FUMIGATION OF FARM STORED GRAINAND STRUCTURES

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICECollege of Agriculture

The University of WyomingDEPARTMENT OF PLANT, SOIL AND INSECT SCIENCES

Trade or brand names used in this publication are used only for the purpose of educational information. The information givenherein is supplied with the understanding that no discrimination is intended, and no endorsement information of products by theAgricultural Research Service, Federal Extension Service, or State Cooperative Extension Service is implied. Nor does it implyapproval of products to the exclusion of others which may also be suitable.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30,1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Glen Whipple, Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Wyoming Laramie, WY. 82071.

Persons seeking admission, employment or access to programs of the University of Wyoming shall be considered without regardto race, color, national origin, sex, age, religion, political belief, handicap, or veteran status.

FUMIGATION OF FARM STORED GRAINAND STRUCTURES

(revised September 1996)

Mark A. FerrellExtension Pesticide Coordinator

AcknowledgmentsThe section on Insect Pest Management for Farm Stored Grain was modified from the

publication Insect Pest Management for Farm Stored Grain (EB-45) originally produced byDean K. McBride, Extension Entomologist of the North Dakota State University Extension

Service.

The section on Fumigation of Structures Including Buildings, Ships & Railcars was modifiedfrom the publication Fumigation Manual Category 7C, A Guide for Private and Commercial

Pesticide Applicators (CS-27) originally produced by the Iowa State University ExtensionService.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT FOR FARM STORED GRAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1TYPES OF STORED GRAIN INSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Surface feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Internal feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1External feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

CONDITIONS THAT ENCOURAGE STORED GRAIN INSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2SOURCES OF INFESTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2MONITORING BINS FOR INSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3USE OF INSECT TRAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3PREVENTION OF STORED GRAIN INSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Bin sanitation and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Bin spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Grain protectants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Application of grain protectants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Control grain temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

INSECT CONTROL OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6FUMIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Types of fumigants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Factors which influence the effectiveness of fumigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Sorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Grain Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Grain Type and Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Storage Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Air Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Dosage and time of exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Application and distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Aluminum Phosphide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Methyl bromide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Checklist of equipment needed for fumigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Bin preparation prior to fumigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Calculating dosage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Determining concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Detection tubes for fumigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Halide leak detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Summary of requirements for successful grain fumigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Reasons for fumigation failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Insufficient Fumigant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Storage Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Type of Grain and Dockage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

FUMIGATION OF STRUCTURES INCLUDING BUILDINGS, SHIPS & RAILCARS . . . . . . . . . 16INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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VAULT FUMIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Vacuum chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

ATMOSPHERIC VAULTS OR FUMIGATION CHAMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16TRUCKS (STATIONARY) AND FREIGHT CARS (STATIONARY OR IN TRANSIT) . . . . . 16SHIPBOARD FUMIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17BUILDING FUMIGATION (BY SEALING) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17PREMISES INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17TARPAULIN FUMIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Indoors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Outdoors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Entire structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

SPOT OR LOCAL FUMIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19GENERAL FUMIGATIONS (MILLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19AERATION OR VENTILATION OF FUMIGANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20FACTORS AFFECTING AERATION TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Rate of air exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Sorption and desorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

AERATION PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Building ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Tarpaulins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Fumigation chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1Figure 2. Indian Meal Moth larva and adult.

INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT FOR FARM STORED GRAIN

INTRODUCTIONDirect feeding damage by insects reduces grain weight,

nutritional value and germination. Insect infestation alsocauses contamination, odors, molds, and heat damagethat reduces the market value of the grain and can make itunfit for processing into food for humans or livestock.Federal and state laws specifically prohibit the use ofinsect or rodent contaminated grain for human food.

Commercial grain buyers may refuse to accept deliveryof contaminated grain. Elevators will discount grain 1 to20 cents per bushel if there are insects in the grainreceived, but the methods used to determine discountsare not uniform in the grain trade. An elevator thatsimply will not accept "weevily" grain at one time maymake only a minimal discount for it at other times. Thethreat of the discounts, however, is always present as aneconomic incentive for protecting stored grain frominsects. TYPES OF STORED GRAIN INSECTS

The stored grain insects are a diverse group. They canbe divided into three general types based on theirlocation in the bin and the damage they cause:surface-feeding caterpillars, external feeders (insects thatfeed on the outside of kernels or on broken kernels in thegrain mass) and internal feeders (insects whose larvalstage develops inside grain kernels).

Following are examples of each of these insect typesfound in stored grain:

Surface feedersOne of the most common surface infesting caterpillar is

the Indian meal moth (Fig. 1). The adult moth is about3/8 inch long and dark in color except for a conspicuouslight band across the base of the wings. When at rest, aconspicuous dark-light-dark pattern is visible.

Indian meal moth larvae are dirty-white caterpillars upto ½ inch long which web food particles together withsilk and often wander out of the food material in searchof pupation sites.

This insect will infest any commodity in storageincluding small grains, corn, beans and sunflower. They are also known to infest processed foods such as nuts,dried fruit, candy and baking products.

Indian meal moth larvae prefer to feed on fines, brokenor damaged kernels. Infestations are most common in theupper 4 to 6 inches of grain in a bin. The larvae producesilken threads which result in "caking" or "crusting" ofthe surface grain. Their frass (excrement), cast skins(exterior body covering) and silk contaminate the grain.

Female moths deposit 100 to 300 eggs over a threeweek period. Fully grown caterpillars may leave theirfood source and climb up walls to pupate. The life cyclefrom egg to adult takes about six to eight weeks duringwarm weather. There can be several generations per yeardepending upon food supply and temperature conditions.

Internal feedersIncluded in this group are the weevils (granary and

rice), lesser grain borer and Angoumois grain moth. These insects deposit their eggs on or in the kernels.

The larvae that hatch from the eggs feed and pupateinside the kernels where they cannot be seen. The adultschew small, round holes as they emerge from the kernels.The holes in the kernels and the adults crawling on thegrain are the only indications of their presence.

The Angoumois grain moth and the lesser grain borerare rarely found in Wyoming stored grain. The granaryweevil and rice weevil will occasionally be found in thestate, although these species are not as commonlyencountered as the external feeders such as flour beetles(red and confused) and the sawtoothed grain beetle.

The granary weevil is a small, moderately polished,blackish or dark-brown beetle (Fig. 2). The head extendsinto a long slender snout with a pair of stout mandibles orjaws at the end. This insect is not more than 3/16 of aninch long and often is smaller. There are no wings underthe elytra (wing covers), and the thorax is well markedwith longitudinal punctures, two characteristics thatdistinguish it from the closely related rice weevil, whichhas fully developed wings and irregularly shapedpunctures on the thorax.

Both the adults and larvae feed occasionally on a greatvariety of grains. The adult weevil lives an average ofseven to eight months, and each female produces 50 to250 eggs during this period. Before depositing an egg,the female uses her mandibles to bore a small hole in agrain kernel. She then deposits an egg in the hole andcovers it with a gelatinous fluid that seals the hole. Thesmall, white, fleshy, legless grub or larva feeds on theinside of the kernel (Fig. 2). When fully grown, the larvatransforms into a pupa and then into an adult.

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Figure 3. Granary Weevil adult and larva (in kernel).

Figure 4. Sawtoothed Grain Beetle adult & larva (left);Red Flour Beetle adult & larva (right).

In warm weather, the granary weevil develops from theegg to the adult stage in about four weeks. Cold weathergreatly prolongs the developmental period.

External feedersThis group contains the insects most commonly found

in stored grain, especially the flour beetles (red andconfused) and the sawtoothed grain beetle. These beetlesare sometimes referred to as "bran bugs."

Other external feeders include the flat grain beetle,foreign grain beetle, rusty grain beetle and thedermestids.

The red flour beetle (Fig. 3) and confused flour beetleare almost identical in appearance. However, the redflour beetle can be distinguished from the confused flourbeetle by its antennae. In the confused flour beetle thesegments of the antennae gradually increase in size fromthe bases to the tips whereas the last few segments of thered flour beetle antennae are abruptly much larger thanthe other segments, forming enlarged tips.

The average life of the flour beetles is about one year,but some have been known to live as long as three years.The female lays an average of about 450 eggs, which aresmall and white. They are covered with a stickysecretion, becoming covered with grain dust, flour ormeal, depending upon what the beetles are infesting.

The eggs hatch in five to 12 days and small, wiry,slender, cylindrical worm-like larvae emerge. When fullygrown, they are about 3/16 of an inch long and are whitetinged with yellow. The larvae feed on grain dust, brokengrain kernels and flour.

When fully grown, the larvae transform into smallnaked pupae which are at first white in color. Laterchanging to yellow and then to brown. In summer, theperiod from egg to adult averages about six weeks underfavorable weather conditions, but the life cycle is greatlyprolonged by cold weather.

The sawtoothed grain beetle is a slender, flat, brownbeetle about 1/10 of an inch long. It derives its namefrom the peculiar structure of the thorax (area betweenhead and abdomen), which bears six sawtooth likeprojections on each side (Fig. 4). It feeds on grain and

grain products in both the larval and adult stage. The adults live, on an average, six to 10 months, but

some adults may live as long as three years. The femalebeetle lays 43 to 285 eggs. She deposits them looselyamong the grain kernels or tucks them into a crevice in akernel of grain. The small, slender, white eggs hatch inthree to five days.

The emerging larvae crawl about actively and feed.During summer, they become fully grown in about twoweeks. The mature larvae then construct delicate cocoonlike coverings by joining together small grains with asticky secretion. Within these cells, the larvae change tothe pupal stage, which lasts about one week. In summer,the developmental period from egg to adult is fourweeks.

CONDITIONS THAT ENCOURAGE STOREDGRAIN INSECTS

Temperature, moisture, and grain dockage or dustinteract to provide conditions necessary for thereproduction and survival of stored grain insects. Themost favorable temperature for them is about 80 degrees

F. At temperatures above 95 degrees F. or below 70degrees F., reproduction is nil and survival is reduced.

The most favorable moisture range for stored graininsects is 12 to 15 percent. The lowest limit required fortheir reproduction and survival in clean grain is about 9percent moisture. However, as temperatures increaseinsects can reproduce in grain with a low moisturecontent, and when moisture increases they can reproduceat low temperatures.

Insect infestations are different in clean and dirty grain.Dockage content may directly influence the preferenceand subsequent infestation of grain by insects. Even thepresence of grain dust or dockage permits some grainbeetles to survive and reproduce at extremely lowmoisture levels.

SOURCES OF INFESTATIONSome of the stored grain insects can fly and begin their

infestation in maturing grain in the field. While fieldinfestation may occasionally occur in Wyoming, it is anegligible source of infestation. The insects can bevirtually everywhere and may easily be carried onto thefarm in infested lots of grain or feed or they may fly infrom infested grains or bins on adjacent farms.

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Figure 5. Pheromone baited sticky traps.

Figure 6. Grain probe trap.

Without question, the greatest source of infestation isold grain, seed, feed, spills, debris and accumulated graindust in and around storage areas.

MONITORING BINS FOR INSECTSStored grain insects are widespread, numerous, very

small and they can show up even in the cleanest, bestmanaged bins. You must check bins regularly to be sureof detecting pests before they cause damage. Bins shouldbe inspected twice a month from May through Octoberand at least on a monthly basis from November throughApril.

It's easy to check the surface of the grain. A grain sievethat will hold the grain while dropping the fines and anyinsects into a pan under a sieve is very helpful forexamining grains. A grain probe for taking a core ofgrain from deeper in the grain mass is also very helpful.If a probe and sieve are not available, you can use a grainscoop or similar tool to take the sample and a pan orpiece of plastic to spread it on for examination.

Grain deterioration symptoms:! Be alert for heat, moisture or off-odors that indicatea problem as you enter the bin. ! Look for living or dead insects on the roof or sidesof the bin or on the grain surface. ! Examine the grain surface for signs of mold,webbing, cast skins, droppings or kernels showinginsect damage. ! Take several samples of grain with a probe or scoop.It is suggested that you take samples of 1 pint quantityfrom each of six or more areas of the surface. Examinethe samples carefully for any signs of insects or theirdamage. Samples taken during cold weather can betaken indoors and allowed to warm up. Insects in thesample will soon become active due to the warmtemperatures and can be easily detected. Be especiallyalert for round holes in the kernels that may indicatethe presence of internal insect feeders. ! If you find insects, save them for identification, thendig into the grain (a probe is advisable) to determinehow deep the insects are in the grain mass, and try toget an idea of their abundance.

Deep checking down in the grain mass is difficult. Tryto check the space under the perforated aeration floor, ifthere is one, for any evidence of water, mold or signs ofinsects. You will have to use a flashlight and lookthrough the fan or auger port for this.

USE OF INSECT TRAPSIn recent years a variety of insect traps have become

available to help producers detect insects in stored grain.One such trap involves a pheromone placed inside acardboard structure coated with a sticky material on theinside. Insects in grain are attracted to the pheromoneemitted from the trap and once inside the trap theybecome entangled in the sticky material.

Pheromone sticky traps have openings to allow entry of

insects and they are available in a variety of designs (Fig.4). Also, different pheromones are available for attracting

specific insects such as Indian meal moth, flour beetles.sawtoothed grain beetles, etc.

Another type of trap, known as the grain probe trap,functions as a pit-fall trap. The trap is made of plastic andis about 17 inches long with small holes in the uppersection (Fig. 5).

Grain probe traps can be used with or withoutattractants and they should be shoved vertically into thegrain and retrieved with a cord attached to the top of eachtrap.

For best results five traps are suggested for round binsup to 20 feet in diameter with one trap in the center andone trap in each quadrant of the bin.

The grain probe traps have a removable tip so thatinsects can be removed, counted and identified. Traps should be checked once a week during periodswhen insects are most active and once a month duringless active periods

PREVENTION OF STORED GRAIN INSECTSBin sanitation and maintenance

The most important and cost effective step inpreventing insects from infesting stored grains is cleaning

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them out of the storage area before bringing in new grain.The insects are small and can live in the tiniest cracks, soassume that insects are present even if you don't seethem.

The best time for bin cleaning is two to three weeksbefore new grain is brought in. Bin walls and floorsshould be swept thoroughly. Use a shop vacuum cleanerto remove grain dust, insects, eggs etc. from hard to cleancracks and crevices such as around the floor edges nextto the bin walls, floor ducts, space under perforatedfloors etc. If you can tell what was previously stored inthe bin, it isn't clean enough.

Be sure to remove all old grain from the bins and givespecial attention to cleaning in and around all grainhandling machinery as well as around the outside of thebin.

Bin sprayingRegardless of how thorough the bin cleaning operation,

some insects will no doubt be left in the bin. It isimportant to apply an interior bin spray to control theinsects that were not removed during bin cleaning.

A hand pump garden sprayer can be used to apply thebin spray. Take special care to treat all cracks, crevices,and areas around doorways and other places whereinsects could enter from outside. Don't neglect sprayingaround the outside of the bin, especially around bindoors, seams, aeration vents and other possible sites ofinsect entry.

Insecticides and rates approved for bin spraying aregiven below:

- Malathion 50 to 57% (premium grade) emulsifiableconcentrate at 1 pint in 3 gallons of water. Use 1 gallonof spray for approximately 500 square feet of binsurface. - Methoxychlor 25% emulsifiable concentrate at 1quart in 2 ½ gallons of water. Use 1 gallon of spray forapproximately 500 square feet of bin surface. - Methoxychlor 50% wettable powder at 1 lb. in 2 ½gallons of water. Use 1 gallon of spray forapproximately 500 square feet of bin surface. - Reldan 43.2% emulsifiable concentrate at ½ pint in 3gallons of water. Use 1 gallon of spray forapproximately 650 to 1250 square feet of bin surface. - Tempo 24.3% emulsifiable concentrate at 8 millilitersper 1,000 square feet in sufficient water to provideadequate coverage. - Tempo 20% wettable powder at 9.5 grams per 1,000square feet in sufficient water to provide adequatecoverage.

NOTE: Insecticides, formulas, and rates of applicationapproved for this and other uses are subject to change.You should always purchase material that has a labelstating that it may be used for the purpose, then usestrictly as directed on the label.

Grain protectantsGrain that will be held in storage for more than one

year should be treated with a grain protectant. Grainprotectants are insecticides that are mixed with the grainas it is being loaded into the bin. Protectants willcontinue to control insects in the grain, or those that enterthe bin up to one year after application. When theprotectants are used at recommended rates they willprotect the grain effectively without leaving anobjectionable or hazardous residue in the grain. Theprotectants are much less hazardous, easier to apply andless expensive than fumigants and protect the grain for amuch longer period of time than fumigants will.

High temperatures or high grain moisture content willreduce the residual effectiveness of any insecticideprotectant. When high moisture grain must be dried usinga commercial grain dryer, the protectant should beapplied after the grain has been through the dryer and hascooled to 90°F or less.

Liquid protectantsLiquid or emulsifiable concentrates (EC) currentlyregistered for application to grain going into storageare malathion 5 lb. EC, Pyrenone and Reldan 4 lb. EC.Pyrenone is not readily available. Indian meal mothshave developed a high degree of resistance tomalathion and there is some evidence that insects in thebran bug group may also be developing resistance tomalathion.

Dust and wettable powder protectantsMalathion is available as a 2, 4 or 6% dust. Reldan isavailable in a 3% dust formulation. Bacillusthuringiensis, a bacterial insecticide, is available as adust or wettable powder and marketed under theproduct name of Dipel. Dipel may be used as a surfaceapplied protectant for the control of Indian meal mothlarvae. It should be noted that Dipel does not controlgrain infesting beetles, weevils or Indian meal mothadults.

Pest stripsVapona (dichlorvos) insecticide strips can be used toprotect against insects (such as Indian meal moth)invading the surface of the grain mass in bins. Thestrips are effective only in enclosed areas with limitedair movement. They should be placed after the bin isfilled using one strip per 1,000 cubic feet of spaceabove the grain and changed at intervals indicated onthe label. These strips are only effective during warmweather. Stored product pests are most active aboveand on the grain surface from May through September,and this is when insecticide strips are most effective

Application of grain protectantsDosage rate: - Malathion 5 lb. EC at 1 pint in 2-5 gals. of water per1,000 bu. of grain. - Malathion 2% dust at 30 lbs. per1,000 bu. of grain. - Malathion 4% dust at 15.5 lbs. per 1,000 bu. of grain.- Malathion 6% dust at 10 lbs. per 1,000 bu. of grain.

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Figure 7. Auger-type dust applicator.

Figure 8. Drip on system for applying liquid grainprotectants.

Figure 9. A diagram of a simple drip applicator forgrain protectants. The needle valve is used to meterthe protectant into the grain stream. The float valve isused to keep a constant level of liquid over the needlevalve (developed by A.P. Love, MSU).

- Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) is available in severalformulations of varying concentrations. This materialshould be mixed with the upper 4-6 inches of graineither by adding to the last grain being augered into thebin or by applying it to the grain surface after the grainhas been binned. With the latter application, the BTmust be thoroughly incorporated into the upper fewinches with a rake or similar tool.- Reldan 4E at varying dosage rates (see label)depending upon the commodity to be treated.- Reldan 3% dust at 10 lbs. per 1,000 bu. of grain.

Application equipmentDust formulations of grain protectants are applied to

the grain using an auger-mounted dust applicator (Fig. 6).Applicators of this type are basically gravity flow deviceswith a trigger dispenser powered by the screw inside theauger. Be sure to calibrate the applicator in order tometer the correct amount of dust material onto the grainin accordance with the capacity of the auger in bushels ofgrain per hour.

Drip-on applicators work well for metering liquid (EC)formulations of grain protectants onto grain beingaugered into storage. A simple homemade drip-onapplicator can be built by fitting two brass valves and alength of polyethylene tubing to an opening in the bottomof a plastic jug (Fig. 7). The upper shut-off cock servesas the on-off valve, while the lower needle valveregulates the amount of insecticide flowing through theplastic tubing. First calibrate the needle valve to thedesired flow rate for the amount of grain being delivered.

Use the shut-off valve to start and stop flow, eliminatingthe need to recalibrate each time the flow is turned on.Place the end of the plastic tubing about 1/4 inch beyondthe end of the auger sleeve so the insecticide dripsdirectly into the grain picked up by the auger. Grainmovement through the auger and into the bin willdistribute the insecticide

The flow rate of the liquid will vary with the depth ofthe liquid in the container. A more uniform flow can beobtained by using a float valve in a second container to

keep the liquid level constant above the needle valve(Fig. 8).

Commercial drip on applicators are available from the

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following companies: "Auger Jet Applicator" from Acme Brass and MachineWorks, 609 E. 17th St., Kansas City, MO 64108 "Gustafson Dripper' from Gustafson Inc., 6600Washington Ave. So., Eden Prairie, MN 55344 "Reddick Flo Meter" from Reddick Fumigation, P.O.Box 71, Williamston, NC 27892

SURFACE TREATMENTInsect infestation on the surface or upper few inches of

grain, especially by Indian meal moth larvae, has beenone of our most common insect problems in NorthDakota stored grain. These infestations are aided bymoisture condensation due to moisture migration and thelack of aeration or by roof leaks. Moisture problems andsurface insect infestations often result in surface crustingof the grain mass. Be sure to remove the crust beforetreating, and correct the moisture problem as soon aspossible. Apply a surface treatment of BT if only mothlarvae are found or malathion if insects other than mothlarvae are present.

Hanging "pest strips" over the grain (as noted in thesection on grain protectants) will help control surfaceinfestations.

Control grain temperaturesThe grain temperature should be maintained within

20°F of average outdoor temperatures. Cool the storedgrain using aeration to about 25°F for storage duringwinter and warm the grain to about 50°F for storageduring summer. This will reduce mold growth, limitinsect activity and reduce moisture migration.

INSECT CONTROL OPTIONSIf the preventive measures discussed have been

utilized, there is a good chance that additional controlswill not be necessary. However, under long-term storagesituations (beyond one year) the grain protectants willeventually lose their killing power and subsequent insectinfestation can occur. Or perhaps none of the suggestedpreventive measures were used, in which case insectinfestations may develop in first-year stored grain.

Whatever the circumstance might be, just about anygrain producer, at some time or another, is likely toencounter stored grain insect problems. When thisoccurs, the producer has control options that should beconsidered.

The presence of insects or their damage in stored grainrepresents some loss in value of the grain. The firstdecision to make when you find insects is whether thegrain is worth treating. Remember that the damagedgrain, odor, webbing and dead insects will remain afterthe insects are killed Some estimate of the value of thegrain after treatment and the cost of control must bemade. The best decision may be to immediately sell thegrain at a discount or to feed it as soon as possible.

The type of insects found, their location in the bin andthe time of year that an infestation is discovered all havea significant bearing on the control option to be utilized.

Cooling stored grain with aeration equipment will stopinsect activity. The grain should be cooled to about 25°F.

If the bin is not equipped for aeration, moving orturning the grain may cool it enough to stop insectactivity.

Turning the grain or moving it slowly into an adjacentbin or truck box on a cold day in winter will often cool itsufficiently and break up pockets of insect infestation,thereby decreasing insect activity, at least until the graintemperature becomes high enough to allow for successfulfumigation. Keep in mind that a single turning or transferof the grain will only lower the temperature a fewdegrees. Grain temperature reduction is related to thedifference between the temperature of the grain and theoutside air as well as the time of exposure to the cold air.Slowing down grain movement should allow the cold airto reduce the grain temperature sufficiently to minimizeor stop insect activity

Insects found only on the surface grain, such as Indianmeal moth larvae, should not normally requirefumigation. In such a situation, a surface application ofBT (as previously described) is all that should benecessary. On the other hand, an insect infestation foundto be occurring throughout a large portion of the grainmass can only be successfully controlled by effectivefumigation.

FUMIGATIONFumigants are gases that penetrate the grain mass to

kill insects. The term fumigation is sometimes used forsmokes, mists or aerosols and even the fumes from "peststrips." These are fine solid or liquid particles that aresuspended in the air but, unlike the true fumigant gases,they cannot penetrate surfaces. It is the ability topenetrate that gives fumigants their big advantage incontrolling stored grain insects. This same ability createsthe greatest problems with their use: bins must be sealedtightly enough to hold a toxic concentration of the gas forthe time that it takes to kill the insects, and the gases thatescape from the bin during fumigation are lethal tohumans, livestock and other animals. Every step in theuse of fumigants must be done properly if the fumigationis to be effective and safe.

Because all fumigants are highly toxic and hazardousto use, they are classified by the EPA as restricted usepesticides. This means that they should only be appliedby or under the direct supervision of persons trained toproperly use them.

Due to the large size of many on-farm grain bins andthe specialized equipment and training necessary toconduct a successful and safe fumigation job, it is oftensafer, less expensive, and more effective for farmers tohave their stored grain fumigated by a licensed andcertified professional fumigator. The most importantfactor to consider when deciding whether to hire aprofessional to do a fumigation job is the personal riskinvolved in the handling and application of these highlytoxic chemicals. A professional fumigator will have the

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knowledge and experience required to conduct effectivetreatment and will also have the special equipmentneeded to apply fumigants properly. In addition,professionals will have safety equipment such as gasmasks or other respiratory protection which is expensivebut necessary when applying any fumigant.

Recognizing that professional fumigators are notalways available to service farm-stored grains and thatmany farmers still prefer to handle this phase of pestmanagement themselves, the following information isdesigned to help the farmer better understand theproperties of grain fumigants, the factors that influencetheir effectiveness, and the methods used to properlyapply and distribute them into bulk stored grain.

Types of fumigants (Summarized in Table 1.) Liquids - For many years there were four general

formulas for liquid fumigant mixtures: 1) those in whichcarbon tetrachloride was the major constituent, 2) thosein which ethylene dichloride was the predominantcompound, and 3) the group containing ethylenedibromide (EDB). As of this writing (late 1990), carbontetrachloride, ethylene dichloride and ethylene dibromidehave all been phased out by EPA. The compound in thelast group 4) is chloropicrin, and this chemical is the onlyliquid grain fumigant with continuing registration for usein grain bins (empty bin treatment only).

Table 1. Some common fumigants registered for usein stored grains.

Fumigant** State Trade names Common uses

aluminumphosphide*

solid FumitoxinPhostoxinPhostek

Wheat, barley, rye,oats, corn, sorghum,safflower, sunflower,soybeans, millet.

chloropicrin* liquid Chlor-O-Pic Perforated floors inempty grain bins.

methylbromide*

gas Meth-O-GasBrom-O-Gas

Wheat (similar smallgrains), shelled corn,milo (grainsorghum). May affectseed germination athigh moisture levelsand high dosages.

*EPA has classified this fumigant as a restricted use pesticide.**Dosage rates for the fumigants listed will vary depending upon the commodity and type of storage structure to be treated. Read andfollow label directions.

The chemicals that comprise the various liquidfumigant mixtures share a common property: thefumigant gas they form is heavier than air. When thesefumigants are released on the grain surface, the "pull ofgravity" starts the gas moving down through the grainmass.

Other properties of liquid fumigant components differgreatly from one chemical to another and thesedifferences are often the reason why certain chemicals

were combined together in a particular formulation. Forexample, carbon disulfide (CS2) could not be used alonesafely because of its high flammability and, therefore, itwas generally mixed with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4),which is a fire retardant. Carbon tetrachloride has arelatively low toxicity to insects. It requires very highdosages and long exposure periods unless it is combinedwith other more toxic chemicals.

Most chemicals used in liquid fumigant mixtures arestrongly sorbed by the grain, so they sometimes werepreferred over other fumigants by commercial applicatorsfor the treatment of small lots of grain, grain that ismoldy or "out of condition," and grain stored in looselyconstructed bins. Longer periods of ventilation or"airing" are required to remove the fumigant vapors aftertreatment than are required with less sorptive fumigants.This is especially true if the grain temperature is 60° orlower.

Liquid fumigants are supplied "ready to use" and donot require the addition of water, oil or other diluents.They are generally marketed in unit sizes of 1, 5, 30 and55-gallon cans or drums and in bulk tank lots of 1,000gallons or more. Liquid fumigants are most expensivewhen purchased in small quantities. The chemicals inliquid fumigant mixtures are excellent organic solventsand improper use will damage some types of plastic andrubber products.

Chloropicrin is a nonflammable yellowish liquidfumigant marketed in pressurized and nonpressurizedcontainers as a space and soil fumigant as well as awarning agent for methyl bromide. Chloropicrinvaporizes to a gas when exposed to air. This gas isheavily sorbed by grain and may require long periods ofventilation or aeration to remove the odor and resulting"tear gas" effect following fumigation. Chloropicrin ismarketed in cans of 1 to 32 pounds and in cylinders of 70to 375 pounds each.

Chloropicrin is highly corrosive to most metals andmay adversely affect the germination of most seeds. Itshould not be used to fumigate seed grains. Chloropicrinis particularly effective against immature stages of grainpests and is especially toxic to the Indian meal moth.

Chloropicrin is highly toxic to man. The establishedthreshold limit is 0.1 ppm. Concentrations as low as 1ppm produce an intense smarting of the eyes and theimmediate reactions to leave in haste. Continuousexposure may cause serious lung injury. If it is necessaryto enter a treated area, a gas mask with black canistershould be worn.

Chloropicrin treated commodities are often unpleasantto handle as they may be extremely irritating from evenlow quantities diffusing from the treated material.

Its primary use other than acting as a "warning gas" isas a soil fumigant. Chloropicrin cannot be used on anyprocessed foods, in dairy, cheese, or meat plants or wherethere are living plants, or on fresh fruits or vegetables. Labeling for the application of chloropicrin was changedin 1987. As the new product is distributed, it will nolonger be legal to apply chloropicrin to stored grain. It

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will still be legal to use chloropicrin as a space fumigantto treat empty storage facilities. Chloropicrin isparticularly effective for fumigation beneath theperforated floor of empty grain bins.

NOTE: Chloropicrin is no longer registered for directapplication to stored grain. However, the fumigant canstill be used for treating the perforated floors in emptybins in order to control insects in the sub-floor area priorto bin filling.

Solid - Phosphine-producing fumigants have become oneof the predominant fumigants used for the treatment ofbulk-stored grain throughout the world. They areavailable in solid formulations of aluminum phosphide ormagnesium phosphide.

Phosphine has no adverse effects on germination ofseeds when applied at normal dosage rates and is thechoice of fumigants for seeds or malting barley. It is alsowidely used in the fumigation of processed foods sinceexcessive fumigant residues have not been a problemwith phosphine.

Hydrogen phosphide is a colorless gas with an odorthat is perceived differently by different individuals. Itsodor is often described as similar to garlic, commercialcarbide, or decaying fish. Although the odor of hydrogenphosphide gas can be very distinctive, fumigators mustnot rely only on their sense of smell to detect potentiallyharmful gas concentrations. Gas detector tubes should beused throughout all stages of a fumigation to monitor gasconcentrators.

Phosphine can react with copper and copper-containing alloys such as brass, gold and silver, resultingin corrosion and discoloration of exposed surfaces. Thiscan result in damage to contact points, telephones,computers and other electronic equipment. This problemis rare and apparently only occurs when there is a highconcentration of phosphine in combination with highhumidity and high temperature, but care still needs to beexercised. In the normal farm grain bin, there is little thatcould be harmed by phosphine.

Solid aluminum phosphide formulations, which releasehydrogen phosphide (phosphine) gas when exposed tomoisture and heat, are available in tablets, pellets andpowder packed in paper packets. If the liberation ofhydrogen phosphide occurs too rapidly in a confinedarea, an explosion or fire can occur. To control the rateof release, aluminum phosphide is formulated with othercompounds such as ammonium carbonate or aluminumstearate and calcium oxide which control the release rateand lower the combustibility of the mixture. In someformulations, carbon dioxide is given off in the reactionto help retard this problem. Good practice in fumigationwill result in concentrations that are probably no morethan 1/50 of the amount that would result in fire.

Manufacturers of aluminum phosphide fumigantsindicate that there is a delay before phosphine is evolvedin large quantities from commercial formulations. Thereis usually one to two hours with pellets or two to four

hours with tablets before dangerous amounts ofphosphine are released. The time required for release ismuch shorter on warm, humid days and much longer ondry, cold days. With grain temperatures above 60°F,decomposition should be nearly complete in three days.With low temperatures and grain moisture below 10percent, there may still be appreciable gas evolved for atleast five days.

Phosphine is only slightly heavier than air (20 percentheavier) but will diffuse rapidly through the grain massbecause it is not strongly sorbed by grain. Thiscombination of the low sorption loss and the greatpenetration capacity of phosphine means that bins treatedwith this material must be fairly gas tight. The gas lossproblem is partially solved because the leaked gas can bereplaced constantly during the fumigation.

The formula for the various aluminum phosphideproducts varies somewhat among manufacturers, but thisfumigant is usually packaged in 3-gram tablets or 0.6gram pellets. Each tablet produces 1 gram of phosphineand each pellet 0.2 grams. Formulations packaged inpackets contain 34 grams of material and produce 11grams of phosphine.

Magnesium phosphide is a new material that has beendeveloped to release phosphine gas. It is formulated incloth-covered plates sealed in special plastic envelopesand in series of plates (strips) which are also sealed inplastic envelopes and then packed in metal cans. Theseformulations dispense the same hydrogen phosphide gas(phosphine) but release it more rapidly. Presentdistribution is limited to professional fumigators untilmore experience and data in the use of this material havebeen accumulated.

Hydrogen phosphide is highly toxic to all forms ofanimal life. Early symptoms of hydrogen phosphidepoisoning can be severe, but these symptoms are clearlyrecognizable and reversible if exposure is ended. Initialsymptoms of over-exposure include "tightness" in thechest, faintness, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, anddiarrhea. Severe poisoning leads to coma and death.Hydrogen phosphide is not absorbed through the skin,and it is not stored in body tissues. Any gas entering thebody will be completely eliminated within 48 hours.Hydrogen phosphide is very toxic to humans. Thethreshold limit is only 0.3 ppm (8 hour time weightedaverage). Mathematically, this would indicate that thegas is about 45 times as toxic as methyl bromide. However, because of the manner in which hydrogenphosphide is liberated and because of the odorcharacteristics, this material can be used safely.

Gas - Methyl bromide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless,gaseous fumigant marketed as compressed, liquefied gaspacked in special 1 or 1.5 pound cans or in cylinders of50, 100 or 200-pound capacity. As with other fumigants,the cost is lower when purchased in larger containers.However, farmers should not try to store fumigants butshould buy only enough fumigant for each fumigation.Compressed liquid methyl bromide readily changes into a

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gas when the container is opened at temperatures above39°F. The gas is odorless at fumigation concentrationsand has no irritating qualities to indicate its presence. Forfumigation, methyl bromide is formulated as either 100percent methyl bromide or with a mixture with ½ to 2percent chloropicrin that serves as a warning agent.

Methyl bromide is nonflammable, penetrates grain welland provides a very rapid kill of insect pests. It is overthree times the weight of air, and recirculation or othertechniques may be needed to ensure even distribution.These distribution problems and the extreme hazard ofmethyl bromide are reasons why this product should onlybe used by trained professional fumigators. Theestablished threshold limit of methyl bromide exposure is15 ppm.

Early symptoms of methyl bromide over-exposureinclude dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, andweakness. Lung edema and cardiac irregularities maydevelop within 24-48 hours and are often fatal. Repeatedexposure to low dosages allows methyl bromide toaccumulate in body tissues and may eventually causechronic symptoms including blurred vision, dizziness andstaggering, and mental imbalance.

Methyl bromide will not corrode most metals.However, it can react with aluminum or magnesium inthe absence of oxygen to form an explosive mixture.Therefore, aluminum or magnesium tubing should neverbe connected to a methyl bromide cylinder.

Methyl bromide can affect seed viability by reducinggermination of sorghum, grain and grass seeds,particularly at high moisture levels or high dosages.Phosphine is a safer choice when seed germination is aconcern .

Undesirable odors can result when certain materials areexposed to methyl bromide. The pesticide distributor canfurnish you a list of potentially affected materials. Thelist would include full fat soya flour, iodized salt, somesponge and foam rubbers, cinder blocks formed fromcinders from high sulfur coal and any other materialscontaining reactive sulfur compounds.

Factors which influence the effectiveness offumigation

Understanding how fumigants react in grain and whatinfluences their behavior is an essential step indeveloping the "know-how" to effectively and safely usegrain fumigants.

Sorption - When a fumigant gas attaches itself to thesurface of a grain kernel or penetrates into the kernel, itslows diffusion and disrupts penetration of the fumigantthrough the grain mass. However, some sorption mustoccur if the fumigant is to reach all stages of pest insects,especially those that develop within the kernel. Thedegree of sorption of individual components is the basisfor selection of many of the liquid fumigant mixtures.These mixtures include chemicals which are sorbed atdifferent rates, permitting some fumigant vapors topenetrate a grain mass readily, while others are held near

the surface of the grain mass. Some fumigants react withmaterials in the grain to form other chemical compoundsthat may be permanent, thus forming residues. Methylbromide fumigants are particularly subject to this type ofchemical reaction which has necessitated theestablishment of residue limits or tolerances for theamount of bromide permitted in grain.

Temperature - Temperature influences thedistribution of fumigants in grain and affects their abilityto kill insects. At temperatures below 60°F, volatility of afumigant is reduced significantly, sorption of fumigantvapors into the grain is increased, and distribution is lessuniform throughout the grain mass. Gases move moreslowly and insects breathe less at colder temperatures. Ittakes longer for the fumigant vapors to reach insects inthe grain, less gas is actually available for controlling thepests, and since the insects are less active, less gas enterstheir bodies. Desorption may take longer at coldtemperatures because grain retains more fumigants longerat low temperatures, requiring prolonged ventilationperiods.

Grain Moisture - The moisture content of grain alsoinfluences the penetration of fumigant gases by alteringthe rate of sorption. In general, moist grain requires anincrease in dosage or an extended exposure tocompensate for the reduced penetration and increasedsorption. However, as previously mentioned, moisture isnecessary for the generation of phosphine from solidformulations. Although most grain that will supportinsect development will also contain sufficient moistureto start the chemical reaction, grain below 10 percentmoisture will slow solid fumigant decomposition.

Grain Type and Condition - Various grains havedifferent characteristics that can affect fumigations. Thesurface area of individual grain kernels is an influencingfactor in the dosage required to treat variouscommodities. For example, sorghum, because of itssmaller size and more spherical shape, has higher totalsurface area than wheat. Increased surface means greatersorption loss, which reduces the amount of fumigants leftin the space between the grain kernels and furtherreduces the amount of fumigant available to penetratethroughout the grain. To compensate for this increasedsorptive loss, higher dosage rates are required in sorghumthan in wheat, particularly with the high sorptionfumigants.

The type and amount of dockage in grain has apronounced effect on the sorption and distribution offumigants. When the grain mass contains large amountsof dockage such as chaff or broken kernels, the fumigantvapors are rapidly sorbed by this material and furtherpenetration into the grain is impaired. Unfortunately,such areas are frequently sites that attract the greatestnumber of insects. When isolated "pockets" of dockageoccur within a grain mass, such as below grain spouts,

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fumigant vapors may pass around such pockets andfollow the path of least resistance down through theintergranular area of the grain. Similar changes infumigant distribution patterns may be obtained in grainthat has settled or compacted unevenly during longstorage periods or in storage vibrated by nearby trafficsuch as a railroad.

Insects - Grain insect pests and their variousdevelopmental stages (egg, larva, pupa and adult) vary intheir susceptibility and resistance to fumigants. Beetlesand other insects that develop outside grain kernels areusually more susceptible to fumigants than certain mothand beetle species that develop inside grain kernels. Thepupae and eggs are the hardest developmental stages tokill while the young larvae are relatively susceptible.

Heavy infestations in which large amounts of dust,damaged grain, webbing and cast skins have accumulatedare more difficult to control because of the effect thesematerials have on the penetration and diffusion of grainfumigants.

Storage Facility - A fumigant, whether appliedinitially as a gas, liquid or solid, penetrates the grain andenters the insect in the form of a gas. The "gas tightness"of the storage bin, therefore, greatly influences theretention of the fumigant. Metal bins with caulked orwelded seams or concrete bins will lose some gas but aregenerally better suited for fumigation than wooden bins.

Although there are often label recommendations forfumigation of grain in wooden bins, the high dosages andpoor control usually achieved normally make this type offumigation uneconomical.

The size and shape of the storage structure affect bothdistribution and retention of fumigants. The height of astorage bin often determines the type of fumigant usedand its method of application. Some liquid fumigants willreadily penetrate substantial depths of grain, but solidfumigants may be more effective if mixed with the grainduring transfer into the bins. Commercial applicators mayuse special techniques to achieve control that would bedifficult for a farmer to apply.

Winds and thermal or heat expansion are major factorsinfluencing gas loss. Winds around a grain storagestructure create pressure gradients across its surfaceresulting in rapid loss of fumigant concentrations at thegrain surface and on the downwind side of the storage.The expansion of head space air due to solar heating ofroofs and walls followed by nighttime cooling can resultin a "pumping" of the fumigant from the bin. Large flatstorages that contain more grain surface than grain depthare particularly susceptible to gas loss due to wind andheat expansion. The greatest gas loss frequently occurs atthe grain surface, a location that often contains thehighest insect populations. Furthermore, when the grainsurface is uneven with large peaks and valleys, thedistribution of fumigants through the grain will also beuneven.

Air Movement - Successful fumigation of stored grainrequires an understanding of air movement within thegrain mass. It is easy to think that the air in between thekernels of grain in a bin is as immobile as the grain itself.This is not true and is one of the reasons that fumigationsometimes fails even when done by professionalfumigators.

Air moves along the path of least resistance, with warmair moving upward and cold air moving downward. In abin, there is usually air movement both up and downbecause of temperature difference between the wellinsulated middle and the grain near the perimeter that isaffected by the outside temperature. Air movementupward can carry moisture (moisture migration) that cancondense on the surface and cause crusting. The resultingcrust can also interfere with air and gas movement. Airwill move more easily through a grain mass composed oflarger kernels, such as corn, and more slowly throughthose composed of smaller grains, such as grain sorghum.Air may move around a hot spot and carry a fumigant gasaway from the critical area. Fumigant gases can penetratethese areas better than normal air but the air movementcan affect how much gas reaches and stays at thesecritical areas.

Gas movement in a grain mass is affected by otherforces such as gravity, sorption, temperature andmoisture content, but an understanding of the airmovement is the first step in understanding the manyforces that determine gas dispersion.

Dosage and time of exposure - Because fumigants act inthe gaseous state, the dosage necessary to kill an insect isrelated to the concentration of gas surrounding the insect,the insect's respiration rate, which is related partially totemperature, and the time of exposure of the insect to thespecific concentration of fumigant. For most fumigantsthere is a general relationship between concentration andtime: high concentrations require shorter exposure timeand low concentrations require long exposure to achievecomparable kill. In phosphine fumigations, time ofexposure is often more important than the concentrationof gas. This situation is partly due to the increased timenecessary for release of the gas from the solid materialand also because the rate of uptake of phosphine byinsects is somewhat time dependent.

With liquid fumigant mixtures, the concentration-timerelationship depends on the concentration of theindividual chemicals in the mixture that actually reachthe insect. When the more toxic compounds in a fumigantmixture are separated due to sorption loss duringpenetration, the remaining chemicals may require longerexposure or higher concentrations to be as effective asthe original mixture.

Variations in recommended dosages are generallybased on sorption differences of commodities and therelative gas tightness of different storage structures. Forexample, dosage requirements for sorghum are generallyhigher than for less sorptive commodities such as wheat,and dosages in wooden bins are higher than in steel or

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concrete bins. Application rates for phosphine-producingfumigants are based primarily on the type of storagestructure being treated and its gas tightness. Becausephosphine is less affected by sorption loss in grain, therates of application for most commodities are virtuallythe same.

Dosage rates for methyl bromide are usually based onthe amount of total space within a storage rather than theamount of grain present. Dosage rates are frequently inthe range of 2 to 4 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet of space,which is equivalent to about 2.5 to 5 pounds per 1,000bushels. In general, higher dosage rates of methylbromide are required for cool grain, higher sorptivecommodities and less tight storage structures.

Application and distributionAluminum Phosphide - Tablets or pellets of

aluminum phosphide may be added manually to the grainstream when moving infested grain to new storage. Therate of grain loading will determine the intervals at whichthe pellets should be added to achieve the appropriatedosage per 1,000 bushels of grain. As noted previouslywith liquid fumigants, treatment during turning of thegrain is not generally feasible in on-farm storage andalternative methods must be used to treat the grain inplace. In shallow grain bins, tablets may be probed intothe grain using a 5-foot hollow tube designed for thispurpose. These tubes can be purchased from the supplieror made from electrical conduit or from plastic pipeaccording to the distributor's recommendation.

A typical probe treatment of a circular steel bin isdescribed below:

1) Determine the number of tablets required to treat thevolume of grain in the bin and the head space. Start witha dosage rate of 90 tablets per 1,000 bushels. Allow extrapellets for the head space unless the grain is going to becovered with a plastic sheet.

2) Increase this rate up to as many as 180 tablets per1,000 bushels if the bin cannot be adequately sealed or ifthe temperature of most of the grain is below 68°F.

3) Decrease the dosage to as few as 60 tablets per1,000 bushels if the bin is exceptionally gaslight,contains clean dry grain, or if the grain temperaturethroughout the bin is above 80°F.

4) Determine the probable natural air flow in the grain.Divide the tablets by four to place in each pie-shapedquarter of the bin. Typically the number would then bedivided by five (the number of tablets per probe) todetermine the number of probes needed per quarter. Forexample, if the total number of tablets required for thesurface area is 280, the number for each quarter is 280divided by four which equals 70 per quarter section. Eachsection would be probed 14 times with five tabletsdeposited in each probe.

When placing the tablets in the probe, place the firstone when the probe is down 5 feet, then raise it 1 footand place the next tablet in the probe. Continue until all

tablets are used. The last tablet should be about 6 inchesfrom the surface.

A gas mask with canister labeled for use withphosphine should be available and applicators shouldwork in pairs. Normally the application of aluminumphosphide tablets can be finished before reaching adangerous concentration of phosphine. Therefore, it isnot necessary for the applicator to wear the mask unlessthe work is unduly prolonged .

5) After all sections of the bin have been probed, closethe bin and seal the access point as described underliquid fumigant procedures. Gas loss can be reduced byplacing a polyethylene sheet cut to size over the grainbefore sealing the door. It is a good idea to fasten a ropeto this sheet so it can be removed easily after thefumigation to prevent condensation problems. The rest ofthe bin still needs to be well-sealed for best results.

6) Never place aluminum phosphide on a wet surfacesince it would evolve the gas too fast and could possiblyignite. When the grain temperature is considerablywarmer than the outside air, the professional fumigatormay use as many as 40 percent of the tablets in theaeration system. Tablets or pellets should never bestacked on top of each other.

7) Leave the bin sealed for at least five days afterapplication of the tablets. Never leave plastic on the grainsurface more than seven days.

8) Following fumigation, the commodity should beventilated before anyone enters the bin. It is much saferto check the gas concentration with detector tubes.

At the end of a phosphine fumigation, the powderyresidue of tablets or pellets still contains a small amountof undecomposed aluminum phosphide for a number ofdays. Under normal circumstances of grain handling,these residues do not present a hazard, but inhalation ofthe powder should naturally be avoided.

Recent changes in aluminum phosphide labels call formandatory monitoring of phosphine levels whenever workers are inside a structure while fumigation is in process. The current law calls for monitoring of eachfumigation procedure and documentation of phosphinelevels throughout the time workers are present in thebuilding. Once a particular fumigation procedure within aparticular structure has been monitored often enough toform a clear pattern of phosphine levels, it is no longernecessary to monitor during each subsequent fumigation.You should still monitor periodically to insure thatnothing has changed. When monitoring reveals thatphosphine concentration never exceed 0.3 ppm, noprotective breathing equipment is required. If phosphinegas concentrations exceed 0.3 ppm but remain lower than15.0 ppm, a full-faced, NIOSH/MSHA approved canistertype gas mask with the appropriate yellow canister mustbe worn by each person in the affected area. If phosphineconcentrations exceed 15 ppm, a NIOSH/MSHAapproved self contained breathing system (SCBA) mustbe worn. Regardless of the phosphine levels achievedduring fumigation, a full-faced gas mask and yellowcanister must be available on location during every

12

fumigation. A SCBA must be available on location orlocally through a fire department, rescue squad or similarsource.

The law also requires that following fumigation thefumigated commodity be monitored until phosphinelevels fall below 0.3 ppm. Until such time it is illegal toremove warning placards or move the commodity.Workers entering a structure under fumigation to monitorgas levels must wear the appropriate gas masks.Methyl bromide - All persons who work with methylbromide must be aware of the hazards associated withthis fumigant. They should understand the use of gasdetection devices and respiratory protection equipment,and they should be trained in proper application methodsand emergency procedures.

When methyl bromide is used to fumigate enclosedspaces such as grain storage facilities, two trainedpersons must be present at all times when workerexposure exceeds 5 ppm. Applicators should avoidwearing tight clothing, jewelry, gloves, and boots whenapplying methyl bromide. Methyl bromide may betrapped next to the body under these articles of clothingand cause severe injury to skin. Any contaminatedclothing or boots must be removed and not reused untilthoroughly cleaned and aerated. At any time whenfull-face respiratory protection is not required,applicators should wear goggles or a full-face shield foreye protection when handling methyl bromide liquid.

If the concentration of methyl bromide in the workarea, as measured by a pump and detector tube (fromDraeger, Kitagawa, MSA, or Sensidyne), does notexceed 5 ppm, no respiratory protection is required. Ifthis concentration is exceeded at any time, al persons inthe fumigation area must wear a NIOSH/MSHAapproved self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) orcombination air-supplied/SCBA respirator. Canister-typegas masks with air-filtering cartridges are not adequatefor use with methyl bromide.

For recirculating application of methyl bromide forcontrol of insects in stored grain, the following stepsshould be followed:1. The storage should be sealed thoroughly, usingmasking tape for small openings and polyethylenesheeting secured with masking tape for large openings.Unsealed openings allow the escape of methyl bromideduring the recirculation application. Fumigant leaksreduce the effectiveness of the fumigation and canpresent safety concerns around the storage.2. Applicators must post warning placards at all entrancesto the fumigated storage. Placards must present the wordsDANGER/PELIGRO and the skull and crossbonessymbol. Warnings also must state "Area underFumigation, DO NOT ENTER/NO ENTRE." Placardsshould state the date of the fumigation, the name of thefumigant applied, and the name, address, and telephonenumber of the applicator. Any person who transfers atreated commodity to another site without aeration mustensure that the new site is placarded until the commodityis aerated sufficiently to reduce methyl bromide

concentrations to below 5 ppm. Only a certifiedapplicator may remove the placards, and only after he hastaken one or more gas readings that indicate the methylbromide concentration is below 5 ppm.3. Methyl bromide should be applied at a rate of 1.5 to6.0 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet. Follow label instructionsto determine the rate for the specific commodity to befumigated. A duct system should be constructed so thatthe aeration system can be used to force air through thegrain mass and collect and recirculate that air backthrough the aeration fans. Methyl bromide can bedischarged into the duct system or into the head space ofthe storage.4. For most stored grains, methyl bromide recirculationshould continue for 24 hours; check label directions forfumigation periods for specific commodities. Thisfumigation period of 24 hours or less is one benefitassociated with methyl bromide fumigation; otherfumigations require a 72 hour (or longer) exposureperiod under most conditions. During the applicationperiod it is important to use gas detector tubes to checkfor methyl bromide leaks around the treated storage;leaks will reduce fumigation success and may causehealth hazards in the work area.5. Once the fumigation period has ended, storage must beaerated. To aerate, disconnect the return air flow from therecirculation system so that exhaust air dischargesoutside the storage. Aeration should continue until gasdetection devices show methyl bromide levels havedropped to below 5 ppm. Take multiple readings in theelevator head space to detect any possible pockets ofmethyl bromide gas.6. As mentioned before, once fumigated grain is aerated,it is susceptible to reinfestation. Surface topdressapplications of protectant insecticides and the use ofVapona strips will help to limit reinfestation.

Methyl bromide is not to be applied if graintemperature is less than 40/F except in cold storagefumigations specified in APHIS quarantine programs.Methyl bromide will retard or destroy germinationpotential of seeds in many fumigation conditions. Wheregrain is to be used for seed, alternatives to methylbromide fumigation are usually recommended.

Checklist of equipment needed for fumigation! "Man in Bin" Sign - placed near the control panel ! Tape Measure - to calculate volume treated ! Polyethylene Film - cut to size of grain to becovered and with rope attached for easy removal ifusing phosphine ! Cotton Gloves - if using phosphine ! Two Gas Masks with Canisters - labeled for thefumigant being used ! Probes - made from plastic pipe if using phosphine ! Safety Rope - if anyone is going to climb down intoa bin ! Shovels - to level grain mass ! Grain Thermometer - to measure grain temperature

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top and bottom ! Warning Signs - for the fumigant used to be postedon the outside of the bin ! Lock - for building ! Monitoring Equipment - if the building will beentered ! 2 or 3-inch Wide Masking or Duct Tape, Spray Canof Glue, Glue for Poly Sheets ! Instruction Manual and Label ! Dosage Chart ! Sufficient Fumigant ! Grain Sampling Probe ! Sprayer and Wand - if using liquid fumigants ! Plastic Hose and Openers - if methyl bromide isused ! Plastic Hose Fitting and Scale if cylinders ofmethyl bromide are used

Bin preparation prior to fumigation Proper sealing of grain bins prior to fumigation will

often make the difference between success or failure ofthe treatment. A high degree of gas tightness is essentialto achieve the required combination of gas concentrationand time of exposure necessary to kill grain pests.

Metal storage bins are not gas tight since they wereoriginally designed to hold and aerate grain. They can beused for fumigation with proper sealing. It is important torecognize that the bins will vary in tightness dependingon their design and construction. If the corrugatedsections were caulked when put together and then boltedtight, they will be more effective in holding fumigantswhen sealed. Loosely constructed wooden bins may haveto be covered totally with a gas tight tarpaulin to retainenough fumigant to be effective.

Remember, the goal is to try to confine a gas for asufficient length of time at a proper concentration to belethal to the target pests. Sealing is extremely importantand demands study and work but there are techniquesthat can make the job more effective.

There are a number of places in a bin where gas canescape. The roof-wall juncture looks tight from theoutside, but examination from the inside will show a gaparound the perimeter in many bins. This gap is difficult toseal because it is usually dusty and may be damp. Crackswider than 1 inch are even harder to seal. It is necessaryto clean the dust from the surface before it can be tapedor sealed with any other material.

Professionals will first clean the surface and then sprayit with an adhesive dispensed from a pressurized can. Thegap is then sealed with duct or furnace cloth tape sincethis is more effective here than masking tape. Use at least2-inch and preferably 3-inch tape when sealing thesecracks.

Polyurethane foams can be used to seal this gap butthey are expensive and difficult to remove if the gap isneeded for grain aeration. Insects can burrow into thefoams and destroy their effectiveness, but they canprovide a good seal for several years.

Another key area to seal is the gap between the bottomof the wall and the floor. Some manufacturers design the

wall base to accept a special sealant that can give a longterm seal. Various sealing materials have been usedincluding one made with polyurethane impregnated withasphalt. Plain asphalt has also been used but does nothave as much elasticity.

We have seen some use of foam-in-place plasticsapplied after the bins were built that seemed to give agood seal but still would be subject to problemsdiscussed previously.

Roof ventilators can be covered with plastic bags. Thebags are less likely to tear against sharp edges if a burlapbag is placed over the ventilator first. The plastic bagshould be gathered in at the base and then taped in place.Be careful in this work to avoid falling.

Bin doors are not gas tight when merely closed. Theycan be cleaned and sealed with duct tape or maskingtape, or if not used regularly, they can be sealed withfoam-in-place plastic.

Aeration fans and their housings must be sealed toavoid gas loss. Normally, polyethylene glued to the airintake will be sufficient. However, the unit should beexamined for other potential leaks.

An expensive but useful tool is the pressurized can oftape primer. This can be obtained from the fumigantdistributor or sometimes from an auto paint store. Thesematerials give the surface a tacky feeling and help thetape hold much better. They can be applied to theadhesive surface of a piece of tape to improve its stickingpower. Although taping of a damp surface is notrecommended, it can sometimes be done with thismaterial.

Another useful material is called Bondmaster. It ispainted onto a surface and then the plastic tarp is pressedinto the tacky area. This will normally hold the plastic on,even in a high wind. Bondmaster can be removed fromthe hands with mineral spirits since the application is amessy job that will usually leave some on the hands andmaybe on the clothing. It can leave a stain on the buildingbut the improved seal is probably worth the effort andmess.

Another alternative to taping the eaves is to cover theentire roof with a plastic sheet formed into a bonnet orcap which drapes over the top of the bin and extendsdown past the roof joint. An adhesive sprayed or paintedin a horizontal band around the outside bin wall willprovide a point of attachment for the plastic sheet. Thebonnet can then be secured by rope using the corrugatedgrooves on the bin to reduce slippage. Obviously, thissealing method can only be partially completed beforeapplication of the fumigant in order to provide access tothe grain surface.

Level the grain surface and break up any crusted areasthat have formed. When grain is peaked, the action offumigants is similar to rain on a hillside. Theheavier-than air gases simply slide around the peak,resulting in poor penetration and survival of pests in thepeaked portion of the grain. Moldy or crusted areas nearthe grain surface are generally caused by moisturecondensation when warmer air in the grain rises to the

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surface and encounters cold air above the grain. Theseareas are sometimes hidden from view just below thegrain surface. Failure to locate and break up these areaswill result in uneven penetration of grain fumigants andmay lead to further deterioration of the grain from molddevelopment and invasion of the grain by insects thatfeed on grain molds.

Calculating dosage All fumigant labels provide information on the

recommended dosages required to effectively treat storedgrain. Using less fumigant than is recommended canresult in too low a concentration of gas to be effective.Using more fumigant than recommended is illegal, addscost and may not increase efficiency.

Dosages found on most liquid fumigant labels areexpressed in gallons of fumigant to be applied per 1,000bushels of grain. The recommended dosage varies withformulation. Once the dosage recommended for theconditions of your fumigation has been identified fromthe label chart, you need only calculate the number ofbushels to be treated to determine the total fumigantdosage. The number of bushels in a bin may becalculated using one of the following formulas:

If the bin is round: Bushels = 0.6283 x diameter (ft) xdiameter (ft) x grain depth (ft).

Example: An 18-foot diameter bin containing 15 feetof grain would equal 0.6283 x 18 x 18 x 15 = 3,053.5bushels. If the recommended dosage is 3 gallons per1,000 bushels, the total dosage required would be(3,053.5 divided by 1,000) x 3 = 9.2 gallons. If therecommended dosage was 4 gallons per 1,000 bushels,the total dosage required would be (3,053.5 divided by1,000) x 4 = 12.2 gallons.

Dosages recommended for the various phosphineproducing fumigant formulations are fairly similar.However, the actual amount of phosphine involved inspecific fumigations will vary depending on the type ofstructure to be treated and whether tablets or pellets areutilized. Because phosphine distribution is not materiallyaffected by sorption or differences in grains, applicationrates are based primarily on the gas tightness of thestorage, grain temperature and the method of application.Dosages for aluminum phosphide formulations areexpressed in terms of tablets or pellets per 1,000 bushels.

A typical dosage chart for aluminum phosphide tabletsis as follows:

Type of Storage Grain Temp. °FDosage tables for1,000 bushels

Concrete elevatorsor steel tanks withturning facilities

over 68 60 as grain is beingturned

Round steel bins 60-68over 68

120 90

Flat stores in tightbuilding not over30 feet in depth

60-68over 68

150120

Example: Find the number of tablets required to treat acircular steel bin containing 3,000 bushels withtemperatures ranging from 92°F on the surface to 75°F atthe bottom of the bin. From the dosage chart, thetreatment rate for round steel bins containing grain above68°F is 90 tablets per 1,000 bushels. The total number oftablets required is 3,000 divided by 1,000 x 90= 270tablets.

Determining concentrations It is very important to monitor the fumigant

concentration to determine the loss due to sorption orleakage so that adjustments can be made if necessary. Itmay be necessary to reseal an area, add more gas orlengthen the exposure period to give the properconcentration plus time combination. After thefumigation is over, it is equally important to be able toknow that the gas has been reduced to a level below itsthreshold limit value (TLV) to ensure worker safety uponreentry.

There is no single device that can economically andefficiently measure all fumigants at all normal levels. Avariety of devices can be used depending on the gasbeing measured and whether a high reading during thefumigation or a low range reading for compliance withthe TLV after the fumigation is needed.

Detection tubes for fumigationDetection tubes are probably the most versatile tools

available for measuring gas concentrations. They areavailable for many industrial gases as well as almost allfumigants. The equipment used with the tubes is wellbuilt, durable and manufactured by a number ofsuppliers. The initial cost of the equipment is moderateand can be amortized over hundreds of uses and manyyears. They are sufficiently accurate for most gases.

The disadvantages to using these tubes is that they aredesigned for a single use on a single type of fumigant.Their cost of over $2 per tube can be burdensome whenmany readings are necessary. They are not available forboth high and low readings for all fumigants so otherdetection tools may be needed. The tubes have a limitedshelf life and are not reliable after the expiration date. Inaddition they have limited accuracy on some gases.

When a given quantity of air/gas mixture is drawnthrough the tube, a color change occurs in the reagentsinside the tubes. This change can be easily read in partsper million.

To take a reading, it is necessary to first break the tipsoff the ends of the tube so that air/gas mixture can bedrawn through the tube. With some gases, it is necessaryto break the tube in a second place and to mix twoingredients or to attach another tube containing differentingredients to the first tube.

The glass tips removed from the tubes should bedisposed of properly to avoid any chance of foodcontamination or personal injury. If the tubes are to beretained, the tips should be covered with tape to mask.

After the tips are removed, the tube is inserted into the

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pump according to the directional arrows. Instructions onthe tube give the number of pump strokes required(example: n=3 means three strokes) for a sample. Eachstroke draws one-tenth liter of air through the tube.Workers can learn to take accurate readings with aminimum of time and instruction.

If the air/gas sample is taken from a long monitoringhose, the hose line must be purged to give an accurategas reading. Vacuum pumps that will speed up thepurging operations are available. To ensure accuracy, itis better to purge too much than not enough. Naturally,readings should be taken in open air or other precautionstaken to ensure that the purged air/gas mixture will notcause health problems.

With the Draeger methyl bromide tube, it is extremelyimportant that the tube is held in a vertical position whenreading the ppm or an improper gas reading may beobtained.

Most manufacturers have equipment called grabsamplers that will take a single reading of the presentconcentration of toxic gases or vapors a worker isexposed to over several hours.

Halide leak detectorsHalide leak detectors have found uses in several

industries. They are used to detect leaks of halogenatedrefrigerant gases and they have been used to givereasonably accurate estimates of the concentration ofmethyl bromide related halogenated fumigant gases.

The propane fueled halide leak detector is the lowestcost fumigant detection instrument both in terms of initialpurchase and in terms of cost per use. The gas is turnedon and ignited and then adjusted so that the tip of theflame just pierces the copper ring. Air/gas mixtures aresiphoned through the flexible tube and a blue or greenhalo above the copper ring will indicate the presence ofhalogenated gas. It is important to keep the copper ringclean and to replace it periodically.

People vary in their ability to recognize shades of blueand green but 25 ppm is the lowest concentration anyonecould consistently recognize. This is adequate forspotting leaks in a structure but not for detecting 5 ppmwhich is the present recommended TLV for methylbromide. Naturally, this instrument should never be usedin an atmosphere where an open flame would be ahazard.

Summary of requirements for successful grainfumigation! Do not attempt fumigating grain unless the graintemperature is 60 degrees or higher. Fumigating coolgrain will be ineffective and increases the risk ofchemical residue in the treated grain. ! Before applying fumigants, level the surface of thegrain and break up any "caking" on the surface. ! Seal bins as tightly as possible. The fumigant shouldbe retained in the grain and not allowed to "leak" out.Use building paper or other material to cover all holesand cracks. Cover the grain with a tarpaulin if there is a

large air space above the grain. ! All fumigants should be handled with extreme care asthe fumes are toxic. Apply the fumigant from the outsideof the bin whenever possible. Always have a secondperson nearby while fumigating. Use a recommended gasmask with canister. ! Always use the recommended dosage. ! Keep all persons and animals out of the building for atleast 72 hours.

Reasons for fumigation failures! Insufficient Fumigant: Because the efficiency of afumigant depends on the maintenance of a killingconcentration in the grain, any factor that affects gasconcentration is important. You cannot get satisfactoryresults by applying less than the recommended dosage.Be sure to use the amount of fumigant required for thecapacity of the bin, not the amount of grain contained inthe bin. ! Storage Structure: A loosely constructed, leaky binmay not retain fumigants long enough to kill the insectswhile a tight concrete or metal bin may hold the fumigantin killing concentrations for several days. The depth ofthe grain in relation to its surface area also affects theefficiency of a fumigant. In general, the greater thesurface area of the grain in proportion to the bulk, thegreater the difficulties encountered in fumigation. This iswhy flat storage require higher dosages than roundsilo-type bins. Storage structures with a large amount ofspace over the grain are also difficult to fumigateeffectively, as large amounts of gas escape into the headspace. ! Type of Grain and Dockage: The kind of grainaffects the efficiency of a fumigant in accordance with itssorption quality. For example, shelled corn and grainsorghum appear to be much more sorptive than wheat. The amount of dockage also affects the diffusion of thefumigant. Wheat with dockage exceeding 3 percentrequires nearly twice the dosage than wheat with lessthan 1 percent dockage requires.! Moisture: The moisture content of the grain has aprofound effect on the efficiency of a fumigant (thehigher the moisture content the higher the dosagerequired). As the moisture content increases above 12percent, a proportionally higher dosage is required.Generally you cannot satisfactorily fumigate grain havinga surface moisture content of 15 to 20 percent becausethe fumigant vapors will not penetrate the moist layer.

! Temperature: During fumigation the gas quicklyassumes the temperature of the grain. An increase intemperature results in greater molecular activity of gases,which facilitates the diffusion and penetration of thefumigant. However, there are limiting factors for bothextremes of high or low temperatures. If graintemperature reaches 115°F, the fumigants vaporize veryrapidly and may escape from the bin before lethal gasconcentrations can be obtained. Most stored grain insectscannot survive in grain at 115°F or above, eliminating the

16

need for fumigating. You need not fumigate stored grainwith a temperature of 60°F or below as the insects are

inactive below this temperature.

FUMIGATION OF STRUCTURES INCLUDING BUILDINGS, SHIPS & RAILCARS

INTRODUCTIONAll methods by which fumigation may be

accomplished have one factor in common - some meansto hold an adequate concentration of fumigant for thetime necessary to obtain pest kill. These various methodsof fumigating within structures are: vault fumigationincluding vacuum chambers; atmospheric chambers,trucks, railway cars, ships and buildings; tarpaulinfumigation which may be accomplished under a tarpindoors, outdoors, or by covering the entire structure; andspot or local fumigation.

VAULT FUMIGATIONVault fumigation is referred to in this manual as

including any structure of a permanent nature in whichfumigation may occur as opposed to specialized vaultssuch as vacuum or atmospheric chambers used only forfumigation.

Vacuum chamberVacuum chambers differ from other forms of vault

fumigation in that the fumigation is conducted undervacuum rather than at atmospheric pressure. Vacuumchambers are large steel structures. One commonchamber is built in sets of two, each 50 feet x 6 feet x 8feet. Frequently they are equipped with fans orrecirculating systems. By using a vacuum, the fumigationtime can be reduced from 12 to 24 hours to 1 ½ to 4 ½hours. The vacuum both denies the insects oxygen andfacilitates rapid penetration of the commodity by thefumigant. By adding an air-wash cycle (breaking thevacuum and drawing a second vacuum), aeration is alsorapid. Vacuum fumigation chambers are usually found atport facilities and near large warehousing operation.Ethylene oxide-carbon dioxide mixture and methylbromide are most frequently used though HCN andacrylonitrile are also used. Aluminum phosphide cannotbe used as phosphine is explosive under vacuumconditions and high phosphine concentrations .

There are two main methods of conducting vacuumfumigation: sustained-vacuum fumigation and nearlycomplete restoration of pressure. In the sustained vacuummethod, the pressure is reduced, the fumigant introducedand the slightly reduced pressure or vacuum held untilthe end of the fumigation period. In the restored pressuremethod, the pressure is lowered and restored in one ofseveral ways.1. Gradual restoration of atmospheric pressure. Thefumigant is released and air then is slowly introduceduntil after 2 or 3 hours it is just below atmosphericpressure.2. Delayed restoration with the vacuum being held forabout 45 minutes following discharge of the fumigant,

after which air is allowed to enter the chamber rapidly.3. Immediate restoration following introduction of thefumigant by letting air rapidly into the chamber byopening one or more valves. This method has beenwidely used in this country for baled cotton.4. Simultaneous introduction of air and fumigant inwhich special metering equipment meters a mixture of airand fumigant into the chamber.

At the end of any of the methods, air-washing is carriedout. It consists of removal of the fumigant/air mixtureand the chamber is then pumped several times until it isconsidered safe to open the door for unloading. Theeffectiveness of the different methods is in the orderpresented with the sustained vacuum method followingbetween methods 2 and 3 of the restored pressuremethods.

The disadvantages of vacuum fumigation include: thevery expensive initial investment, and the need to movethe commodities into and out of the chambers. It cannotbe used with certain tender plants fruits and vegetableswhich cannot withstand reduced pressure. The amount ordosage of fumigant required is usually 2 or 3 timesgreater than at atmospheric pressure.

ATMOSPHERIC VAULTS OR FUMIGATIONCHAMBERS

These are usually small buildings located well apartfrom other structures. Some are specially built forfumigation, others are modified from other structures.Once an atmospheric vault has been built or modified forfumigation, it can be used again and again. Gasconcentrations can be monitored through a permanentarrangement. Commodities are easily moved in and outof the vault without special preparation. The fumigatordoes not have to compute the cube of the structure eachtime the fumigation will take place. Special preparationof the commodity, such as padding corners, is notnecessary. Almost any fumigant can be used. And whilesafety precautions can be observed, fewer considerationsare necessary. In addition to the initial cost of setting up afumigation vault, the disadvantages include: cost ofmoving the commodity to and from the chamber, thelimited quantity of items that most vaults will hold, andthe economical utilization of the facility.

TRUCKS (STATIONARY) AND FREIGHT CARS(STATIONARY OR IN TRANSIT)

Stationary trucks and freight cars are also examples of“vault” fumigation. These vehicles must be wellconstructed and in good repair. If they are not, they mustbe made air-tight or the entire vehicle must be tarped inorder that the fumigant can be retained for the fumigationperiod. Movement of the freight car or truck during the

17

fumigation usually results in loss of the fumigant. Anexception to this is in-transit fumigation of rail cars usingaluminum phosphide. As hydrogen phosphide continuesto be generated, a low gas concentration is maintained.

Fumigation of wheeled carriers is often convenient andeconomical in both time and labor by avoiding extraloading and unloading. It not only kills the pests in thecommodity, but also in the vehicle so that live pests donot remain behind after unloading. Fumigation ofincoming loads, prevents the introduction of pests intoclean areas.

SHIPBOARD FUMIGATIONShip fumigations are also examples of vault fumigation

but are highly specialized. Products needing fumigationmay need to be treated before they can be loaded. Theextent of the area to be fumigated will depend on theamount of cargo involved. Size and depth of space to befumigated and cargo present must be determined. Ifproper provision is made, any full cargo space can befumigated. All piping, bilge openings, ventilatoropenings, and hatches must be sealed off. Heating andventilator systems may be helpful in bringing the cargo tooptimum temperature and for aeration.

Because of the specialized nature and problems of shipfumigation, you should be thoroughly familiar with theTechnical Release from the National Pest ControlAssociation, No. 18-72, Good Practices in ShipFumigation, before undertaking any ship fumigation. Inmany instances, firms specializing in ship fumigationmay be engaged.

Close cooperation with the responsible ship's officer,ship's agent, and USDA inspector (if involved) isessential. The Port Authority, fire and police departmentsshould be notified, and guards arranged for if necessary.If most of the cargo space is fumigated, the entire crewshould be accounted for and evacuated while fumigationis in progress. No one should be allowed to return untilthe ship is clear of fumigant and given a "Gas Free"certificate.

BUILDING FUMIGATION (BY SEALING)This essentially is a modification of vault fumigation.

The entire structure becomes a fumigation vault. Byusing this method, only those building contents whichwould be damaged by the fumigant need to be moved.Incidental control of non-target pests is usually obtained.Less material is needed to make the structure air-tight,but this advantage is usually offset by the labor requiredto find and seal gas leaks. The building is usually easilyaerated. Exterior shrubbery usually does not need to bemoved.

There are also many disadvantages. The occupantsmust be moved from the structure. Items that may bedamaged by the fumigant must be moved from thestructure. As the fumigant may diffuse through the walls,it may be difficult to maintain the required gasconcentration. Insects in the exterior walls may not bekilled as the gas concentration may be too low to be

effective. Gas concentration gas leads must be runthroughout the structure. It may be difficult to computethe cube of the structure. It is very easy to overlookvents, cracks, conduits, etc., that may permit the escapeof gas. In the past, HCN was the fumigant mostcommonly used in this type of fumigation.

PREMISES INSPECTIONOnce it appears to you that fumigation will be required

to control a pest problem, you must make a seriouson-site inspection. You must ask yourself a number ofquestions and make a number of decisions. Frequently,the success or failure of the fumigation operation willdepend upon what you learn, what you decide, and howyou plan. Some of the questions should include: If thestructure itself is not infested, could the infested items orcommodity be moved from the building and be fumigatedelsewhere? Assuming that removal of the infested itemsfrom the building is not practical, can you fumigant themin place? Is there enough room between the commodityand walls or partitions so that you can seal the tarp to thefloor? What is the volume of the commodity? What is thevolume of the building? Can the structure itself be madereasonably airtight, or will it be necessary to tarp theentire building?

From what construction materials is the structure built?(Fumigants will pass through cinder block with nodifficulty). Are there broken windows that must bereplaced? Are there cracks in the ceiling, walls or floorsthat must be sealed? Are there floor drains, sewer pipesor cable conduits that will require sealing? There havebeen a number of fumigation failures because floor drainsunder stacked commodities went unnoticed. In onceinstance, the fumigant leaked into a telephone cabletunnel which lead to an occupied building. No loss of lifeoccurred, but a number of people were made ill.How are you going to handle air conditioning ducts andventilation fans. Are there fireplaces, flues, stove pipes?Will interior partitions interfere with fumigantcirculation? Are the interior partitions gaslight so thatthey can be relied upon to keep the fumigant fromentering other parts of the structure?

Are there parts of the building not under the controlof your customer? Can these other operations be shutdown during the fumigation? What are the buildingcontents? Can any of them be damaged by the fumigant?Can such items be removed during fumigation? If theycannot be removed, can they be otherwise protected?

Where are the gas cut-offs? Where are the pilot lights?Where are the electrical outlets? Of what voltage arethey? Will the circuits be live during fumigation? Can theoutlets be used to operate your fumigant circulating fans?

Look outside the building. If you tarp the entirestructure, can you make a good, tight ground seal? Isthere shrubbery next to the building that might bedamaged either by the fumigant, or by your digging tomake an airtight fumigation seal? Can this shrubbery bemoved? How far is it to the nearest building? Does thatbuilding have air conditioning? Does it have air intakes

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that could draw the fumigation inside - particularlyduring aeration?

How are you going to aerate your structure afterfumigation? Are there exhaust fans, and where are the fanswitches? Are there windows and doors that can beopened for cross ventilation? Does the building containany high priority items that may have to be shippedwithin a few hours notice? If so, can you make provisionsfor interrupting the fumigation and aerating the buildingwithin a certain time requirement?

Is the structure to be fumigated located so that youroperations may attract bystanders? (If so, you shouldconsider asking for police assistance to augment yourown guards.) Where is the nearest medical facility? Whatis the telephone number of the nearest poison controlcenter?

Once you are convinced that you have coveredeverything, prepare a checklist of things to do and ofmaterials needed. Don't rely upon your memory. Thenfinally, two questions: What have I overlooked? Isfumigation still the best method of controlling the pestproblem?

TARPAULIN FUMIGATIONTarpaulin fumigation involves the placement of a

gaslight material over the commodity or structure to befumigated. The tarps may be specially made forfumigation, such as impregnated nylon, or they may besheet polyethylene. Impregnated nylon tarps may beused again and again as they are very strong and resistripping. Many sections of impregnated nylon tarps can beclamped together, so there is no limit as to the sizeof the stack or structure that may be covered.Polyethylene tarps can be used in thicknesses from 1 ½mil up to 6 mil. The thinner material can be used butonce, and is for indoor work. Four and six mil materialcan be used outdoors, and if you are lucky, the 6 milmaterial can be reused. As clear polyethylene breaksdown in sunlight, black polyethylene films may be usedoutdoors. It is normal to use gas impervious adhesivetape instead of clamps to join various sections ofpolyethylene film together. In addition to considering thematerial for use for tarpaulin fumigation, considerationmust be given to the method of obtaining a ground seal.If they are smooth, concrete and asphaltic surfaces aresatisfactory. Wood surfaces are not. With wood, andfrequently with soil surfaces, it is necessary to place asection of the tarp material beneath the stack as well asover it.

There are several methods of obtaining a good groundseal. Of course, you must allow enough tarp material toskirt out from the stack. This should extend outward atleast 18 inches. Then loose sand, sand snakes, or watersnakes are used to hold the skirt to the ground surface.Snakes are merely tubes of cloth or plastic filled about3/4 full with sand or water. Don't fill them too full orthere will not be enough ground contact to make a goodseal. A word of caution about using water snakes. If thefloor is not level, the water will run to one end and the

seal will be poor. The snakes should overlap each otherby about 1 ½ feet. Sometimes it is easier to use adhesivetape and make a direct seal to the floor. In this case,snakes are not needed. Occasionally, you may find astack placed too close to a wall to obtain a good groundseal. If the wall is reasonably impervious, the tarp may besealed directly to the wall.

IndoorsIf it is determined that a stack of items is infested and

requires fumigation, it is best to conduct the operationindoors. Indoors, the stack is protected from wind andrain. If, for safety or other reasons, the storage area is notsuited for fumigation, it is better to move the commodityto another indoor location rather than to fumigateoutdoors. This you will have determined when you firstinspected the structure. The commodity to be fumigatedshould be on pallets. With most fumigants, it will benecessary to keep all persons not connected with thefumigation operation out of the area where thefumigation is being conducted. If partition walls are notimpervious to the fumigant, the entire building will haveto be evacuated. If you are using aluminum phosphide,these restrictions are not so rigid. With aluminumphosphide, after the fumigant is introduced, work cancontinue in the area as long as you are sure that there isno fumigant leakage. Of course, warning signs will beposted on the stack.

If you are using any fumigant except aluminumphosphide, you will have to erect tarp supports which areone to two feet higher than the stacked commodity.This is to make certain that there will be adequatecirculation of the gas during the initial stages of thefumigation. The gas introduction tubes should then besecured to the top of one of the supports. A pan or otherdevice should then be placed beneath the gas introductionoutlet to protect the commodity from any liquid fumigant.Next, all of the corners must be well padded to preventthe tarp from tearing. The lighter the polyethylene tarp,the more chance there is for tears. If the stack is large,non-springing fans must be so placed that gas circulationwill be assured. These fans must be run for one-half toone hour after the introduction of the fumigant. You mustalso run tubing from various positions in the stack(usually, one located high in the stack, one at anintermediate location, and one at a low location) to theposition where you will be sampling the gasconcentration. After all of this is done, the tarp can beplaced and sealed to the floor. Because of the molecularactivity of hydrogen phosphide, the air dome, tubing andfans are not necessary if you are using aluminumphosphide. Of course, you will have to obtain the cube ofthe space beneath the tarp so that you can calculate theamount of fumigant to use.

OutdoorsThe same principles as stated above apply to

fumigation outdoors. The difference is that thefumigation tarpaulin must be of a stronger material. If

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polyethylene film is used, it must be at least four milthick. Six mil material is better. Clear polyethylene tendsto become brittle from ultraviolet rays of the sun. If thepolyethylene tarp is to be kept in place after thefumigation is completed, or if it is planned to reuse thetarp, black polyethylene should be considered for use.Black polyethylene is more resistant to the effects ofsunlight. There is, however, some danger in using blackpolyethylene. If the tarp spans several stacks, it mayconceal gaps between stacks, or other voids, andpersonnel working on top of the tarp may fall through. Iffumigation has begun, such a fall could be fatal.

It is more difficult to obtain a good ground sealoutdoors. It may even be necessary to place a layer ofloose sand on the skirt to obtain any sort of a good seal.Additional, steps will have to be taken to protect againstunanticipated bad weather (if you know that the weatherwill be stormy, delay fumigation). Place braces over thestack (but under the tarp) so that rain will not accumulatein any low spot. Also place weighted ropes (sandbagsmake good weights) over the tarp as protection againstwind. If the tarp bridges stacks, workers will have to bevery careful not to fall through the void while they areworking atop the stacks. The black polyethylene is nottransparent.

Entire structureThis type of tarpaulin fumigation is normally reserved

for the control of dry-wood termites or wood-boringbeetles. The fumigants normally used are sulfurylfluoride (Vikane) or methyl bromide. HCN is alsoregistered for this purpose, but because of betterpenetration and increased safety, sulfuryl fluoride ormethyl bromide is preferred.

Items which could be damaged by the fumigant mustbe removed. Building occupants will have to beevacuated for the entire fumigation and aeration period.All pilot lights, flames, and electrical appliances willhave to be turned off. Tubing for drawing air sampleswill have to be placed at several places within thestructure. It is well to introduce the fumigant into thestructure at several locations. Non-sparking electric fansshould be placed so the fumigant will be circulatedthroughout the structure for one-half to one hour after theintroduction of the fumigant.

If methyl bromide is used, it should be the formulationcontaining 2 percent chloropicrin. If sulfuryl fluoride isused, chloropicrin should be introduced into the structure15 minutes before the sulfuryl fluoride is introduced. (Tointroduce the chloropicrin, place a handful of cotton in ashallow dish and set the dish in the air stream of one ofthe electric fans. Pour chloropicrin over the cotton. Useone ounce of chloropicrin for each 10,000 to 15,000cubic feet of space to be fumigated.)

If ornamental vegetation is too close to the structure topermit the tarpaulin to be sealed to the ground, thevegetation will have to be moved. All edges of thestructure which could puncture or tear the tarpaulin willhave to be well padded. From a worker safety standpoint,

they should wear shoes with non-skid surfaces, and allladders should be strong and braced. Tarp sections thenmay be carried to the roof top for further assembly.

The edges of adjacent tarp sections are rolled togetherand clamped. Clamps can be used with polyethylene, butadhesive polyethylene tape may be better. Once enoughsections have been joined, the completed tarp can bedropped over the side of the structure and any additionalclamping or taping completed. If the building top is flat,sand snakes should be used to hold down the tarps. If theroof is peaked, weighted ropes should be thrown over thetarp to prevent the tarp from billowing. Excessivebillowing of the tarp can ruin a fumigation job, and allpossible measures should be taken to prevent this fromoccurring. The tarp should be drawn as close to thebuilding as possible. If a high capacity electric fan isplaced in one doorway and directed outward, a partialvacuum will be created and will draw the tarp against thestructure. The excess tarp material at the corners of thestructure then can be drawn together and taped down. Asin any fumigation, the ground seal is very important. Theground should be level and devoid of vegetation. If thesoil is porous, the soil around the perimeter of thebuilding should be soaked with water to prevent escapeof the fumigant through the soil. The tarp skirt must be atleast 24 inches and weighed down by an ample amount ofloose sand. If sand snakes are used, they should bedoubled or tripled. The ground seal must be weighteddown enough to withstand any unexpected wind.

!A sample checklist for fumigation preparation is givenunder the section on PREMISES INSPECTION.!A sample checklist for clearing a building afterfumigation is given under the section on AERATIONPROCEDURES.

SPOT OR LOCAL FUMIGATIONFumigants, both spot and local, are used in many flour

mills, mix plants, and some packaging operations for theprevention of insect development inside processingequipment. Spot and local fumigants are highly toxic andmust be handled with extreme care. Magnesiumphosphide converts rapidly to Phosphine gas and may beused for spot or local fumigation. This material must beapplied to mill equipment by trained, certified personnel.Application requirements and equipment required formagnesium phosphide are the same as those foraluminum phosphide.

GENERAL FUMIGATIONS (MILLS)Preparations must be made before the plant is shut

down. In the mills, the feed should be cut and the millallowed to run for 30 to 45 minutes to remove as muchstock as possible. During the period, rubber malletsshould be used to tap on spouting, elevator legs, andsifters to loosen as much residual stock as possible.Outlet channels in sifters should be checked at this timeto make sure none are blocked or choked. Boots andother machinery containing stack stock are not cleaned

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out prior to the fumigation.A notice is placed on the plant bulletin board a few

days in advance of the fumigation to advise employees ofthe date, time and length of fumigation, and to advisethem that they are not to enter the plant under anycircumstances while it is under fumigation.

After shut-down, all dust collector vents should besealed using polyethylene sheeting or large plastic bags.On pneumatic mills, or where filters are used, a damperor a series of slide values are usually located in the airdischarge system. It is important to close dust collectorsand filter vents to contain the fumigant within themachinery. Thermal currents and drafts can makefumigation a total failure as vapors may be discharged tothe atmosphere before reaching a killing concentration.

All windows must be closed and sealed, the fire doorsbetween floors sealed, and all outside doors must beclosed and sealed. Warning signs must be placed on eachexterior entry door. Other doors, which can only beopened from the inside must be securely fastened orlocked. Local codes may require you to notify fire andpolice departments, as well as any alarm services. Somelabels now require a guard to be posted.

When it is necessary during the winter months to checkthe operation of the boilers, the outside entrance to theboiler room must be used rather than entering through asection of the plant under fumigation. Warning signsmust be place on the doors which connect the boilerroom to the plant.

The length of exposure time is important for aneffective fumigation. Follow the label instructions onyour fumigant container. Exposure periods of less thanlabel instructions are not effective. At least two hoursbefore any employee is allowed to enter the plant, anemployee wearing a gas mask opens the doors, opens thenecessary windows and dust collector vents to allow anyremaining fumigant to dissipate. The warning signs arethen removed from the exterior doors. Exhaust fans arethen started. The mill machinery is not cleaned prior tostartup.

These are a few basic rules that must be followed incarrying out a fumigation:

!At least two certified employees must be present;never attempt to do a fumigation alone.!The applicators must wear gas masks fitted withcorrect vapor canisters specified for the fumigant used.!The applicators must remain on the same floor at thesame time or be within sight or hearing distance ofeach other.

Before anyone uses a gas mask, the mask inspectionlog must be checked. This will tell you when the maskwas last cleaned, inspected, and the canister installationdate. The tape on the bottom of the mask canisterprotects the canister while it is in storage. The date thatthis canister was first used has been entered in the spaceprovided on the reverse label.

Remember, your safety is of prime importance to you,your family and your employer. Be sure to follow these

instructions on every fumigation, so that it is both safeand effective.

AERATION OR VENTILATION OF FUMIGANTSAeration procedures vary according to the fumigant

being used, the type of installation being fumigated andthe items being fumigated. Because of these factors, oneshould always read and follow the label instructions forthe fumigant and situation for which it is being used.

FACTORS AFFECTING AERATION TIMEIn addition to the characteristics of the fumigant itself,

the rate of ventilation or aeration is affected by severalfactors. The more important of these are the rate of airexchange, the temperature, the amount of sorption andthe rate of desorption.

Rate of air exchangeThe rate of air exchange within the structure or area

fumigated is the most important factor affecting aeration.The exchange rate will be proportional to wind velocitythrough the area and size and arrangement of the gasses.When the conditions for mixing the old gas with new airare good, the exchange of one volume of air will reducethe fumigant concentration by one-half. The time for thisreduction to occur is referred to as "half loss time"(HLT). In atmospheric chambers an exchange time of 1air change per minute is desirable. In other areas, themost effective practical method is to increase crossventilation. Fans (non-sparking) are useful for thispurpose as well as to stir up the air in "pockets" or "deadspaces." Loaded areas aerate much more slowly thanempty areas.

TemperatureTemperature affects the clearance rate of a fumigant

because higher temperatures favor the diffusion of thefumigant and the rate of desorption. In aeration of areasusing cold outside air in the colder months of the year therate of diffusion and desorption is slowed down requiringlonger aeration time. In some cases it may be necessaryto close up the area and reheat it to 76° F (24° C) andthen to repeat the aeration process in order tosatisfactorily remove the fumigant.

Sorption and desorptionThe amount of fumigant absorbed by the materials in

the area fumigated is referred to as the "load factor." Thisabsorbed fumigant is not available to act as a fumigant,but must be removed in the aeration process. Somecommodities are much more sorptive that others just assome fumigants are much more subject to sorption thanothers. The greater the sorptive capacity of the fumigantand the item fumigated, the longer the desorption processand the greater the aeration time needed.

Also, the greater the surface area of the items beingfumigated the greater the sorption rate and the longer theaeration period needed for desorption. For example,sulfuryl fluoride aerates much more rapidly than HCN

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and open machinery much faster than bagged flour.Because of the slow desorption rate of grain, it is usuallyadvisable to hold it an additional 24 hours after thesatisfactory aeration period. Particular attention must begiven to retention of fumigant gas by highly sorptivematerials such as flour, meals and jute bags.

AERATION PROCEDURESProcedures for aeration or ventilation will vary with

the fumigant and the area and items fumigated. Plans foraeration should be made before starting thefumigation.

Building ventilationPlans for opening doors, windows and ventilators for

the initial ventilation are of particular importance.Whenever possible, ground floor windows and doorsshould be opened form the outside. Aeration should takeplace for at least 30 minutes to 1 hour before entry anduntil detectors indicate safe working levels with gasmasks.

At the beginning of the aeration, the building should beentered for only short periods of time. At least twofumigators, wearing previously tested air supplyrespirators or (SCBA) should enter. Doors and windowson the first floor should be opened first, particularly ifnone have previously been opened from the outside. Allwindows should not be opened on a particular floor at thetime, but only those providing thorough cross ventilation.The fumigators should then return to the outside. Ifground floor ventilation occurred before entry, theyshould work upward floor by floor, opening thosewindows necessary for cross ventilation. They should notremain in the building longer than 15 minutes. Fans(non-sparking) should be turned on and allowed to rununtil aeration is complete.

After the building has been partially aerated, twofumigators in gas masks should open as many of theremaining windows as needed to complete the aeration.They should leave every 15 minutes or so for fresh airand ventilate the basement.

No one should be allowed inside without a gas maskuntil all parts of the building have been checked with adetector indication no fumigant vapors remain.

Flush toilets, dispose of any quantities of fluid such asfire pails.

Test with detectors in closets, stacked commodities,etc. to make certain no gas remains. Usually after 2 or 3

hours aeration, the building can return to normaloperation. Check it first.

TarpaulinsWhen aerating loads under tarps, in buildings, or on

still, humid days, an opening should be made be liftingthe tarp on the end opposite the blower or source of airand discharging the fumigant with a blower near theoutside opening. If blowers or strong cross ventilation isnot used, lift tarp at corners and raise as concentration islowered and finally they can be completely removed.Respirators or gas masks should be used. Occupants,other then fumigation operators, should vacate thebuilding before tarps are aerated.

If aeration is in the open and the breeze is blowing, theend or side of the tarp opposite the direction of windmovement should be lifted first, then the portion of thetarp on the windward side may be opened safely. If thefirst opening is on the windward side, fumigant vaporswill be forced backward and may endanger operators.

Fumigation chambersFree gas should be released and commodities aerated

immediately following fumigation. It is important toconsider and protect human health at all times. When afumigation chamber is inside a packing house or anyother enclosure where employees are likely to be present,intake and exhaust stacks should be provided.

The exhaust stack must lead outside the building. Theintake and exhaust stacks should be opened after thefumigation exposure is completed. The normal aircirculation equipment in a chamber can be made toconduct air from the chamber to the outside.

When a chamber is outside a building, it may beaerated safely by opening the door slightly at thebeginning of the aeration period and turning the bloweron. The door should be held in the partially openedposition so it cannot accidentally close. Air dischargedfrom the blower should be vented to the outside of thechamber. If the door should accidentally close, the partialvacuum created by the blower may damage the chamber.

No one should remain near the door or the exhaustwhen the blower is turned on. The doors may be fullyopened after about 15 minutes, but employees should notenter the chamber until it has been aerated for at least 30minutes and checked with a halide detector.