capability  programmes

•    promo9ng  clustering  and  networking

•    expanding  access  to  credit  and  financial  services,  and

•    addressing  informality

Government  of  Afghanistan.  2008.  Afghanistan  Na3onal  Development  Strategy:  Execu3ve  Summery.

The  document  outlines  the  na9onal  strategy  for  security,  governance,  economic  growth  and  poverty  reduc9on  

in  Afghanistan  between  2008  and  2013.  Separate  strategies  in  each  sector  such  as  security,  jus9ce,  energy,  

educa9on,  health  and  nutri9on,  agriculture  and  rural  development,  social  protec9on,  and  private  sector  

development  and  trade  are  to  guide  the  reconstruc9on  and  development  efforts.  A  number  of  cross-­‐cujng  

issues  such  as  regional  coopera9on,  counter  narco9cs,  an9-­‐corrup9on,  capacity  development,  environment,  

and  gender  equity  are  also  elaborated.  The  gender  equity  goals  in  the  ANDS  are  priori9zed  as  follows:  

•    to  a[ain  the  13  gender-­‐specific  benchmarks  for  the  Afghanistan  Compact/I-­‐ANDS,  including  the  five-­‐    

       year  priori9es  of  NAPWA;  

•    to  realize  the  gender  commitments  that  are  mainstreamed  in  each  of  the  ANDS  sectors;  and

•    to  develop  basic  ins9tu9onal  capaci9es  of  ministries  and  government  agencies  on  gender    

       mainstreaming

The  strategy  is  aimed  at  improving  women’s  socio-­‐economic  status  as  well  as  their  par9cipa9on  in  decision-­‐

making  at  various  levels  within  the  government,  community,  and  the  household.  The  long  term  strategic  vision  

for  agriculture  and  rural  development  focuses  on  social,  economic,  and  poli9cal  well  being  of  rural  

communi9es,  especially  poor  and  vulnerable  people,  while  s9mula9ng  the  integra9on  of  rural  communi9es  

into  the  na9onal  economy.  Establishment  of  micro,  small  and  medium  size  rural  enterprises,  sustainable  

management  and  use  of  natural  resources,  access  to  safe  drinking  water,  expansion  of  road  networks,  and  

small-­‐scale  irriga9on  systems  are  some  of  the  areas  on  which  the  strategy  aims  to  work.  

Grace,  J.  2004.  Gender  Roles  in  Agriculture:  Case  studies  of  five  villages  in  northern  Afghanistan.

The  purpose  of  this  report  is  to  contribute  to  a  greater  understanding  of  the  roles  women  and  men  play  in  the  

different  stages  of    agricultural  produc9on  as  well  as  other  produc9on  and  income-­‐genera9ng  ac9vi9es  in  rural  

Afghanistan.  It  also  looks  at  whether  these  roles  change  over  9me,  in  order  to  gain  a  greater  understanding  of  

how  flexible  gender  roles  can  be,  what  factors  can  influence  their  change,  and  how  this  room  for  manoeuvre  

may  be  used  to  improve  access  to  livelihood  opportuni9es.  

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Through  interviews  with  a  number  of  villagers  the  authors  document  the  types  of  ac9vi9es  men  and  women  

are  involved  in  including  agriculture,  livestock  management,  and  non-­‐farm  labour  such  as  trade,  tailoring,  

carpet-­‐weaving,  hat-­‐making  and  other.  

The  paper  finds  that  within  the  three  villages  studied,  economic  and  socio-­‐cultural  factors  such  as  social  

s9gma,  land-­‐owning,  economic  returns,  age,  wealth,  types  of  assets,  household  composi9on,  and  to  some  

extent  ethnicity  affect  gender  roles.  It  also  argues  that  economic  reasoning  can  some9mes  play  a  larger  role  

than  cultural  norms  in  determining  the  alloca9on  of  labour.  Men’s  control  over  the  sale  of  agricultural  and  

other  products,  as  well  as  their  view  of  women’s  ac9vi9es  as  lacking  economic  value,  reduces  women’s  

bargaining  power  within  the  household.            

Gündüz,  C.  and  D.  Klein.  2008.    Conflict-­‐Sensi3ve  Approaches  to  Value  Chain  Development  –  Prepared  for  

USAID.

The  paper  a[empts  to  provide  ini9al  thoughts  on  integra9ng  conflict-­‐sensi9ve  value  chain  analyses  and  

interven9ons  in  conflict-­‐affected  situa9ons.  Recognizing  the  impact  of  any  development  project  on  the  peace  

and  conflict  environment  in  a  conflict-­‐prone  region  as  inevitable,  it  puts  forward  a  number  of  issues  to  be  

considered  when  studying  value  chains  and  designing  programmes.  In  the  paper  three  aspects  of  conflict-­‐

sensi9vity  of  value  chain  are  discussed:  (a)  conflict  analysis,  (b)  iden9fying  value  chain/conflict  interac9on,  and  

(c)  op9ons  for  project  design  and  implementa9on  based  on  (a)  and  (b).  

A  number  of  ques9ons  can  be  devised  to  profile  the  conflict,  the  main  actors,  causes  and  the  dynamics  of  the  

conflict.  The  same  factors  could  then  be  inves9gated  in  rela9on  to  the  value  chain  by  asking,  for  instance,  what  

rela9onships  exist  between  the  value  chain  actors    and  conflict  actors  or  where  the  overlaps  are.  In  a  similar  

way,  the  rela9onship  between  the  value  chain  and  the  causes  of  the  conflict  can  be  studied  in  the  context  of  

physical  and  economic  security  and  vulnerability,  geographic  reach,  war  economies,  and  unemployment.  

This  approach  can  iden9fy  the  value  chain/conflict  interac9ons  at  different  levels,  impact  of  a  wider  conflict  on  

the  value  chain  or  a  conflict  present  in  a  value  chain,  for  example.  The  paper  moves  on  to  integrate  conflict-­‐

sensi9ve  approaches  in  value  chain  project  design  and  implementa9on.  Since  both  value  chain  analysis  and  

conflict-­‐sensi9ve  approaches  follow  systema9c  steps  to  cover  prescribed  components  such  as  strategy,  design,  

inputs,  ac9vi9es,  outputs,  outcomes,  and  impacts,  the  paper  suggests  that  integra9on  can  provide  a  more  

nuanced  and  richer  approach.  

Interna3onal  Fund  for  Agricultural  Development  (IFAD).  2009.  Gender  and  Livestock:  tools  for  design.

This  paper  outlines  the  main  gender  issues  in  livestock  and  discusses  a  number  of  important  ques9ons  ()  

before  designing  livestock  projects  directed  at  mainstreaming  gender  and  empowering  women  in  this  sector.  

The  ques9ons  for  project  design  range  from  land  ownership,  access  to  capital  and  knowledge,  and  ownership  

of  livestock  to  division  of  labour,  informa9on  and  relevant  indicators,  and  the  role  of  farmer  organiza9ons.  

Considera9on  of  factors  such  as    the  role  of  women,  women’s  safety,  social  and  cultural  norms,  women’s  

workload,  their  access  to  assets  and  markets,  and  role  of  social  networks  are  among  the  issues  to  be  

considered  in  project  design.  

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Kaplinsky,  R.  and  M.  Morris.  2001.  A  Handbook  for  Value  Chain  Research  –  Prepared  for  the  IDRC.

The  objec9ve  of  this  handbook  is  to  assist  researchers  in    designing  and  execu9ng  value  chain  research,    with  a  

par9cular  aim  at  framing  a  policy  environment  which  will  assist  poor  producers  and  poor  countries  to  

par9cipate  effec9vely  in  the  global  economy.  The  main  body  of  the  handbook  is  divided  into  three    parts:

•    Part  1:  a  broad  overview  defining  value  chains,  introducing  key  concepts,  and  discussing  the    

       contribu9on  of  value  chain  analysis  as  an  analy9cal  and  policy  tool.

•    Part  2:  describes  the    theore9cal  underpinnings  of    value  chain  analysis.

•    Part  3:  lays  out  a  methodology  for  undertaking  value  chain  research.

The  topics  discussed  include  defini9on  and  explana9on  of  a  value  chain  and  its  types,  comparison  of  value  

chains  and  its  importance,  value  chains  in  the  context  of  globaliza9on,  key  analy9cal    concepts,  innova9on  and  

upgrading  in  value  chains,  value  chain  analysis,  a  methodology  for  understanding  value  chain  research,  

mapping  value  chains,  governance  of  value  chains,  and  the  role  of  class,  gender,  ethnicity,  and  income  groups  

in  value  chains.  The  concluding  chapter  provides    tools  on  how  to  conduct  value  chain  analysis  and  a  series  of  

policy  implica9ons.  The  handbook  is  targeted  at  both  an  academic  and  a  prac99oner  level.

 

Kelly,  A.  and  S.C.  Teoh.  2008.  Afghanistan:  Commercial  Agricultural  Development  Project  –  Fact  Finding,  A  

Memorandum  of  Understanding,  (Dra^),  Prepared  for  the  Asian  Development  Bank.

The  paper  provides  an  overview  of  the  current  (2008)  state  of  the  agricultural  sector  in  Afghanistan,  challenges  

and  opportuni9es  for  improving  the  sector,  as  well  as  a  proposal  for  a  mul9-­‐year  development  project  to  

achieve  a  number  of  objec9ves  to  this  end.  

The  key  problems  outlined  in  the  document  include  weak  regulatory  processes,  poor  infrastructure,  limited  

access  to  finance,  and  security-­‐related  issues.  Recognizing  these  problems  in  connec9on  to  exis9ng  projects  

with  a  focus  on  the  produc9on  base  in  hor9culture  and  livestock  in  some  regional  areas,  the  paper  proposes  

priori9zing  strategic  market-­‐based    interven9ons  to  address  constraints  and  improve  commodity  returns  and  

produc9vity  so  as  to  complement  the  exis9ng  ac9vi9es.  More  specific  targets    are;  agribusiness  value  chain  

development  in  core  commodi9es,  regional  specializa9on  in  ac9vi9es,  pilot  ac9vi9es,  development  of  market  

distribu9on  infrastructure,  as  well  as  public-­‐private  sector  partnership  to  address  the  gaps  that  undermine  

value  chain  efficiency  and  increase  transac9on  costs.

Kemal-­‐ur-­‐Rahim,  K.  2003.  A  Review  of  Hor3cultural  Marke3ng  and  Post-­‐Harvest  Condi3ons  in  Afghanistan.

Through  a  review  of  secondary  data,  reports,  and  surveys,  and  interviews  with  market  traders,  local  chamber  

of  commerce  and  relevant  governmental  ministries,  as  well  as  visits  to  post-­‐harvest  facili9es,  the  authors  

present  an  overview  of  the  status  of  hor9cultural  sector  in  Afghanistan  in  the  post-­‐Taliban  era.  

Constraints  as  well  as  opportuni9es    to  improve  the  quality  and  marke9ng  of  the  products  are  studied  and  

discussed.    It  highlights  the  lack  of  post-­‐harvest  handling,  finance,  access  to  markets  and  informa9on,  market  

infrastructure,  market  share,  and  varie9es    as  the  major  constraints.    The  absence  of  well  maintained  road  

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networks  is  iden9fied  as  the  most  serious  constraint.  The  study  also  lists  the    economically  most  important  

crops  as  raisins,  apricots,  pistachio,  almond,  melon,  pomegranate,  potatoes,  onions,  tomatoes,  okra,  and  

eggplant  with  specific  recommenda9ons  on  how  to  increase  value  adding  ac9vity  in  each  of  the  crops.  

Laven,  A.,  A.  Senders,  C.  van  Wees,  and  R.  Snelder.  2009.  Gender  in  Value  Chains:  Emerging  Lessons  and  

Ques3ons  –  A  Dra^  Working  Paper.

This  paper  a[empts  to  develop  a  framework  for  the  analysis  of  gender  in  value  chains  by  integra9ng  two  

separate  frameworks  on  gender  empowerment  and  chain  empowerment.  According  to  the  authors  a  gender  

empowerment  framework  differen9ates  between  the  concepts  of  women  and  gender  and  focuses  on  

resources,  agency,  and  achievements.  The  chain  framework,  on  the  other  hand,  uses  a  matrix  of  chain  

management  plo[ed  against  chain  ac9vi9es  as  a  tool  for  strategic  thinking  about  chain  development.  

Drawing  on  a  number  of  case  studies  on  different  value  chains  from  around  the  world  the  authors  report  that  

their  hybrid  framework  is  useful  in  understanding  different  gender  and  value  chain  dimensions.  For  instance  

the  integra9on  of  the  two  frameworks  can  provide  insights  into  the  internal  dimensions  of  value  chains  such  as  

ver9cal  and  horizontal  integra9on,  and  external  dimensions  such  as  gender  dynamics  in  the  household  and  the  

community  and  the  ins9tu9onal  context  including  norms,  rules,  and  values.    

Lister,  S.,  T.  Brown  and  Z.  Karaev.  2004.  Understanding  Markets  in  Afghanistan:  A  case  study  of  the  raisin  

market.

This  study  is  one  out  of  three  case  studies  by  AREU  on  raisin,  carpets,  and  construc9on  materials  funded  by  the  

World  Bank  .  The  aim  of  the  studies  is  stated  as  enhancing  the  understanding  of  the  role  of  markets  in  affec9ng  

the  prospects  for  growth  and  the  distribu9on  of  the  benefits  of  growth  in  Afghanistan.  The  study  documents  

the  produc9on  and  marke9ng  of  raisins  in  Afghanistan  based  on  35  interviews  with  grape  growers,  raisin  

traders,  raisin  exporters,  government  officials  and  others  involved  in  the  produc9on,  processing  and  export  of  

raisins  in  Mazar-­‐e-­‐Sharif,  Kabul,  and  Peshawar  in  Pakistan.  

A]er  documen9ng  the  process  of  raisin  produc9on,  trade,  and  marke9ng  the  paper  concludes  that  the  quality  

of  the  goods  and  the  structure  of  marke9ng  limit  both  the  current  export  poten9al  and  the  value  returned  to  

different  actors  in  the  chain,  par9cularly  the  producer.    Similar  to  the  other  case  studies  (carpets  and  

construc9on  materials),  this  paper  illustrates  that  the  func9oning  of  markets  is  preven9ng  greater  compe99on  

in  these  trading  processes,  reinforcing  exis9ng  structures  of  control  and  power.  The  market  constraints  

increasingly  limit  the  benefits  from  reaching  the  less-­‐advantaged  producers,  and  at  the  same  9me    maintain  

the  posi9on  of  the  producers  who  already  dominate  trading  in  Afghanistan.

Maani,  R.  2003.  Priori3zing  Export  Opportuni3es  for  Hor3culture  in  Afghanistan.

The  paper  presents  a  “pragma9c  approach  to  iden9fying  opportuni9es  for  exporta9on  of  hor9cultural  

products.”  It  aims  to  gain  an  in-­‐depth  understanding  of  the  supply  and  the  value  chains,  and  the  major  

constraints  and  limita9ons  in  the  hor9culture  trade  in  Afghanistan.

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The  produc9on  of  spices  and  fruits  such  as  cumin,  figs,  grapes,  melon,  peanuts,  pine  nuts,  pistachios,  

pomegranates,  raisins,  and  walnuts  are  studied  and  their  export  opportuni9es  are  priori9zed  based  on  their  

opera9onal  feasibility  and  income  poten9al.  The  authors  put  products  such  as  dried  apricots,  cumin,  peanuts,  

pomegranates  and  raisins  at  the  higher  ends  of  the  scales  for  opera9onal  feasibility  and  income  poten9al  in  the  

short  term.  In  the  long  term  dried  figs,  grapes,  and  melon  score  high  in  income  poten9al  but  low  in  opera9onal  

feasibility.  

Millns,  J.  2007.  Value  Chains  for  Agricultural  Products  in  Afghanistan.  

The  paper  takes  a  broad  look  at  the  current  status  of  value  chains  (producer  to  consumer)  in  Afghanistan  and  

the  current  constraints  for  private  sector  investment  and  growth,  par9cularly  in  rela9on  to  poten9al  import  

subs9tu9on  strategies  and  developing  export  opportuni9es  for  agricultural  products.

By  lis9ng  a  number  of  interven9ons  and  studies  on  value  chains  by  aid  organiza9ons  and  donors  including  the  

World  Bank,  USAID,  ADB,  and  EU  over  the  last  few  years,  the  author  presents  an  overview  of  the  value  chains  

in  hor9cultural  and  livestock  products  throughout  the  country.  The  paper  highlights  issues  such  as  farmers’  lack  

of  informa9on  about  proper  maturity  indices  or  their  inability  to  grade  the  products  by  quality,  lack  of  

informa9on  about  the  size  and/or  appearance  of  products  at  the  harves9ng  stage,  and  the  inadequacy  of  the  

roads  for  transpor9ng  the  products.  The  paper  also  highlights  constraints  rela9ng  to  markets,  organiza9on  of  

produc9on,  and  finance  for  value  adding  ac9vi9es.    

Recognizing  the  need  for  rural  development  and  livelihood  ac9vi9es  as  a  requirement  for  strengthening  market  

linkages,  a  number  of  recommenda9ons  are  made,  based  on  the  available  informa9on  on  completed  and  on-­‐

going  donor  programmes,  ini9a9ves  to  build  capacity  of  the  farmers  and  reinforce  an  enabling  ins9tu9onal  

environment,  and  programmes  that  include  farm  management  curricula  at  voca9onal  training  schools.    

World  Bank.  2008.  High-­‐Value  Agriculture  in  Bangladesh:  An  Assessment  of  Agro-­‐Business  Opportuni3es  and  

Constraints.

The  paper  examines  the  status  of  high-­‐value  agriculture  and  agro-­‐business  in  Bangladesh  and  recommends  

measures  to  eliminate/reduce  constraints  and  improve  opportuni9es  for  development  of  these  sectors.  

It  outlines  the  factors  deriving  the  growth  of  high-­‐value  agriculture  and  related  agro-­‐business,  including  the  

impact  of  structural  changes  in  domes9c  food  demand,  growing  domes9c  demand  for  high-­‐value  agricultural  

products,  as  well  as  the  influence  of  related  global  developments.  Through  a  number  of  case  studies  in  fresh  

and  brackish  water  aquaculture,  small-­‐scale  poultry,  fruit  and  vegetable  sector,  high-­‐value  rice,  and  diary,  

opportuni9es  and  constraints  for  high-­‐value  agriculture  and  related  agro-­‐business  are  iden9fied  and  discussed.  

Suggested  measures  to  address  the  iden9fied  issues  include  removing  policy  distor9ons  and  pursuing  policy  

opportuni9es,  upgrading  the  infrastructure,  promo9ng  good  governance,  improving  technology,  benchmarking  

for  enhanced  produc9vity  and  reduced  transac9ons  costs,  scaling  up  best  prac9ces  and  lessons  learned,  

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improving  consumer  and  producers  awareness  of  food  quality  and  safety,  improving  the  regulatory  

environment,  be[er  and  stable  marke9ng,  strengthening  market  research,  crea9ng/strengthening  private  

agricultural  organiza9ons  for  producers,  processors  and  exporters,  as  well  as  crea9ng  mechanisms  for  be[er  

public/private  dialogue  and  alliances.

World  Bank,  FAO,  and  IFAD.2009.  Gender  in  Agriculture  Sourcebook.

The  Sourcebook  is  a  joint  work  of  the  World  Bank,  FAO,  and  IFAD.  Its  purpose  is  to  act  as  a  guide  for  

prac99oners  and  technical  staff  in  addressing  gender  issues  and  integra9ng  gender-­‐responsive  ac9ons  in  the  

design  and  implementa9on  of  agricultural  projects  and  programmes.  It  reaches  out  to  technical  experts  to  

guide  them  in  thinking  through  how  to  integrate  gender  dimensions  into  their  opera9ons.  

It  aims  to  deliver  prac9cal  advice,  guidelines,  principles,  and  descrip9ons  and  illustra9ons  of  approaches  that  

have  worked  so  far  to  achieve  the  goal  of  effec9ve  gender  mainstreaming  in    agricultural  opera9ons  of  

development  agencies.  

In  the  Sourcebook,  agriculture,  forestry,  fisheries,  livestock,  land  and  water,  agro-­‐industries,  and  environment  

are  all  included  in  the  defini9on  of  agriculture.  The  focus  on  the  agriculture  sector  includes  accoun9ng  for  the  

fluctua9ons  of  agricultural  livelihoods  and  rural  poverty.  

The  Sourcebook  is  targeted  at  key  actors  within  interna9onal  and  regional  development  agencies  and  na9onal  

governments,  research    communi9es  and  non-­‐governmental  organiza9ons  and,  specifically,  opera9onal  staff  

who  design  and  implement  lending  projects  and  technical  officers  who  design  thema9c  programmes  and  

technical  assistance  packages.  

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