Fundamental Themes of 20th Century History

Kevin J. Benoy

I. The Impact of Nationalism and Imperialism in the 20th Century

Nationalism

A feeling which leads people to desire unity, freedom and complete control over their own affairs.It unites people and disrupts empires.

NationalismIt often leads to intense feelings of pride in one’s own country. When this is excessive, it is called chauvenism or jingoism.

NationalismNationalism led to Italian and German unification.It brought the collapse of the Ottoman & Austro-Hungarian Empires.It contributed to causing WW1 and WWII.It caused the disintegration of the Soviet Union.Quebecois nationalism threatens Canada.

Civic & Ethnic Nationalism

A key question for nationalists is “Who should belong to the nation?”

Civic NationalismThis gives membership to all those born in a country and to those who commit to supporting it.Such nationalism is blind to race, colour, creed, gender, language, or ethnicity so long as members subscribe to the nation’s political creed.This nationalism is created by the state.

Ethnic Nationalism

This argues that it is not the state that creates the nation, but the people who create the state.Belonging is a matter of blood.

Four Stages of Nationalism

Integrative Nationalism (1815-1871)

This served as a unifying force, leading to the creation of nation states such as Italy and Germany

Disruptive Nationalism (1871-1890)

Minority groups clamored for independence from Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

Aggressive Nationalism (1900-1945)

Opposing national forces collided.This was a major cause of both world wars.

Contemporary Nationalism (1945 to present)

This includes the retreat from colonialism, the collapse of the Soviet “Empire” and reaction to American global supremacy.

Imperialism

This is the deliberate attempt by the people of one country to extend their rule over the people of other areas – against their wishes.

Old ImperialismThis began with the voyages of Columbus and Vasco da Gama in the late 15th century.It involved “God, Gold and Glory.”This ended with the effects of the industrial revolution, the Napoleonic Wars and the problems of social and political reform in the 19th century.

New ImperialismThis dates to around the 1870’s.The old motivations were still present.National pride and Social Darwinism are added to the mix.Imperialists called on their people to assume the “White Man’s Burden”.

Consequences of the New Imperialism

Imperial interests collided.

Imperial Disputes

France and Britain nearly went to war in 1898, during the Fashoda Incident.

Imperial Disputes

Britain and Russia were in conflict over control of Iran and Afghanistan.

Imperial Disputes

Russia and Japan conflicted over control of Manchuria.

                                                                                                                     

                                                                                        

Imperial DisputesGermany and France vied for influence in Morocco.

Imperial Disputes

Britain and the United States risked war in their dispute over the Alaskan-Canadian border.

Degrees of Imperialism

ConcessionThis is a right given up by one society to another.It might be political or economic – like France’s rights in Morocco or the extraterritorial rights of many of the powers in China.

Sphere of InfluenceThis involves one society having some ability to control the behavior of another.The influence of the USA over Latin American countries would be a good example.

Protectorate or Dependency

These terms denote open admission that one country controls another in terms of protection.

Colony

This involves a high degree of control, in which the mother country runs the internal affairs of the subject state.

Annexation This involves a complete take-over or absorption.Good examples of this include France’s control over Algeria and the USA and Russia’s take-over of huge land masses.

Neo-ImperialismThis is characteristic of the post-1945 era, in which the super-powers exercised either political, economic, or ideological control over parts of the world.It happened alongside the retreat from colonialism.

II. The Role of the Individual in History

Great Men and Women

The 20th century saw many significant figures.Some were event-making.Others were eventful.

EverymanSocial History devotes itself to the study of ordinary people and their influence on events.What would have happened if Londoners had collapsed in the Blitz? What if Russians had collapsed to the Nazis? What if Germans rejected Hitler?

III. The Nature of Conflict and Conflict Resolution

Militarism This implies a belief in war as a means of achieving national aims.It also suggests the values of a society which derives national pride from military armament. Prussia was an outstanding example of 19th century militarism, as was Germany in the early 20th century

MilitarismBritish pride in its naval dominance in the 19th and early 20th centuries is another example of this force.

Militarism The arms race prior to WWI and rearmament before WWII show the importance of military solutions to national problems.The Cold War was another period of intense military development.

War in the 20th CenturyThis century introduced man to total war.The world wars required the resources of every level of society and every citizen.They also resulted in destruction on an unprecedented scale.

War in the 20th CenturyThe development of nuclear weapons brought man to the brink of mutual assured destruction, and made war between nuclear powers almost unthinkable – except through human error.

War in the 20th CenturyThe risks of total war encouraged the powers to fight limited wars in fringe areas, like Korea or Vietnam or to test equipment and tactics in proxy wars involving their lesser allies.

War in the 20th CenturyIn the face of the overwhelming strength of the USA or regional powers since the end of the Cold War, weaker adversaries began to adopt new tactics in what has become known as asymmetrical warfare. Usually this is called terrorism, as the enemy wears no uniform and may use unconventional weapons.

Conflict Resolution

Deterrence failed when the alliance systems before World War I resulted in continental war.

Conflict ResolutionCollective security through international cooperation was tried, but failed, in the interwar years.

Conflict Resolution

Since World War II, international cooperation through the United Nations has sometimes maintained peace.

Conflict Resolution

Treaties of all kinds were employed since 1919 to force conflict resolution and prevent war.Success was never complete, but much was accomplished nonetheless.

IV. The Growth of Internationalism in the 20th Century

Internationalism

Some believe the ultimate loyalty is not to the nation, but to the human race.

Internationalism

Some 19th century organizations were dedicated to this belief.

The International Red Cross.The Universal Postal Union.

Internationalism

Some 19th century writers dedicated themselves to the peace movement.

Victor HugoLeo Tolstoy

InternationalismProminent industrialists like Andrew Carnegie and Alfred Nobel used their fortunes to foster international cooperation.The Nobel Peace Prize is still awarded.

InternationalismTwo Peace conferences were held at the Hague in 1899 and 1907 to regulate and limit war.Some weapons were outlawed – like the dum dum bullet .They did not discuss outlawing war itself.

Modern Internationalism

The two most important international organizations of the 20th century were the League of Nations and the United Nations.

                      

InternationalismThe League failed to prevent World War II, but did resolve lesser conflicts.The League’s agencies survived the death of the parent organization and are now part of the United Nations Organization.

Internationalism

The UN failed to prevent a host of conflicts, but remains a potent and important force for peace.All major crises are debated here.

Internationalism

Many organizations promote internationalism, from the Commonwealth and Francophonie to the Olympic movement.

V. The Changing Role of the Individual in Society

The Individual in SocietyHuge changes in roles and attitudes took place in the 20th century.We moved from Social Darwinism to Multiculturalism.The Role of Women evolved substantially.Pay particular attention to chapters in Howarth entitled People and Societies as they chronicle these shifts.

VI. The Impact of Dominant Political Philosophies in the 20th Century

IdeologiesBe sure to review what we studied in Social Studies 11.

TotalitarianismAuthoritarianismAutocracyDemocracyCommunismSocialismLiberalismConservatismFascism

Democracy & Totalitarianism

These are best understood in contrast to each other.

DemocracyDemocracy seeks to allow each individual to develop in a society of maximum freedom and mutual respect.Social controls exist – but to enhance individual self-development and not the power of the state.The individual is the master.

TotalitarianismThe goal is total control of man by the state or social class as represented by the state.There are no limits to goals or means.

Totalitarianism

A totalitarian system wants all of man, body and soul to submit to the will of the government. There is no human activity exempt from government control.

Totalitarianism The government is the master; the individual is the servant.There are no inalienable rights.Modern totalitarianism found success through using science and technology as tools of state repression.

TotalitarianismTotalitarian states often borrow symbols, techniques and institutions from democracies.People are allowed to express consent in the form of elections or plebiscites where results are carefully controlled or monitored.

VII. The Impact of Technological and Economic Change in the 20th Century

Industrialization and Globalization

The 20th century saw huge increases in the production of goods.It also saw tremendous integration of regional economies into a global whole.

Industrialization

Production increases unleashed first European and then American and Asian might.It sustained totalitarianism and democracy.

Industrialization

Warfare in the 20th century was driven by technological developments.

IndustrializationMajor economic trends , like the Great Depression of the 1930’s or German hyperinflation were closely tied to the management of industrial production.

GlobalizationBy the end of the 20th century, most of the world was part of a single, integrated production and trading unit.However, not all have shared in the wealth that has been generated.

Technological and Economic Change A key question for

the 20th century is:

“Has man controlled technological development or has technological development controlled man?”

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