OF INDIA Etc.

R LYDEKKER

WILLIAM WLSLEV & Son,BookseUcvs & Ptiblisijcra,

28 Essex Street, Strand,LONDON.

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THE GAME ANIMALS OF INDIA,BURMA, MALAYA, AND TIBET

THE GAME ANIMALSOF

INDIA, BURMA, MALAYA,AND TIBET ^^

BEING A NEW AND REVISED EDITION OF'THE GREAT AND SMALL GAME OF

INDIA, BURMA, AND TIBET'

> BY

LYDEKKER

fVITH NINE PLATES AND FIFTT-NINE OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDONROWLAND WARD, Limited"THE JUNGLE," 167 PICCADILLY

1907

"^^ JUL '/o-'uiQ

PREFACE

Seven years have elapsed since the publication of theoriginal quarto edition of this work, which is now outof print. During that interval considerable progresshas been made in the recognition of local races of manyof the animals described therein ; some of these races,

such as the Shan brown bear and the Tibetan bruan,adding very largely to the geographical range of the

species. Another important addition to our knowledgeis the occurrence of a goral in Burma.

Descriptions of these newly recognised forms, to-

gether with much other important information, havebeen incorporated in the present edition, which has

thus been brought thoroughly up to date.

Another innovation is the inclusion of the MalayPeninsula, which is now an integral portion of the British

Empire, in the area coming within the purview of thevolume.

In its present smaller and cheaper form the workwill be found more convenient to the sportsman in the

field than the original edition.

Since the text was in type I have had an opportunity

of seeing the head and neck of the red serow, an animalwhich has never previously come under my notice.

Game Animals of India, etc.

This serow was described by Blyth under the name of

Capricornis rubida, from a specimen obtained in the

hill -ranges of Aracan, on the sea -board of Upper

Burma. It was subsequently regarded by Dr. Blan-

ford as inseparable from the ordinary Burmese serow

{Nemorhadus sumatrensis)^ of which 1 suggested thatit might be a local race. The new specimen, whichis almost entirely of a foxy-red colour, with a little

brownish on the backs of the ears, and becoming rather

paler on the throat, was obtained by Mr. A. Sinclair

Thomson, of the Essex Regiment, near Mogaung,

nearly due north of Bhamo, on the eastern border of

the Singpho country. The occurrence of the redserow in localities so distant as Aracan and Mogaungindicates that its range extends right across that of the

ordinary serow, and suggests a colour -phase rather

than a local race. Indeed, in view of recent observa-

tions as to the red phase of the African tiger-cat being

merely the early stage of the dusky form of that species,the suspicion arises that a similar change may takeplace in the case of the serow. Accordingly, any

observations bearing on this point from sportsmen in

Burma will be of interest.

R. LYDEKKER.

Harpenden, 'July 1907.

VI

CONTENTS

Introduction

The Indian or Asiatic ElephantThe Great Indian RhinocerosThe Singpho Rhinoceros .The Javan RhinocerosThe Sumatran Rhinoceros .The Malay TapirThe Kiang, or Tibetan Wild AssThe Ghor-Khar, or Baluchi Wild AssThe Gaur, or Indian BisonThe Gayal, or MithanThe Bantin, or TsaineThe Yak .The Arna, or Indian BuffaloMarco Polo's Sheep .

The Tibetan Argali, or Hodgson's Sheep

The Shapo, or Urial .The Bharal, or Blue SheepThe Sind Wild GoatThe Sakin, or Asiatic IbexThe MarkhorThe TahrThe Nilgiri Tahr, or Ibex .The SerowThe Himalayan GoralsThe Burmese Goral .

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Game Animals of India, etc.

The Ashy Tibetan Goral

The Grey Tibetan Goral .The Takin ....The Nilgai, or Blue Bull .The Chousingha, or Four-horned Antelope

The Blackbuck, or Indian Antelope

The Chiru, or Tibetan AntelopeThe Goa, or Tibetan GazelleThe Goitred Gazelle .The Chinkara, or Indian GazelleThe Hangul, or Kashmir StagThe Shou, or Sikhim Stag .Thorold's Deer, or the Lhasa Stag

The Sambar ....The Chital, or Indian Spotted DeerThe Para, or Hog-DcerThe Swamp-Deer, or BarasinghaThe Thamin, or Eld's DeerThe Muntjac ....The Tibetan MuntjacThe Tenasserim Muntjac .The Tibetan Tufted Deer .The Kastura, or Musk-DeerThe Meminna Chevrotain .The Napu ChevrotainThe Kanchil ChevrotainThe Indian Wild BoarAndaman and Nicobar Wild PigsThe Pigmy HogThe Lion .....The Tiger ....The Leopard ....The Ounce, or Snow-LeopardThe Clouded Tiger .The Golden or Bay Cat

viii

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Contents

The Fishing-CatThe Leopard-CatThe Manul CatThe Desert-CatThe jungle-CatThe CaracalThe LynxThe Hunting-LeopardThe Indian CivetThe Binturong .The Striped Hyaena .The WolfThe Indian WolfThe Dhole, or Wild DogThe PandaThe Short-Tailed PandaThe Brown BearThe Tibetan Blue BearThe Himalayan Black BearThe Bruan, or Malay BearThe Aswal, or Sloth-BearMarmots . . . .

Hares ...

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates

I. Elephant, Rhinoceros, Tapir, and Kian

11. Oxen and Buffalo

III. Sheep ....

IV. Goats ....

V. Serow, Takin, and Antelopes

VI. Deer ....

VII. Deer, Chevrotain, and Swine

VIII. Lion, Tiger, Leopard, etc.

IX. Hyaena, Wolf, Bear, etc. .

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Text-Figures

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Game Animals of India, etc.PAGE

Head of Baluchi Urial 103

Sind Wild Goat no

Skull and Horns of Sind Wild Goat . . . .111The Balti Ibex 117Horns of the Astor Markhor . . . . .123Skull and Horns of Pir Panjal Markhor . . .125Horns of Gilgit Markhor 127

Skull and Horns of Cabul Markhor . . . .129Skull and Horns of Suleman Markhor . . . -131Head of Suleman Markhor . . . . . -133Skull and Horns of Himalayan Serow . . . .146A Himalayan Goral . . . . . . .149Frontlet and Horns of Young Takin . . . .162Female Nilgai . . . . . . . . ]6jSkull and Horns of Blackbuck . . . . .179Persian Goitred Gazelle . . . . . .195Skulls and Horns of Yarkand and Persian Gazelles . 197

Skull and Horns of Yarkand Gazelle . . . -199Head of Chinkara ....... 203Hangul Stag . . . . ... . .211Hangul Stag, with Antlers in Velvet . . . .213Skull and Antlers of Yarkand Stag . . . .216Skull and Antlers of Shou Stag . . . .219Sambar Stag . . . . . . . .223Head of Indian Sambar . . . . . . 225Skull of Indian Sambar with abnormal Antlers . . 227

Frontlet and Antlers of Malay Sambar .... 231

Head of Chital Stag ....... 234Chital Hind . . . . . . . -23 5Head of Hog-Deer 242Hog-Deer Stag 244

Head of Swamp-Deer....... 246Swamp-Deer Stag ....... 247Head of Swamp-Deer with abnormal type of Antlers . 249Burmese Thamin ....... 253

List of Illustrations

48. Frontlet and Antlers of

40. Head of Tufted Deer

50. Young Musk-Deer

51. African Leopard Skin

52. Indian Leopard Skin

53. An Indian Leopard

54. Snow-Leopard Skin

55. Tibetan Blue Bear

Malay MuntjacI'AGE

260

265

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377

FoLD-lN

Buffalo Skulls and Horns

Indian Tiger Skin

Manchurian Tiger SkinWhite Tiger Skin

Plates

To face

294

296

CORRIGENDUMPage 75, line 17 from top, /or H. L. Butler read A. L. Butler.

xill

THE GAME ANIMALS OF INDIA,BURMA, MALAYA, AND TIBET

INTRODUCTION

The area of which the game animals (or rathermammals) are described in the present volume maybe designated in popular language " the Sportsman'sIndia." Roughly speaking, it comprises the drainage-basins of the Indus, Bramaputra, and Irawadi Rivers,or the greater portion thereof, together with the wholeof India, Ceylon, the province of Tenasserim, and theMalay Peninsula. Including a large part of Baluchistanand Afghanistan, the area is well defined towards thenorth-west by the barrier of the Hindu-Kush andKarakoram ranges. Eastwards of the latter theboundary is fixed by the Tangla Mountains, to thenorth of Lhasa, whence an arbitrary line may be drawnto the eastern frontier of Burma, which may be takenas the boundary in this direction. The whole of Tibetand the Himalaya consequently fall within the areatreated of ; but, on the other hand. Eastern Turkestanand China, as well as Siam and Cochin -China, areexcluded.

It has to be acknowledged that, in fixing theselimits, a somewhat arbitrary division has been made.It has indeed been suggested to the author thatit would have been better to include the whole ofAsia, as it seems rather illogical to describe certain of

I B

Game Animals of India, etc.the wild sheep and deer of Central Asia to the exclusionof others, and undoubtedly there is much to be saidfor this view. On the other hand, the fauna ofWestern Asia passes imperceptibly into that of EasternEurope, so that if Asia were taken as the limits of thearea to be included, the boundary would be fully asarbitrary, from the point of view of the fauna, as is atpresent the case, if, indeed, it were not more so.

The area, as thus limited, contains an assemblageof game animals belonging to two great zoologicalprovinces ; those of the cis-Indus and cis-Himalayanportion of the area, together with Burma, Tenasserim,and the Malay Peninsula, pertaining to what is calledthe Oriental region, while those beyond these limits areincluded in the Eastern Holarctic or Palaearctic region.The northern frontiers of India and Burma are, infact, the meeting-place of two great faunas. In Burmaand India themselves minor zoological subdivisionsare indicated by the distribution of the game andother animals. In Tenasserim, for example, theanimals are distinctly of a Malay type, as is instancedby the presence of the tapir, the Malay bear, thebantin, and the binturong. And these Malay types,with an intermingling of peculiar species, like thethamin deer, are traceable into Assam and the EasternHimalaya ; the Malay forms being perhaps evenmore pronounced in the latter area than they arein Burma. Other Malay types are the two smallerspecies of Asiatic rhinoceros, one of which has pene-trated into Lower Bengal.

Ot the game animals of Burma itself, some, likethe gaur, are specifically identical with those of India

;

others, like the bantin, are Malay ; while others againmay be regarded as Eastern representatives of Indianspecies. As an instance of the latter class m.ay becited the thamin deer and the Malay sambar, whichare respectively the Burmese representatives of theIndian swamp-deer and Indian sambar. Assam forms

Introduction

the meeting-ground of the Indian and the Burmesefaunas.

Peninsular India, properly restricted to the areasouth of the great plain formed by the alluvium ofthe Indus and Ganges, although often considered toextend to the foot of the Himalaya, is the home ofthe true Indian fauna, examples of which are thechital, or spotted deer, the hog-deer, the swamp-deer,the Indian sambar, the nilgai, and the sloth-bear.Even apart from minor divisions due to varyingconditions of climate, soil, vegetation, etc., PeninsularIndia is by no means uniform as regards its animals.The Malabar coast, for instance, is very distinct inthis respect from the whole of the remainder of thearea, although showing considerable resemblances toCeylon, except the north of the latter, which is moreakin in its animals to Peninsular India generally.Many characteristic Indian animals, such as the tiger,the Indian wolf, and the swamp-deer, are, however,absent from Ceylon.

In the trans- Indus districts of the Punjab, andstill more markedly in Western Sind, Baluchistan, andAfghanistan, we gradually take leave of the fauna ofPeninsular India (and with it that of the Orientalregion generally), and find it replaced by a Persianelement ; these Persian types belonging to the Holarcticfauna of Western Asia and Europe. Examples ofsuch western types are met with in the form of theEuropean wolf, the Persian leopard, the wild ass, andthe Persian gazelle. The lion, too, belongs to thisPersian fauna, although it has succeeded in penetratingfarther into India than some of the other members.All traces of the Malay fauna, such as tapirs, thetwo smaller species of rhinoceros, and the Malaybear, are wanting from the area occupied by thePersian fauna.

In the cis-Indus Salt Range of the Punjab we meetwith an outlier of the Persian fauna in the form of the

Game Animals of India, etc.

Salt Range urial. This sheep, together with thestraight-horned markhor goat of the trans-IndusSuleman Range, Hkewise serves to connect the Punjab-Persian fauna with that of Central Asia, which alsoforms a part of the Holarctic region.

It has been already mentioned that the animals ofthe Eastern Himalaya display a marked resemblanceto the Malay type. Passing westwards along the chain,this Malay element practically disappears west ofNepal ; and from thence the Himalayan fauna asfar north as the forests reach is to a great extenttransitional between that of Peninsular India on theone hand and that of Central Asia on the other.Kashmir, which comes within the limits of thisintermediate zone, exhibits the transition between theOriental and Central Asian faunas very markedly, withsome indications of a Persian element. The Himalayanblack bear is a very characteristic animal of this zone,as are also the tahr and the goral.

With the high Himalaya and the arid districts ofGilgit, Ladak, etc., we enter the area inhabited by theTibetan fauna, which is more or less markedly distinctfrom that of the rest of Central Asia. Amonp; thesepecuHar Tibetan types may be cited the yak, the chiruantelope, the goa gazelle, and the Tibetan wild ass orkiang, together with various wild sheep, all of whichare inhabitants of dry and elevated country. Farthereastwards, in the Lhasa district, we enter the limitsof a subdivision of this fauna adapted to live at alower elevation in a more humid climate ; amonethe members of this group being the short -tailedpanda, the takin, Thorold's deer, and the Tibetanblue bear.

Passing on to Turkestan and the Altai country, thehome of Marco Polo's sheep, the true argali, theEastern Asiatic wapitis, and the Siberian roebuck, wereach the tract inhabited by the typical Central Asianfauna, lying beyond the limits to which this volume is

. 4

Introduction

restricted. The tiger is probably to be regarded as awanderer trom the Central Asian fauna into India andthe Malay countries.

With these few preliminary remarks on an interest-ing subject, the descriptions and histories of the variousspecies may be commenced.

THE INDIAN OR ASIATIC ELEPHANT

{Ekphas maximus)

Native Names.Hathi^ Hathni (female), Hindustani ;.Hasd AND Gaja^ Sanscrit ; Fil^ Persian ; Haust^Kashmiri ; Gaj^ Bengali ; Ane^ Telegu, Tamil,Canarese, etc. ; Tani of the Gonds ; Hattanga^Khonda^ and Eniga^ Telegu ; Tanei^ Kunjaramyand Veranum^ Malabari ; Ata and Allia^ Cinga-lese ; Tengmu of the Lepchas ; Langcheu andLambochi of the Bhotias ; Mongma and Napioamong the Garo Hill Tribes ; Migung^ Kachari ;Atche OF THE Akas ; Sotso^ Supo., Chu, and Tsu ofTHE Nagas ; Sitle at Abor ; Tsang in Khamti ;Magui^ SiNGPHO ; Saipi of the Kukis ; AmiengAND Manyong in the Mishmi Hills ; Samu ofTHE Manipuris ; Tsheng^ Burmese ; Tsing, Talain ;Tsan in the Shan States ; Kahsa of the Karens ;.Gaja^ Malay.

(Plate i, fig. i)

In all works of sport and in the majority of thoseon natural history the Indian elephant, if it be notcalled Elephas asiaticus, is termed E. indkus ; but at thepresent day it is the fashion to follow priority innomenclature, and according to this the proper nameis E. maximus. It may be objected that the Indianelephant is a smaller animal than its African relation,and that the latter name is thus invalid ; but objectionsof this class are disregarded by naturalists.

As the largest and most strange in appearance of all6

Plate I

1. Indian Elephant.

2. Great Indian Rhinoceros,

3. Javan Rhinoceros.

4. Sumatran Rhinoceros.

5. Malay Tapir.

6. Kiang.

Game Animals of India, etc.the animals of India, the elephant looms large in theancient traditions and religions of the country, figuringin the Hindu mythology as Ganesathe elephant-headed god. From its ancient Sanscrit names Hastiand Gaja are derived most of its titles among the Aryantribes of India ; while even the Malays, who speak atongue of totally different origin, have adopted thelatter of these names. Although now the sole repre-sentative of its tribe in Asia, the Indian elephant is thesurvivor of a host of species formerly inhabiting thecountry from which it takes its name ; some of theseextinct species coming close to their descendant, whileothers (mastodons) had teeth of a totally distinct type,some even carrying tusks in the lower as well as in theupper jaw. From the number of fossil species, coupledwith the fact that it is here alone that a complete transi-tion is to be found between the mastodons and thetrue elephants, it is probable that South-Eastern Asiawas the original home of the latter.

As everybody knows an elephant by sight, whilemany persons are acquainted with the leading externaldifferences between the Asiatic and the African species,it will be unnecessary to point out the characteristics ofelephants in general, or to enter in detail into theconsideration of the features by which the two livingrepresentatives of the group are distinguished from oneanother. An exception in regard to one particularfeature of elephant anatomy may, however, be made,seeing that comparatively few persons understand themode of development and replacement obtaining in theteeth of these animals.

As regards the tusks (which do not correspond tothe tusks of a wild boar, but to one of the pairs ofincisor or front teeth of that animal), these arise fromthe upper jaw, and grow throughout the life of theirowner, after they have once made their appearance. Invery young elephants they are preceded by a pair ofmilk-tusks, which are soon shed.

The Indian or Asiatic ElephantAs regards the molar or cheek-teeth, there are six

pairs developed in each jaw, but only portions of twoot these are in use at one time, and in an aged animal

Fig. I.Skull of Indian Elephant, showing the worn masticating surface of thefilth pair of molars, behind which are the unworn sixth pair, whose summits(luring life were still in the gum.

there is but one on each side of both the upper and thelower jaw. These teeth are composed of a number ofvertical transverse plates closely packed together ; thenumber of such plates gradually increasing from the

9

Game Animals of India, etc.first tooth, in which there are four, to the last, whichmay have as many as twenty- four. The teeth arepushed up in the jaws in an arc of a circle, and as eachtooth in the front of the series becomes worn down, itis gradually thrust out from behind by its successor,which at the same time takes its place. The end ofthis process is, of course, that the animal is eventuallyleft with but a single pair of grinding teeth in each jaw

;

and when these are completely worn away, a term is putto the life of their owner.

Compared with those of its African relative, themolars of the Indian elephant have their componentplates narrower and more numerous, with the layers ofenamel thrown into a number of fine puckers or pleats.Consequently, on the worn surface of the crown, thedisks formed by the abraded plates are more numerousand narrower in the Indian species, while their enamel-borders are thin and pleated instead of comparativelythick and plain.

The females of the Indian elephant carry, as a rule,only very small tusks, which do not project beyond thelips, and in some cases the males show an equally poordevelopment of these weapons. Such tuskless malesare known in India as makhna^ in contradistinction tothe dauntela^ or tuskers.

Usually the Indian elephant has five polished hoof-like nails on the fore, and four on the hind feet ;but the most striking external point of distinctionbetween it and the African species is to be foundin the comparatively small size of the ears. Next tothis comes the presence of a finger-like process on thefront edge only of the tip of the trunk, the Africanspecies having such a process on both the front andhind margins. The trunk, too, of the Indian speciesdiffers markedly from that of the African elephant,being comparable to a tapering india-rubber tube,whereas in the African elephant this appendage consistsof a series of segments of varying calibre, and may be

10

The Indian or Asiatic Elephantlikened to the joints of a telescope. The skin is com-paratively smooth, and the coarse bristles on the tailare confined to the front and back edges for somedistance above the tip. Other noticeable features inthe present species are the comparative flatness of theforehead and the regularly convex profile of the back.

Much discussion has taken place with regard to theheight attained by the Indian elephant, but since thesubject has been thoroughly threshed out, it will betreated very briefly on the present occasion. Roughlyspeaking, about 9 feet may be given as the ordinaryheight for large males, and 8 feet for females, but inCeylon the average is from 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet6 inches. An elephant of about 9 feet 9 inches has,however, been killed in Ceylon,^ and one of 9 feet7 inches in Mysore ; while two are known to haveattained the height of 10 feet i inch, a third of 10 feet4 inches, and a fourth (killed by the late ViscountPowerscourt in Gurhwal) of 1 1 feet. A very largeelephant was also recorded some time ago in one ofthe Indian papers. These dimensions appear to bedwarfed by a skeleton in the Indian Museum, Calcutta,which seems to indicate an animal of nearly a dozenfeet high.

Of tusks, the three longest specimens on recordrespectively measure 8 feet 9 inches, 8 feet 2 inches,and 8 feet ; their respective weights being 81, 80, and90 lbs ; but these are by no means the heaviest one,whose length is 7 feet 3|- inches, weighing 102 lbs.,while a second, of which the length is 7 feet 3^ inches,scaled 97^ lbs., both the two latter being from Ceylon.Of the largest pair in the British Museum, belongingto an elephant killed in 1866 by the late ColonelG. M. Payne in Madura, one tusk measures 6 feet8 inches in length, and weighs 77^ lbs., while the otheris somewhat smaller. As regards the circumferenceof the base of the foot, the following dimensions,

1 Storey, Hunting and Shooting in Ceylon, p. i lo.II

Game Animals of India, etc.

namely, 67~^r, 62-^, 61, 60-^-, and 60 inches have beenrecorded.

Within the area treated of in this volume, theelephant inhabits the forest-districts of India, Ceylon,Assam, and Burma, although now exterminated inseveral parts of the country where it formerly flourished.Indeed, were it not for the protective laws establishedboth in India and Ceylon this noble beast would havelong since disappeared from most of its haunts, evenif it had not ceased to exist. Eastwards and southwardsof Burma the elephant is to be met with in the MalayPeninsula, Siam, and Cochin-China, as well as in thegreat islands of Sumatra and Borneo, although in thelast of these its presence may be originally due tohuman agency.

There has long been a diff^erence of opinion as towhether the Sumatran and the Ceylon elephants, whichwere at one time grouped together, are distinct tromthe continental animal. So long ago as the year 1834Mr. Brian Hodgson, writing in the Proceedi?igs of theZoological Society of London^ suggested that the elephantof Ceylon was distinct from that of the mainland, astypified by the sal-forest animal. Whether, however,the two were to be regarded as species or races was leftan open question. According to this communication,the Cingalese elephant has a smaller and lighter head,and is taller at the withers than the mainland animal

;

while the latter sometimes has five nails on the hind-foot. Nothing was, however, stated with regard tothe presence or absence of tusks or the relative sizesof the two races. A dozen years later Temminck,who apparently based his conclusions on informationaffxDrded by his colleague Schlegel, announced that theelephants of Sumatra and Ceylon indicated a speciesdistinct from the continental E. maximus (indicus\which it was proposed to call E. sumatranus ; thetypical form being, of course, the Sumatran elephant.

Schlegel subsequently formulated the characters by12

The Indian or Asiatic Elephantwhich the Sumatran and Cingalese animal might bedistinguished from the continental elephant. Both, hewrites, have, as compared with the African elephant,the same general form and small ears, but the Sumatranspecies is a more slender and more finely built animalwith a longer and more slender trunk, and the tip ofthe tail more expanded and carrying longer and strongerbristles. He then goes on to say that the Sumatranelephant is more docile and intelligent than its Indianbrother, frorrt which it is further distinguished bycertain differences in the skeleton and teeth, detailed inthe original paper.

The subject was again taken up by Dr. HughFalconer in a memoir communicated to the NaturalHistory Review for January 1863, in which it wasshown that many of the dental and osteologicalcharacters (notably an alleged difference in the numberot vertebrae) were untrustworthy ; and he came to theconclusion that there was but a single living Asiaticspecies of elephant. In this he is no doubt correct

;

but it is important to note that in a later portion ofthe memoir he makes the admission that this species is" modified, doubtless, according to his more northernor southern habitat, but not to an extent exceeding thatof a slight geographical variety." This is equivalent tosaying that there may be local " races," as now under-stood, of the Asiatic species. It should, moreover, bementioned that in De Blainville's Osteographie^ publishedfrom 1839 to 1864, the Ceylon elephant had beendesignated Elephas indicus zeylanicus.

Although nothing is said as to any local varietiesof the elephant in Blanford's Mammals of India^ itis mentioned that the Ceylon elephant is reported to begenerally tuskless ; and it is evident that if this form bedistinguished from the continental Indian elephant, itmust, on distributional grounds, be also distinct fromthe Sumatran representative of the species. It may beadded that Schlegel makes no mention of the rarity or

13

Game Animals of India, etc.

absence of large tusks as a distinctive characteristic of

Temmi nek's Elephas sumatranus.The distinctness of the Ceylon elephant has been

taken up by Mr. Alfred Clark, of the Ceylon ForestDepartment, in a Httle work called Sport in the Low-Country of Ceylon^ published in 1901 at Colombo.The more important of these observations are asfollows :

" As is well known, the majority of male elephantsin Ceylon have no tusks, but only small tushes setvertically in the. upper jaw. Females also have tushes,but they are very small. Tuskers are sometimes metwith, but are extremely scarce. It is probable that

there are not now more than fifty of all ages in the

whole island. That they were numerous in formerdays is shown by the fact that, when Kandy wasconquered in 18 15, among the loot were 289 tusks,weighing 5915J lbs. Tuskers are usually not so bigas the tuskless bulls, but are broader across the foreheadand have bigger frontal bumps, while the hollowbetween the ear and eye is not so marked. . . .Very fine tusks, quite as big as the average size of Indian

ones, have been got from tuskers shot in Ceylon." One reason which has been given for the rarity of

tuskers in Ceylon is the ' scarcity of phosphates in thesoil,' which sounds learned, but is nonsense. Such atheory would account for the absence of tusks, or fortheir universal imperfect development, but not for thefact that some elephants have perfectly developed tusksand others none at all, but tushes instead. There canbe little doubt that tuskers and tuskless elephants are twodistinct varieties^ the latter being the one indigenousto the island. The tuskers found in our forests areprobably the descendants of imported Indian elephantswhich ran wild. It is reasonable to suppose that ifthere are two breeds of elephants in Ceylon, cross-breeding would, in the course of time, produce a speciesof hybrid animal. Native elephant-catchers and traders

14

The Indian or Asiatic Elephantassert the existence of such creatures and call them* makanians.' There was an elephant belonging to theRameswaram Temple a tew years ago which was saidto be one of this class. It had tusks, but they were setvertically, almost touching the ground, and the wholeshape of the animal was abnormal."

The evidence adduced in these extracts as to themarked distinction of the great majority of Cingaleseelephants from those of the mainland, and the suggestionmade to account for the presence of a certain numberof tuskers in the island, are certai;ily worthy theconsideration of naturalists. Unfortunately there is noevidence that Indian elephants were at any timeimported into Ceylon, and as the introduction (assumingit to have taken place) must have occurred at a datecomparatively remote, it is unlikely that such evidencewill ever be forthcoming. Whether elephants couldhave been carried across the Palk Straits in native craft,or whether they could have crossed by swimming viathe so-called Adam's Bridge, it is not easy to say ; butMr, Clark's suggestion certainly offers an explanation ofthe facts which does not appear to present insuperabledifficulties. Provisionally accepting this explanation,there seems evidence in favour of regarding theCingalese elephant as a distinct local race, of whichthe proper name is Elephas maximus zeylanicus. Thispresumed race will be characterised by the absence oflarge tusks in the males, and the peculiarities in theform of the head referred to by Mr, Clark,

The statement as to the Cingalese tuskless elephantsbeing larger than the tuskers seems to require a littlemodification ; for, according to Mr. H, Storey, it is onlyin the Tawankaduwa district of the island that thereexists a large herd of tuskless elephants, some ot whichreach, it is said, a height of nearly ten feet, whereaselsewhere a heig-ht of nine feet is uncommon.Whether these Tawankaduwa giants indicate a secondCeylon race, has yet to be determined.

15

Game Animals of India, etc.It should be added that the name Elephas maximus

appears to have been originally bestowed on Ceylonanimals ; since, however, these were almost certainlytuskers, they would seem, on Mr. Clark's hypothesis, tobe identical with the mainland race.

Whether the " makhnas," " kumariahs," and" dauntelas " of the mainland also indicate as manydistinct races inhabiting continental India, there is notsufficient material at hand to determine. It is note-worthy, however, that according to Falconer "theexperienced mahouts attached to the GovernmentCommissariat in Bengal will tell at a glance the districtwhere a recently caught elephant has been bred

;

whether the sal-forests of the North-West Provinces,Assam, Sylhet, Chittagong, Tipperah, or Cuttack."Should it be eventually possible to distinguish two ormore continental Indian races, the difficulty would ariseas to which was to be regarded as the typical Elephasmaximus of Linnaeus, which, as already indicated, may,after all, be the Ceylon animal.

With regard to the Sumatran elephant, geographicalconsiderations are probably of themselves sufficient toindicate its right to stand as a local race (E. maximussumatranus) of the Asiatic species, distinguished by theexternal characters recorded by Temminck and Schlegel.Comparison would, however, probably indicate otherpoints of distinction between this and the Indian andCingalese races. If, as is suggested, the elephantsnow found wild in Borneo have been introduced byhuman agency, they are perhaps identical with theSumatran race. It may be added that if the nativeshave been able to introduce these animals into Borneo,there is no reason why they should not have done thesame in Ceylon.

Whether the elephants of Cochin-China, Siam, theMalay States, and Burma are or are not identical withthe Sumatran or the Indian race, there are at present nomeans of determining. It is noteworthy, however,

i6

The Indian or Asiatic Elephantthat so-called white elephants appear to be less uii- /common in these eastern states than in either India orCeylon ; and there is also the circumstance that Burmeseelephants breed more readily in confinement than is thecase with Indian elephants. So far as they go, theseare points in favour of the racial distinctness of theelephants of the mainland on the eastern side of the Bayof Bengal from their Indian and Cingalese relatives.

The Malay elephant differs from the Ceylon race inthat practically all the males are tuskers. Theseanimals are to be met with all over the FederatedMalay States, but are less numerous in Selangor andPerak than elsewhere.

As regards their present distribution in India,elephants are found along the foot of the Himalaya asfar west as the valley of Dehra Dun, where the wintertemperature falls to a comparatively low point. Afavourite haunt used to be the swamp of Azufghur,lying among the sal -forests to the northward of thestation of Meerut. In the great tract of forest betweenthe Ganges and Kistna rivers they occur locally as farwest as Bilaspur and Mandla ; they are met with inthe Western Ghats as far north as between latitude 17'and 18, and are likewise found in the hill-forests ofMysore (the hunting district of G. P. Sanderson in hisearlier days) as well as still farther south. In this partof the peninsula they ascend the hills to a considerableheight, as they do in the Newera Ellia district ofCeylon, where they have been encountered at anelevation of over 7000 feet above the sea. There isevidence to prove that about three centuries agoelephants wandered in the forests of Malwa and Nimar,while they survived to a much later date in the Chandadistrict of the Central Provinces. At the comparativelyremote epoch when the Deccan was a forest tract, theywere probably also to be met with there, but the swampsof the Bengal Sandarbans appear to be unsuited to theirhabits.

17 c

V

Game Animals of India, etc.So many excellent accounts of the mode of life of

the wild Indian elephant are extant (those by Sir J. E.Emerson Tennent, Sir S. Baker, and Mr. G. P.Sanderson being among the best), that a short noticewill here suffice. The structure of the teeth issufficient to indicate that the food consists chiefly ofgrass, leaves, succulent shoots, and fruits ; and this hasbeen found by observation to be actually the case. Inthis respect the Asiatic species differs widely from itsAfrican relative, whose nutriment is largely composedof boughs and roots. Another difference between thetwo is to be found in the intolerance of the direct raysof the sun displayed by the Asiatic species, which nevervoluntarily exposes itself to their influence. Conse-quently, during the hot season in Upper India, and atall times except during the rains in the more southerndistricts, elephants keep much to the denser parts ofthe forests. In Southern India they delight in hill-forest, where the undergrowth is largely formed ofbamboo, the shoots of which form a favourite delicacy

;

but during the rains they venture out to feed on theopen grass-tracts. Water is essential to their well-being ; and no animals delight more in a bath. Norare they afraid to venture out of their depth, beingexcellent swimmers, and able, by means of their trunks,to breathe without difficulty when the body is sub-merged. The herds, which are led by females, appearin general to be family parties ; and although commonlyrestricted to from thirty to fifty, may include as manyas one hundred head. The oki bulls are generallysolitary for a considerable portion of the year, butreturn to the herds during the pairing season. Some"rogue" elephants

gunda of the natives remain,however, permanently separated from the rest of theirkind. All such solitary bulls, as their colloquial nameindicates, are of a spiteful disposition ; and it appearsthat with the majority the inducement to live apart isdue to their partiality for cultivated crops, into which

i8

The Indian or Asiatic Elephantthe more timid females are afraid to venture. " Mast

"

elephants are males in a condition of

probably sexualexcitement, when an abundant discharge of dark oilymatter exudes from two pores in the forehead. Inaddition to various sounds produced at other times, anelephant when about to charge gives vent to a shrillloud " trumpet " ; and on such occasions rushes on itsadversary with its trunk rolled up out of danger,endeavouring either to pin him to the ground with itstusks (if a male tusker) or to trample him to deathbeneath its ponderous knees or feet.

Exact information in regard to the period of gesta-tion of the female elephant is still a desideratum ; thisbeing largely due to the fact that in India elephantsrarely breed in captivity, although they do so muchmore commonly in Burma and Siam. From observa-tions on elephants in a menagerie in Philadelphia, Mr.H. C. Chapman estimated the duration of pregnancy atas much as twenty-two months ; but other observershave put it at nineteen, while by some it has beenreduced to eighteen months. Possibly the nativeexplanation, that the period is twenty-two months inthe case of bull calves, and eighteen in that of females,may prove to be correct. The newly-born calf almostimmediately stands on its feet, and soon after sucks,effecting the latter operation by raising its trunk andapplying its mouth to the maternal teats, which are twoin number and situated between the fore-legs. Veryrarely two calves are produced at a birth.

Here it may be mentioned that an elephant drinksby sucking up water with its trunk and then pouringit into its mouth ; all food being likewise conveyed tothe mouth by the same organ.

Elephant-shooting, which is practised on foot, isperhaps the most dangerous of all Indian field-sports ;and a charging elephant needs all the nerve and cool-ness of the sportsman. Describing the charge of anelephant, Mr. Sanderson observes that " the cocked

19

Game Animals of India, etc.ears and broad forehead present an immense frontage

;

the head is held high, with the trunk curled betweenthe tusks, to be uncoiled in the moment of attack ;the massive fore-legs come down with the force andregularity of ponderous machinery ; and the wholefigure is rapidly foreshortened, and appears to doublein size with each advancing stride. The trunk beingcurled and unable to emit any sound, the attack is madein silence, after the usual premonitory shriek,"

With modern weapons of precision and great pene-trating power, and the accurate knowledge possessed ofthe vital points of their anatomy by the majority ofsportsmen, elephants are now generally despatchedwith comparative speed and certainty. Not so, how-ever, in the old days, as the following account of anold " rogue," whose skull is now in the BritishMuseum, sufficiently attests. This elephant, writesDr. Falconer, " was killed in the jungles on the banksof the Ganges, at no great distance from Meerut, inMay 1833, by a party of five experienced sportsmen,who went out for the express purpose of killing it.The savage animal made no fewer than twenty-threedesperate and gallant charges against a battery of at leastsixteen double-barrelled guns, to which it was exposedon each occasion, and fell, after several hours, with itsskull literally riddled with bullets. Besides the shot-holesof its last engagement, the frontal plateau alone bears,above the nasals, the healed canals of at least sixteenbullet-holes received in previous encounters, exclusive ofthose effaced by the confluent fissures of its latest wounds."

The battered skull shows that not a single bullet hadpenetrated the comparatively small brain-chamber

;

all having traversed merely the surrounding mass ofhoneycomb-like bone, where they could do little damage.To reach the vital brain-cavity, the sportsman selectsone of three shots. In the case of the front shot, thepoint at which to aim varies according to the positionof the elephant at the moment of pulling the trigger.

20

The Indian or Asiatic ElephantWhen, for instance, the animal is standing tacing thesportsman in the ordinary position the point at whichto aim is situated in the middle line of the foreheadabout three inches above the plane of the eyes. On theother hand, if the elephant is in the act of charging, thefront shot must be planted lower down, near the baseof the trunk ; and since the bullet has then to traversea much greater thickness before entering the brain-chamber, high penetrative power on the part of theprojectile is of the utmost importance ; moreover, avery slight error in the aim will render this shotineffectual. When the sportsman is on one side ofthe elephant, the temple-shot is the most effective ; therifle being aimed so that the bullet should strike theaperture of the ear, or the immediate neighbourhood otthe same, in such a manner as to pass out on theopposite side of the skull in the same region. Therear, or ear-shot, should be planted in the hollow justabove the conspicuous bump or swelling at the junctionof the jaw and the neck, and taken so as to form anangle of about 45 with the elephant's course frombehind. In addition to these three head-shots, there isone behind the shoulder, although this does not findmuch favour among sportsmen.

With the aid of the diagrams given in Mr. Sander-son's Thirteen Tears among the Wild Beasts of India^ thesportsman who essays elephant- shooting for the firsttime should make a careful study of the vertical sectionof the skull of one of these animals, so as to renderhimself acquainted with the locality and relations of thebrain-chamber. With regard to the best methods oftracking and approaching elephants in the jungle, hecannot possibly do better than consult the work lastnamed.

Allusion has already been made to the fits of passionwhich occur in elephants when mast ; but the followinginstance of a wild elephant trying conclusions with arailway train which occurred at Perak, in the Malay

21

Game Animals of India, etc.Peninsula, on August i8, 1899, is worthy of specialmention. According to an article in the Asian news-paper, it seems that " the duel occurred in broaddaylight, and the elephant was the deliberate aggressor.It appears that the engine-driver, seeing a big tuskerahead on the permanent way, brought his train to astandstill ; whereupon the tusker, encouraged by hisenemy's unwillingness to attack, took the offensive andcharged bravely, so bravely that he knocked his tusksto pieces and injured his head, doing, as may besupposed, commensurate damage to the engine. Forover an hour, says the storj^, the elephant held theposition, charging repeatedly ; when the driver backedhis engine the elephant stood aside, but the moment itadvanced he renewed the attack. A truly resoluteelephant this, for when he had battered his head soreupon the engine, he turned his hind-quarters to it andendeavoured thus to overcome it ! "

Later on in the same article it is stated that "on thenight of September 16, 1892, an elephant, describedas ' not a very old one,' forced his way through thefence near Okturn station on the Rangoon-MandalayRailway, and strolling up the embankment got uponthe metals just as the Mandalay mail came at full speedround a curve. Probably he was utterly bewilderedby the rush and roar, with its accompaniment of blazinglamp and spark-showers. At all events he stood hisground and received the attack on his head, with theresult that his skull was literally shattered and hiscarcase thrown over the embankment, the train passingon its way without injury. The fact that the line ranon the top of an embankment at the spot where thisencounter took place was probably an important factorin securing the safety of the train. If the collision hadoccurred in a narrow cutting the elephant's carcasemust have derailed the train, and caused a seriousaccident. This recalls the railway accident on thenight of September 28, 1882. The Bengal-Nagpur

22

The Indian or Asiatic Elephantup-mail, while travelling at speed about half-past ninethrough the jungles which flank the line betweenGaikara and Monarpur, came suddenly in collision withan elephant. It was a pitch-dark night, the engineappears to have struck the beast on ihe flank, for thecowcatcher swept him off his legs, and he restedpartially on the foot-plate until the driver reducedspeed and his body slid down in front of the engine,which now pushed him along the metals, mangling himin a terrible fashion betore his remains fell over theembankment. The train was travelling at a rate of 30miles an hour, and the elephant was a big bull withtusks 6 feet long ; and although his weight before theengine helped the brake to stop the train, it wasderailed before it could be brought to a standstill. Asthis collision took place on an embankment, it wassheer good luck that the engine took the elephant fairand square as it did. The remains ot the elephantwere found dead at the foot of the embankment nextmorning ; the engine lost both its head lights in theencounter, the brake-gear was injured, and the smoke-box door partially battered in."

In a letter to the Malay Mail of May 9, 1905,Mr. T. R. Hubback describes certain peculiaritiesin the tusks of an elephant shot by himself near theTriang River, Malay Peninsula, in April. These tusksdiverged from one another at an unusually wide angle,so that, while on leaving the gum the axes of the twowere only a foot apart, their points were separated byan interval of 3 feet 3 inches, and this despite the factthat the longer tusk projected only i foot 9 inchesfrom the head. More remarkable still is the backwardextension of the roots of the tusks into the skull, these,according to the author's description, reaching upwardsto a point considerably behind the eye, instead otending above the level of the root of the trunk ; thatis to say, just below the nasal chamber. In fact, thelonger tusk had a length of no less than 2 feet 8 inches

23

Game Animals of India, etc.within the skull, and is stated to have ended (or rathercommenced) in the cavity situated between the eye andthe ear. Such an unusual backward extension of the-tusks would, the writer points out, interfere with theordinary " eye-shot," as the bullet, on its way to thebrain, would have had to pass through the root of thetusk. It is to be hoped that Mr. Hubback will eitherpublish a figure of this skull or send the specimen toa London museum, where it may be examined byanatomists, as the abnormality is certainly one ofconsiderable interest. According to the author'sdescription, it would appear that the roots of the tusks,in place of being confined to the sheaths in the maxil-lary bones (which, as already mentioned, terminate atthe base of the nasal chamber), extend upward, so asto penetrate the sinuses of the frontal, and perhapsalso of the parietal, bones, this being effected by amarked outward divergence from the normal course.

Before concluding the subject, it may be mentionedthat elephants are peculiar among existing warm-blooded quadrupeds for the almost vertical positionoccupied by the bones of the limbs. The motions andpositions of the elephant's limb, as shown by instan-taneous photography, are so peculiar that it is safe tosay the study of the skeleton alone would have givena false conception of th.e animal. The two moststriking features are the great play of the wrist-jointand the straightness of the limbs ; the bones of thefore-limb, when in a standing posture, forming a nearlyvertical line from the shoulder-blade downwards. Theelbow-joint is, in fact, much straighter in extremeextension than could have been inferred by fitting thebones of the arm and fore-arm together.

Still more remarkable is the fact that the Indianelephant (together probably with its African cousin)differs from all other mammals in the absence of adistinct bag (pleuron) enclosing the lungs, which arethus in direct contact with the walls of the chest.

24

The Indian or Asiatic ElephantYoung Indian elephants, as shown by a specimen in

the British Museum, have hairy coats.As already mentioned, the elephant figures largely in

Hindu mythology ; the goddess Lakshmi being repre-sented surrounded by elephants, while the god Ganeshwho sprang from an elephant-incarnation of Parvathi,holds a position higher than other gods in religiousceremonies. The story of his origin is as follows :Parvathi was accused by her husband Shiva of infidelity,whereupon her son Ganesh intervened to protect her.His father, seizing a sword, cut off Ganesh's head at ablow. Parvathi was disconsolate and would not speakto her husband till he had given life to the slain son.Shiva, solicitous to humour his wife and yielding tothe entreaties of all the gods, sent his army to find acreature which slept with its head to the north ; andwhen found to kill it and bring back its head to replacethat of the murdered Ganesh. The soldiers returnedwith the head of an elephant, and placing it on thetrunk of Ganesh, there sprang into existence a creaturewith the face of an elephant and the body of a man.Little wonder that the elephant is credited withremarkable intelligence. It is believed, for instance,to be conscious of its dignity and importance themoment its trappings are put on ; feeling that it is thecentre of attraction, and that without its presence theprocession would be a poor show. Peculiar forms ofworship or " puja," are performed in honour of theelephant-god ; and at each of the eight cardinal points ofthe compass there are believed to be a pair of elephantsand a divinity, who support the earth in its place.According, however, to another version, the globe issupported by a single elephant, which stands on atortoise.

25

Game Animals of India, etc.

THE GREAT INDIAN RHINOCEROS(^Rhinoceros unicornis)

Native Names. Gainda and Gargadan^ Hindustani;

Karkadan^ Punjabi ; Gonda^ Bengali

(Plate i, fig. 2)

No one is likely to confound a " rhino " with agiraffe, and yet these are the only two groups of livingland animals furnished with a horn situated in themiddle line of the skull. The horn of a giraffe is,however, very unlike the horn (or horns) of a rhino-ceros, being composed of a boss of bone, covered withskin, and situated on the forehead of the skull, to whichin adult age it is immovably attached. In all livingrhinoceroses, on the other hand, the horn (or horns)is composed of agglutinated hairs, and has no firmattachment to the bones of the skull, which are merelyroughened and somewhat elevated so as to fit into theconcave base of the solid horn. As Sir Samuel Bakerhas well remarked, the attachment of the horn of arhinoceros to the skull is very like that of the leavesof an artichoke to the " choke." In those species ofliving rhinoceros in which there is a single horn, thisis placed immediately above the nose, and it is onlyin the two-horned species that there is a horn on theforehead, comparable in position with the giraffe'smedian horn. There is, however, an extinct Siberianrhinoceros with a single horn having the same situationas the latter. An equally marked structural differenceobtains between the solid hair-like horn of a rhinocerosand the hollow horn of an ox, sheep, or antelope onthe one hand, and the entirely bony antler of a deer,so that these appendages are absolutely distinctive ofthe former animals. It happens, however, that thefemale of the Javan rhinoceros is frequently more or

,26

The Great Indian Rhinocerosless completely hornless, and since the same conditionobtained in both sexes of certain extinct species (someof which are found in India), it is obvious that othercharacters must be sought in order to properly definethese animals.

Rhinoceroses are huge, clumsily-built animals, withlong bodies, large heads surmounted by the aforesaidhorn or horns, short and thick legs, and sparsely-hairedor naked skins of great thickness. In all the livingspecies there are three toes to each foot, each encasedin a small hoof- like nail at its termination ; themiddle one being larger than either of the others, andsymmetrical in itself The long and low head presentsa markedly concave profile, rising posteriorly into anabrupt ridge or crest, on which are situated themedium-sized and more or less tube-like ears, whosemargins are fringed with bristly hairs. Although thereis no trunk, the upper lip is frequently produced intoa pointed and semi-prehensile tip ; and the eyes, whichare situated on the sides of the head, are small andpig-like. The cylindrical tail does not reach withinsome distance of the hocks ; and the cows have a pairof teats, situated in the groin.

Very characteristic of rhinoceroses are their teeth,although the number of these varies considerably inthe different species, the African members of the grouphaving none in the front of the jaws. In spite ofshowing minor specific modifications, the cheek-teethare characterised by a distinct pattern of grindingsurface ; the essential elements in those of the upperjaw being a continuous vertical outer wall, from whichproceed two transverse crests, separated by a deepopen cleft, towards the inner margin of the crown. Insome cases the plane of the grinding surface is nearlyhorizontal, while in others it is ridged ; and thetransverse crests and inner surface of the outer wallmay be complicated by projections jutting into theintervening channel.

27

Game Animals of India, etc.Although now confined to Africa and the warmer

parts of Asia, rhinoceroses were formerly distributedover the whole of the Old World (with the exceptionof Australasia), where they ranged as far north asSiberia, and were likewise represented by hornlessspecies in North America. The living species maytherefore be regarded as survivors of an ancient type.The three species found in Asia are broadly dis-tinguished from their African allies by the possessionof teeth in the front of the jaws, and by their skinsbeing thrown into a number of loose folds, instead offorming a tight-fitting jacket. Their extinct relativesappear to have been of the same general type.

The great Indian rhinoceros is the largest of the threenamed Asiatic species, and specially characterised by thepossession of a single horn, coupled with the fact thatthe fold of skin in front of the shoulder is not con-tinued across the back of the neck, and likewise bythe skin of the sides of the body being thickly studdedwith large rounded tubercles, which have been aptlycompared to the heads of the rivets in an iron boiler.Very characteristic, too, are the great folds of skinwhich surround the back of the head like a coif ; thehead itself being larger and more elevated at the earsthan in either of the other Asiatic species.

With the exception of a fringe on the margins of theears, and some bristly hairs on the tail, the coarse andmassive skin is completely nude ; the tubercles attainingtheir maximum development on the shoulders, thighs,and hind-quarters, where they not unfrequentlymeasure an inch in diameter. On the limbs the placeof these tubercles is taken by a number of small many-sided scales. The main folds in the skin of the bodyare three, namely, one in front of the shoulder, asecond behind the same, and a third in front of thethighs and hind -quarters ; the second and third arealone continued across the back, the first incliningbackwards towards the second and dying out on the

28

The Great Indian Rhinocerosshoulder. In addition to the coif-like folds aroundthe head, a deep horizontal pleat separates the shoulder-shield from the tore-leg, while a similar fold dividesthe rump-shield from the hind-limb. Folds also occuron the hind border of the rump-shield, so that the tailis enclosed in a deep groove, in such a manner thatonly its terminal portion is visible in a side view. Thehorn, although never attaining dimensions approaching-those of the front horn of the African species, is welldeveloped in both sexes ; and the colour of the skinis blackish grey, showing more or less of pink on themargins of the folds.A male measured by General A, A. Kinloch stood

5 feet 9 inches at the shoulder, and was lo^ feet inlength from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail

;

the tail itself being 2 feet 5 inches in length. Largerdimensions are, however, recorded, by Mr. RowlandWard in Records of Big Game, in the case of specimensshot by the Maharaja of Kuch-Behar ; the height inthree of these being respectively 6 feet 4 inches, 6 feet1 inch, and 6 feet ^ inch ; the length of the head andbody II feet 11 inches, 11 feet 2 inches, and 11 feet8 inches ; and the total length 14 feet i inch, 13 feet2 inches, and 13 feet 10 inches.

As a rule, the length of the horn does not exceedabout a foot. A length of 24 inches is, however,recorded in a specimen formerly in the possession ofDr. Jerdon, and assigned to the present species ; and19^ inches is the length of the horn of a mountedspecimen in the Ipswich Museum. Three specimensof 16 inches, or over, are recorded from Assam andKuch-Behar ; and the Maharaja of Kuch-Behar hasobtained the horn of a female measuring 16^ inches inlength, which is the record for that sex.

The Indian rhinoceros usually has one pair of upperand two of lower incisofs ; the outermost pair of thelatter being large, tusk-like, and projecting from theangles of the lower jaw, so as to make formidable

29

Game Animals of India, etc.weapons of offence. The cheek-teeth are characterisedby their flat plane of wear and complex pattern, theformer feature being indicative of grass-eating habits.Teeth of this type have been discovered in Madrasand at Bunda, in the North-West Provinces, as well asin the river-gravels of the Narbada valley, and may betaken to indicate that the range of the species includedthese parts of India. There is historical evidence toprove that during the early part of the sixteenthcentury the great Indian rhinoceros was common in thePunjab, where it extended across the Indus as far asPeshawur ; and down to the middle of the last century,or even later, it was to be met with along the foot otthe Himalaya as far west as Rohilcund and Nepal, andit survived longer still in the Terai of Sikhim. Notimprobably the rhinoceroses found till about the year1850 in the grass-jungles of the Rajmahal Hills, inBengal, belonged to the present species. Now, how-ever, this animal has retreated almost, if not entirely,to the eastward of the Tista valley, on the borders ot"Kuch-Behar ; its main strongholds being the greatgrass-jungles of that province and of Assam.

In the jungles of Assam the Indian rhinoceros notonly dwells, but is as completely concealed as is a rabbitin a cornfield. To those who have never seen Indiangrass-jungles, it may seem incredible that such a hugeanimal should be hidden by such covert, but when it isrealised that the grass of which they are formed growsto a height of between 10 and 20 feet, the difficultyvanishes. As a matter of fact, the rhinoceros, like theIndian buffalo, makes regular tunnels, or " runs,"among this gigantic grass ; and from these retreats itmay be driven out by beating with a line of elephants,or by tracking on foot. When driven into the open,the animal will often stand for a few minutes, shakinsf

. ... . . oIts ears, before it makes up its mind in which directionto flee. A calf and its mother always issue forthtogether, but the old bulls and cows keep mostly apart,

30

The Great Indian Rhinocerosalthough both may have their home in the same patchof jungle. Those who have seen an Indian rhinoceroscareering round its enclosure in the Zoological Gardensafter a mud-bath, with its heavy, lumbering gallop,will not fail to realise that a charge from such amonster must be a serious matter. Fortunately, inspite of stories to the contrary, the creature in its wildstate appears to be of a mild and harmless disposition,seeking rather to escape from its enemies by flightthan to rout them by attack. When badly wounded,or so hustled about by elephants and beaters asto become bewildered, a rhinoceros will, however,occasionally charge home. In such onslaughts it is thecommon belief that the animal, like its African cousins,uses its horn as its weapon of offence ; but this is anerror ; the real weapons being the triangular, sharp-pointed lower tusks. With these a sweeping cut canbe made in the leg of an elephant, in much the sameway as a boar rips up a horse. Probably all theAsiatic members of the group attack in the samefashion.

Like all its kindred, the great Indian rhinocerosloves a mud-bath, and when plastered over with themud of some swamp or pool, looks a more than ordi-narily unprepossessing creature. Its favourite hauntsare generally in the neighbourhood of swamps ; andhilly districts are avoided. Morning and evening arethe chief feeding- times, the heat of the day beinggenerally passed in slumber. As already stated, thestructure of the teeth indicates that its food is chieflygrass ; and such observations as have been madeconfirm the truth of this inference. Individuals havelived for over twenty years in the London ZoologicalGardens, and it is stated that others have been kept inconfinement for fully fifty years. Consequently, thereis no doubt that the animal is long-lived, and it has beensuggested that its term of life may reach as much as acentury. The cow gives birth to a single young one

31

Game Animals of India, etc.at a time, but information is required in regard to theduration of the period of gestation and the frequencywith which births take place.

It was an old idea that the hide of the Indianrhinoceros was bullet-proof ; but this was erroneouseven in regard to such weapons as the military " brownBess." As trophies, sportsmen may preserve eitherthe entire head or the horn alone ; in addition to whicha shield-shaped piece of skin is frequently cut from theunder surface of the body, where it is thinner thanelsewhere, and kept as a memento of a successful"shikar." Kuch-Behar is now one of the centres forrhinoceros-shooting. Fine examples have been obtainedby the Maharaja himself ; and it was in this territorythat the Duke of Portland obtained specimens in 1882.To shoot females is prohibited.

THE SINGPHO RHINOCEROS

In this place reference may be made to the occur-rence of an unknown rhinoceros in the Singpho country,concerning which the following notice by the presentwriter appeared in the Field newspaper of July 23,1905. According to native reports, there exists in theSingpho country a rhinoceros of larger size than eitherthe two-horned Rhinoceros sumatrensis or the single-horned R. sondaicus. For this animal the nativeshave a name distinct from those which they applyrespectively to the two species just named, and theyfurther describe it as being of huge size, comparing it inthis respect with an elephant. Now the Singpho country,which is the area marked in the Times Atlas as the dis-trict inhabited by the Kachins or Singphos (Kakhyens),is the tract lying on the headwaters of the ChindwinRiver, this being separated from the north-easternextremity of the Assam Valley only by the Naga Hills

32

The Singpho Rhinocerosand the Patkai Range. Consequently, the suggestionnaturally arises that the Singpho rhinoceros may be arepresentative of the great Indian Rhinoceros unicornis^whose chief habitat at the present day is the AssamValley. That the Singpho animal is not absolutelyidentical with the Assam rhinoceros is practically certainwhen it is borne in mind that the latter is a plain-dwelling species, and that the mountain barrier betweenthe Assam and Chindwin Valleys is of very considerableheight.

1 have endeavoured to ascertain whether there areany traces ot the Singpho rhinoceros in public orprivate collections, and have succeeded in finding onespecimen which affords decisive evidence of the exist-ence of such an animal. In the third (1899) edition ofMr. Rowland Ward's invaluable Records of Big Game^there occurs under the heading of the great Indianrhinoceros, the entry of a horn from " Singpo," Burma,belonging to Sir C. A. Elliott, K.C.S.I., the specimenmeasuring 19 inches in length and 18 inches in girth.From the fourth edition of Mr. Ward's book the entryhas been omitted, probably for the reason that theeditor thought there must be an error in recording thegreat Indian rhinoceros from Burma. The Singphohorn, it may be added, accords much better in dimensionswith that of the great Indian species than with those ofeither of the other Asiatic rhinoceroses, and indicates alarge animal.

Upon obtaining this information I wrote to SirCharles Elliott, who, in reply, informed me that whenin Sadiya, the extreme north-eastern station of Assam,in the winter of 1882-83, o'* thereabouts, he heard thata fine rhinoceros horn had been brought down to thebazaar by some Singphos for sale. This specimen,together with a smaller horn, was purchased by SirCharles, the former being mounted as a trophy, andthe latter being made into an inkstand. The ownerinforms me that there is every reason for believing the

33 D

Game Animals of India, etc.two horns to have been derived from one and the sameanimal. If this be so, it is practically certain that theSingpho rhinoceros cannot be identical with the greatIndian species, despite the story current in Assam thatthe latter, when very old, will sometimes grow a secondhorn.

Nevertheless, it seems within the bounds of proba-bility, judging from the native reports as to the greatsize of the animal and also from the large dimensionsof the horn in Sir Charles Elliott's possession, that theSingpho rhinoceros may turn out to be more or lessclosely related to Rhinoceros unicornis^ although providedwith two horns. The definite addition of such ananimal to the Asiatic fauna would be a matter of greatinterest, and sportsmen and officials connected withUpper Burma should use every effort to obtain at leastthe skull and head-skin of the Singpho rhinoceros, inorder that its real affinities may be determined. Itmay be added that, in view of the comparatively recentdate at which we became definitely acquainted with thetsaine, or Burmese bantin, there is nothing improbablein a rhinoceros which inhabits a still more remote, andconsequently less known district, proving to be at leastsubspecifically distinct from any of the named repre-sentatives of the group.

THE JAVAN RHINOCEROS{Rhinoceros sondaicus^

Native Names.Gainda^ Hindustani ; Gonda^ Ben-gali ; Kunda, Kedi^ and Kweda of the Nagas ;Kyeng and Kyan - tsheng^ Burmese ; Badak^Malay.

(Plate i, fig. 3)Although possessing only a single horn, the Javan

rhinoceros is a very different beast, both externally and

34

The Javan Rhinocerosin its internal anatomy, from the preceding species. Inthe first place, although measurements of adult malesare still required, it is a somewhat smaller and lighter-built animal, with a relatively less bulky and lesselevated head. The folds of skin round the neck arealso much less developed, and the body-fold on theshoulders is continued right across the back in the samemanner as are the other two great folds. Moreover,owing to the absence of the deep groove on the rump,the tail stands out quite distinct from the hind-quarters,so that its whole extent is exposed in a side view.Very characteristic also is the structure of the skin,which lacks the " boiler-rivets " of the great Indianspecies, and is marked all over with a kind of mosaic-like pattern, caused by the presence of a network of finecracks in the superficial layer. A piece of skin cutfrom any part of the body is therefore amply sufficientto determine to which of the two species it pertained.

Yet another peculiarity of the Javan rhinoceros is tobe found in the frequent, if not invariable, absence ofthe horn in the female. Male horns of between loand i i inches in length are recorded.

As regards the height of the animal, the mostauthentic measurement of a wild specimen is that of afemale, which stood 5|- feet at the shoulder ; but malesmust almost certainly attain larger dimensions.

The present species is of the same dusky-greycolour as the last, and its hide is equally devoid of hair.The cheek-teeth, however, although numerically thesame as in the Indian rhinoceros, show a simplerpattern, while their crowns wear into ridges instead ofa uniformly flat plane. This may be taken to indicatethat the present species feeds chiefly upon twigs andleaves.

Typically an inhabitant of Java, this rhinoceros isalso found in the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, aswell as in the Malay Peninsula, whence it extendsnorthwards through Burma into Assam, and so into

35

Game Animals of India, etc.Eastern Bengal and the Sandarbans ; while a specimenhas been killed as far west as the Sikhim Terai. Sofar as present information goes, the mainland formcannot be distinguished from those inhabiting theMalay islands, so that separate local races cannot yet bedifferentiated. It is, however, quite likely that this isdue to the want of a good series of specimens, theBritish Museum having, in addition to skulls andskeletons, only the skin of a young calf in a conditionfit for public exhibition.

Although found in the swampy Sandarbans ofLower Bengal, within a day's journey of Calcutta, theJavan rhinoceros prefers forest tracts to grass-jungles,and is generally met with in hilly districts, where itapparently ascends in some parts of its habitat severalthousand feet above sea-level. In most other respectsthe mode of life of this species is probably very similarto that of its larger relative ; its disposition is, however,stated to be more gentle, and in Java tame individualsare frequently to be seen wandering about the villagesof the natives. Mr. T. R. Hubback,^ on the evidenceof native testimony, affirms that either this or the nextspecies uses its lower tusks for fighting in the sameway as the great Indian rhinoceros.

THE SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS(^Rhinoceros siimatrensis)

Native Names.Kyan and Kyan-shaw^ Burmese;

Badak^ Malay

(Plate i, fig. 4)Although possessed ot two horns, the Sumatran

rhinoceros resembles its Asiatic brethren in having

1 Elephant and Seladang Hunting in the Federated Malay States,.1905, p. 24.

36

The Sumatran Rhinocerosteeth in the front of the jaw, as well as by its foldedskin, and has therefore nothing to do with the Africanrepresentatives of the family. As compared withthe other Asiatic species (exclusive of the stillunknown Singpho rhinoceros), the presence of anadditional horn, coupled with the fact that it has only asingle pair of lower front teeth (the small central pairoccurring between the tusks in the other two speciesbeing absent), afford ample grounds for regarding thisrhinoceros as the representative of a group by itself;and it is noteworthy that an extinct rhinoceros (R.hundsheimensis) from the continent of Europe appearsto be another member of the same group of theo^enus.

To distinguish the present species from all itsrelatives, it is sufficient to state that it is the onlynamed living rhinoceros with two horns and a foldedskin ; but since it is an animal by no means familiar tomost sportsmen, it is advisable to enter somewhat intodetails. In the first place, this species is the smallest ofliving rhinoceroses, as it is also the -most hairy, its usualheight at the shoulder not being more than 4 to

4^ feet, and the length from the tip of the muzzle tothe root of the tail only about 8 feet. Some femalespecimens even fall short of the foregoing dimensions,an old individual from the Malay Peninsula being only3 feet 8 inches at the withers. The weight has beenestimated at a couple of thousand pounds.

As though suggestive of a transition towards thesmooth-skinned rhinoceroses of Africa, the folds in theskin of the present species are much less pronouncedthan in the other Asiatic kinds ; and of the three mainfolds, only one, namely, that situated behind theshoulder, is continued across the back. In structure,the outer surface of the skin is finely granular ; and itscolour, which varies from earthy-brown to almost black,is likewise different from that of either of the one-horned species. Hair grows sparsely all over the head

37

Game Animals of India, etc.

and body, but attains its maximum development on theears and the tail ; its colour varying from brown toblack. At their bases the two horns are separated fromone another by a considerable interval ; and althoughin captive individuals they are generally much worndown, when fully developed they are slender for thegreater part of their length, the front one curvingbackwards in an elegant sweep, and attaining veryconsiderable size. The longest known specimen of thefront horn is in the British Museum, and has a lengthof 2'^i inches, with a basal girth of lyf inches ; asecond specimen in the same collection measuring 27^inches in length, and 17^ in circumference.

As regards the cheek-teeth, those of the upper jaware practically indistinguishable from the correspondingmolars of the Javan rhinoceros, and may accordingly betaken as indicative of the leaf- and twig-eating pro-pensities of this species.

The Sumatran rhinoceros inhabits the islands ofSumatra and Borneo, and is also met with in theMalay Peninsula, whence it extends northwards throughBurma and Tenasserim to Chittagong and Assam, andit also occurs in Siam. Compared with the typicalSumatran animal {R. sumatrensis typhus)^ a specimenfrom Chittagong formerly living in the London Zoo-logical Gardens was distinguishable by its superiordimensions, paler and browner hair, shorter and morefully tufted tail, and the strongly developed fringe onthe margins of the ears, the interior of which was bare.The skull was proportionately broader ; but this seemsa feature of minor import. Although originally regardedas a separate species, the Chittagong rhinoceros is bestclassed as a local race of the Sumatran animal, with thename Rhinoceros sumatrensis lasiotis. Other specimensof the hairy-eared race have been subsequently obtainedin Assam, where the species is rare ; and one examplehas been killed in Tippera, and a second in the BhutanDuars. In Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula it is

3

The Sumatran Rhinocerosreplaced by a smaller, blacker, and less hairy form,which if distinct from the typical Sumatran animal (asis probably the case) should be known as R. sumatrensisniger.

In habits the Sumatran rhinoceros appears to be verysimilar to the Javan species ; both affecting forestedhill-country, which may be at a considerable altitudeabove the sea. In the Mergui Archipelago a rhinoceros,which may be this species, is stated to have been seenswimming from island to island ; and it is probable thatall the Asiatic representatives of the family will takereadily to the water, although in Somaliland the Africanrhinoceros is found in absolutely arid districts, where itcannot even drink for long periods.

The type specimen of the hairy race of the Sumatranrhinoceros was a female, captured at Chittagong in theyear 1868. When discovered by native hunters shewas embedded in a quicksand, and well-nigh exhaustedby her struggles to reach terra firma. By attachingropes to her neck she was safely extricated from herperilous position, and fastened to a tree, where nextmorning she was found so refreshed and so violentthat her captors were afraid to approach. Accordingly,a report of the capture was sent to Chittagong, andsoon after a couple of English officials arrived withelephants, to one of which the rhinoceros was madefast, and, after some trouble, marched into the station,where she soon became tame. Eventually she wassecured for the London Zoological Society, in whoseProceedings for 1872 her coloured portrait appeared.By a lucky coincidence a specimen of the typicalrepresentative of the species was procured by theSociety at the close of 1872, so that the two formswere exhibited side by side. While in the docks theChittagong animal gave birth to a young one ; andfrom certain facts that came to his knowledge, the lateMr. A. D. Bartlett was led to conclude that the periodof gestation in the species was only a little over seven

39

Game Animals of India, etc.months. According to an article by Mr. L. Wray inthe Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums,the Sumatran rhinoceros is becoming extremely scarcein the Dindings district of the Malay Peninsula, owingto persistent trapping on the part of the natives. Therhinoceroses are caught in deep concealed pitfalls madein their runs ; and the Malays state that fifty individualshave been taken in this way in and near the Dindingsalone. Catching and exporting these animals has,indeed, become a regular trade in the district for someyears past, with the result that, whereas they wereformerly quite common, they are now very scarce anddifficult to trap.

THE MALAY TAPIR(^fapirus indicus)

Native Names. Tara-shu^ Burmese ; Kuda-ayer andTennu^ Malay

(Plate i, fig. 5)Tapirs (so called by an abbreviation of the native

name of one of the South American species) offer littleattraction to the sportsman, since they yield nothing inthe way of trophies except their skulls and skins, andthe latter are valuable only as leather. Nevertheless,they are animals by no means lacking in interest, ifonly from the point of view of their remarkablegeographical distribution. Although the typical SouthAmerican tapir was known by repute to the Swissnaturalist Linnasus,who at first described it as a terrestrialspecies of hippopotamus, but afterwards had doubts asto its very existence, it was not till 18 16 that naturalistswere made aware that another species inhabits thejungles of the Malay Peninsula. For this informationthey were indebted to a Major Farquar, who described

40

The Malay Tapiran individual then living in the menagerie of theGovernor-General of India at Barrackpur, although heomitted to assign to the Oriental species a distinctivename.

This discovery revealed the fact that while tapirs arecommon to the Malay countries and South and CentralAmerica, they are found at the present day in no otherpart of the world. Were it not for the investigationsinto the past history of our globe, we should have beenat a loss to explain such a remarkable instance of dis-continuous distribution ; but we now know that inpast epochs these animals were distributed over aconsiderable portion of the northern hemisphere, whencethey wandered southwards to their present widelysundered dwelling-places.

Although Ri Asia, at any rate, animals that seldomcome under the ken of the sportsman in their wildcondition, tapirs have been made tamiliar to the publictrom specimens exhibited in menageries and museums.In size they may be compared to heavily-built andshort-limbed donkeys, but from their comparativelybare skins, general shape, and long flexible snouts, theypresent a superficial resemblance to large swine, withwhich group many persons are inclined to associatethem. An examination of their feet, in which onetoe is much larger than either of the others, andsymmetrical in itself, is, however, sufficient to show theincorrectness of this idea, and to indicate that theirrelationship is with rhinoceroses.

Unlike the latter animals, tapirs have, however, fourtoes on the front feet, although on the hind-feet thenumber is three in both groups. From rhinocerosesthey are likewise distinguished by the production of thenose and upper lip into a short, mobile proboscis, ortrunk. The teeth, too, are very different, both innumber and form, from those of rhinoceroses ; thetotal number being forty-two. Both jaws are furnishedwith a full set of incisors, or " nippers," and tusks ;

41

Game Animals of India, etc.while the cheek-teeth present a pattern totally distinctfrom that found in rhinoceroses. Tapirs have the tailshort, the ears of medium size and oval shape, small,pig-like eyes, and short, sparse hair.

The Malay species, which is the largest of the group,is readily distinguished from all its South Americancousins by the parti-coloured hide of the adult ; thehead, limbs, and front part of the body being darkbrown or black, while all that portion of the bodysituated behind the shoulders, including the rump andthe upper part of the thighs, together with the tips ofthe ears, is greyish white or white in the adult. Invery young animals, on the other hand, that is to say,those not exceeding from four to six months in age, theground-colour is blackish brown or black, marked (as inthe young of the American species) with longitudinalstreaks of yellow on the head and sides and of white onthe under- parts. The hair, too, is markedly denserthan in the full-grown animal. In height an adultMalay tapir stands from 3 to 3^ feet at the withers andabout 4 inches more at the rump ; the length from thetip of the snout to the root of the tail, measured alongthe curves of the body, being about 8 feet.

The geographical distribution of this animal includesthe island of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, andthence northwards into the Tenasserim province aboutas far as the fifteenth parallel of north latitude.

In its wild state, little or nothing authentic has beenascertained with rep;ard to the mode of life of theMalay tapir ; and the writer is unacquainted with anyaccount of the chase of this animal by Europeansportsmen. Its habits, are, however, in all probabilityvery similar to those of the American representativesof the genus. These latter are shy and retiringanimals, dwelling amid thick jungle in the neighbour-hood of water, to which they take readily. Betweenthe years 1840 and 1896 seven examples of theMalay tapir were exhibited in the Menagerie of the

42

The Malay TapirLondon Zoological Society. The majority, however,survived but a short period, at least two of them dyingwithin a year of their acquisition.

THE KIANG, OR TIBETAN WILD ASS

[Equus hemionus kiang)

Native Name.Kiang, Tibetan

(Plate i, fig. 6)

Although the designation wild ass is commonlyapplied to the Asiatic members of the horse family,locally known by the names of chigetai, kiang, onager,and ghor-khar, these animals are really more nearlyallied to the horse, especially the wild MongolianEquus cabalius przewalskii^ and differ very markedlyfrom the true wild asses of North Africa. In commonwith the latter they have short, upright manes, and nowarts, or callosities, on the hind-legs ; but the darkmarking on the upper-parts is restricted to a stripedown the back.

The chigetai (Equus heynionus) of Mongolia andTurkestan is the typical representative of a specieswhich includes the kiang as a local race, and whoserano;e extends northwards to Transbaikalia and west-wards to Transcaspia. The species, inclusive of boththe chigetai and the kiang, may be characterised asfollows :

Size large, the height at the shoulder reaching to

4 feet 3 inches. Ears (in comparison with those ofthe African wild ass, E. asinus) relatively small andhorse-like. Hoofs large and broad, the width of thefront pair markedly exceeding that of the hind ones.Tail-tuft large, and a slight rudiment of a forelockpresent. Dark dorsal stripe relatively narrow, reaching

43

Game Animals of India, etc.the tail-tuft, and (in most cases at any rate) notbordered with white. No shoulder-stripe, or darkbarrings on the limbs ; a dark ring immediately abovethe hoofs. General colour of upper-parts in summercoat varying from bright rufous chestnut (with a moreor less marked tinge of greyish fawn on the neck) toreddish sandy ; muzzle, inside of ear, throat, under-parts, inner side of legs, and a streak on the buttocks,pure white or huffish white. In the long winter coatthe general colour apparently not distinctly grey,although greyish in the typical form. Cry, a " shriek-ing bray."

The skull of the kiang differs markedly from thatof the onager, but from lack of specimens of that of thechigetai, I am unable to give the cranial characters ofthe species as a whole.

The kiang is characterised by the great width of thehoofs, more especially the front pair. In this respectit approaches the horse, Equus cahallus (as it does inits relatively small ears and its colour), and differswidely from E. asinus. The ghor-khar and onagers,on the other hand, have small and narrow hoofs, likethose of the last-named species.

As regards colour, the kiang is by far the reddest ofall the Asiatic wild asses, and apparently becomes butlittle greyer in winter. On the other hand, some ofthe ghor-khar and onager group are quite grey inwinter.

In addition to its small ears, broad hoofs, narrowdorsal stripe, and general colour, the kiang appears tobe affiliated to the horse (inclusive of the wild horseot Mongolia, Equus cabailus przewalskii) by the natureof its cry, which there is little doubt is to a greatextent intermediate between that of the horse and theass. It is true that there is a certain amount ofdiscrepancy between the accounts of the kiang' s crygiven by different observers. General Cunningham,for instance, in his work on Ladak, calls it a neigh,

44

The Kiang, or Tibetan Wild Assand other observers have described it as being as muchlike neighing as braying. On the other hand, Moor-crott, and subsequently General Strachey, described itas more like braying than neighing ; the latter traveller

Fig. 2.The Kiang, from a specimen at Woburn Abbey, photographed by theDuchess of Bedford.

observing that " my impression of the voice of thekiano; is that it is a shrieking bray, not like that of thecommon ass, but still a real bray, and not a neigh."Evidently it is perfectly distinct from the bray ofE. asinus^ while it also differs from the cry of one ofthe races of E. onager.

45

Game Animals of India, etc.The characteristics of the kiang, as distinct from the

chigetai, are as follows :

Profilesinuous,beingconcave belowtheeyes, andabovethe nose distinctly convex. Dorsal stripe always narrow,chocolate in colour, without trace of white borders.Tips of ears, mane (which is rather long), a narrow ringjust above each hoof, and tail-tuft dark brown or blackish.General colour of upper-parts full rufous chestnut,sometimes with a tinge ot greyish tawn on the neck, andtending to sandy on the rump and legs ; muzzle, inside ofear, side of neck, throat, chest, under-parts, inner surfaceof legs, and a streak on the hind borcier of the thigh,pure white, sharply defined from the rufous and fawnareas. The light area of the under-parts may runbehind the shoulder so as to partially insulate therufous of the