fukushima daiichi nuclear power plant

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Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

This report gives a comprehensive assessment of the hazards of operational reactors, new'evolutionary' designs and future reactor concepts. It also addresses the risks associated with

the management of spent nuclear fuel. The first part of the report describes the characteristics

and inherent flaws of the main reactor designs in operation today; the second part assesses the

risks associated to new designs; the third part the 'ageing' of operational reactors; the fourth

part the

terrorist threat to nuclear power and the fifth and final part the risks associated with climate

change impacts such as flooding on nuclear power.

The main conclusions are:

All operational reactors have very serious inherent safety flaws which cannot be

Eliminated by safety upgrading;

A major accident in a light-water reactor the large majority of the reactors can lead

to radioactive releases equivalent to several times the release at Chernobyl and about

1000 times that released by a fission weapon. Relocation of the population can

become necessary for large areas (up to 100.000 km2). The number of cancer deaths

could exceed 1 million;

New reactor lines are envisaged which are heralded as fundamentally safe. However,

apart from having their own specific safety problems, those new reactors would

require enormous sums for their development, with uncertain outcome;

The average age of the world's reactors is 21 years and many countries are planning to

extend the lifetime of their reactors beyond the original design lifetime. This leads to the

degradation of critical components and the increase of severe incidents. The age-related

degradation mechanisms are not well understood and difficult to predict;

De-regulation (liberalisation) of electricity markets has pushed nuclear utilities to

decrease safety-related investments and limit staff. Utilities are also upgrading their

reactors by increasing reactor pressure and operational temperature and the burn-up of

the fuel. This accelerates ageing and decreases safety margins. Nuclear regulators are

not always able to fully cope with this new regime;

Highly radioactive spent fuel mostly is stored employing active cooling. If this fails,

this could lead to a major release of radioactivity, far more important than the 1986


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Chernobyl accident;

Reactors cannot be sufficiently protected against a terrorist threat. There are several

scenario'saside from a crash of an airliner on the reactor building which could

Lead to a major accident;

Climate change impacts, such as flooding, sea level rises and extreme droughts,

seriously increase nuclear risks.

INTRODUCTION:

This project mainly focuses on the nuclear disasters like equipment failures, nuclear

meltdowns, and the release of radioactive materials at the Fukushima nuclear power plant due

to the earthquake and tsunami on11 march 2011. This is maintained by Tokyo electric power

company (TEPCO). This disaster is the largest nuclear accident occurred in Japan since 1986.On March 11, the largest earthquake on record struck Japan and generated a thirty-foot

tsunami that inundated the country's northeast coast. The death toll is estimated at over

thirteen thousand with thousands more missing, and the country is grappling with power

shortages, search and rescue efforts, and the need to provide shelter and other services for

victims. The disaster also caused a set of catastrophic events at the Fukushima Daiichi

nuclear plant. Over one hundred thousand people have been evacuated in the area

surrounding the plant; some are already suffering from radiation exposure. Several powerful

aftershocks have complicated search and rescue efforts and hampered official efforts atbringing the nuclear situation under control. The triple-fold crisis has ignited debate over the

prospects for the Japanese economy and has significant implications for the future of nuclear

power in Japan and around the world.

TheaccidentattheFukushimaDaiichinuclearpowerstationinJapanisoneofthemostseriousincomm

ercialnuclearpowerplantoperatinghistory.MuchwillbelearnedthatmaybeapplicabletotheU.S.rea

ctorfleet,nuclearfuelcyclefacilities,andsupportingsystems,andtheinternationalreactorfleet.Fore

xample,lessonsfromFukushimaDaiichimaybeappliedtoemergencyresponseplanning,reactorop

eratortraining,accidentscenariomodeling,humanfactorsengineering,radiationprotection,andacc

identmitigation;aswellasinfluenceU.S.policiestowardsthenuclearfuelcycleincludingpowergene

ration,andspentfuelstorage,reprocessing,anddisposal.TheNRCandDOENEhaveagreedtojointly

sponsoranaccidentreconstructionstudyasameansofassessingsevereaccidentmodelingcapability.

TheleadNRCofficewillbetheOfficeofNuclearRegulatoryResearchandtheleadDOENEofficewill

betheOfficeofNuclearReactorTechnologies.Thestudyteamwillincludesubjectmatterexpertsfro

m:ArgonneNationalLaboratory(ANL)IdahoNationalLaboratory(INL)OakRidgeNationalLa

boratory(ORNL)SandiaNationalLaboratory(SNL)TheoveralleffortwillbeledbySNL.Thisjoint

studyisconductedundertheauthorityoftheMemorandumofUnderstandingbetweentheU.S.NRCa

ndU.S.DOEonCooperativeNuclearSafetyResearch,datedApril22,2009.


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PURPOSE AND SCOPE:

MAIN OBJECTIVES:

Company Background:

The Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant ,is a disabled nuclear power plant located on a 3.5-

square-kilometre (860-acre) in the towns ofOkuma and Futaba in the Futaba

District ofFukushima Prefecture, Japan. It was first commissioned in 1971, the plant consists

of six boiling water reactors .These light water reactors drove electrical generators with a

combined power of 4.7 GWe. The Fukushima Daiichi is one of the 15 largest nuclear power

stations in the world. Fukushima I was the first nuclear plant to be constructed and run

entirely by theTokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). The plant suffered major

damage from the 9.0 earthquake and subsequent tsunami that hit Japan on March 11, 2011

and is not expected to reopen. The earthquake and tsunami disabled the reactor coolingsystems, leading to nuclear radiation leaks and triggering a 30 km evacuation zone

surrounding the plant. On April 20, 2011, the Japanese authorities declared the 20 km

evacuation zone a no-go area which may only be entered under government supervision.

The Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant, or Fukushima Dai-ni, is located to the south and also

run by TEPCO.

ISSUES AND PROBLEMS:

On 11 March 2011 an earthquake categorised as 9.0 MWon the moment magnitudescale occurred at 14:46 Japan Standard Time (JST) off the northeast coast ofJapan. Units 4, 5

and 6 had been shut down prior to the earthquake for planned maintenance. The remaining

reactors were shut down automatically after the earthquake, and the remaining decay heat of

the fuel was being cooled with power from emergency generators. The subsequent

destructive tsunami with waves of up to 14 meters (the reactors were designed to handle up to

5,7 meters) disabled emergency generators required to cool the reactors. Over the following

three weeks there was evidence of partial nuclear meltdowns in units 1, 2 and 3: visible

explosions, suspected to be caused by hydrogen gas, in units 1 and 3; a suspected explosion

in unit 2, that may have damaged the primary containment vessel; and a possible uncovering

of the units 1, 3 and 4 spent fuel pools. Radiation releases caused large evacuations, concern

about food and water supplies, and treatment of nuclear workers.

The events at units 1, 2 and 3 have been rated at Level 7 (major release of radioactive

material with widespread health and environmental effects requiring implementation of

planned and extended countermeasures) on the International Nuclear Event Scale, and those

at unit 4 as Level 3 (Serious Incident) events.

On 3 April 2011, two bodies were discovered in the basement turbine room most likely

because the workers ran there during the tsunami.

Meltdown

On 12 May, TEPCO engineers confirmed that a meltdown occurred, with molten fuel having fallen tothe bottom of the reactor's containment vessel.[163]

The utility said that fuel rods of the No. 1 reactor
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are fully exposed, with the water level 1 meter (3.3 feet) below the base of the fuel assembly.

According to a Japanese press report, there are holes in the base of the pressure vessel, and most of

the fuel has probably melted. The nuclear fuel has possibly leaked into the containment vessel, which

was damaged in an explosion during the crisis. This caused both the Japanese government and

TEPCO to be criticized for consistently underestimating the severity of the situation.[164]

The operator

found the basement flooded with 4.2 meters of water. Workers were unable to observe the flooding

situation due to high levels of radiation from the water.

TEPCO estimates the nuclear fuel was exposed to the air less than five hours after the earthquake

struck. Fuel rods melted away rapidly as the temperature inside the core reached 2,800 C within six

hours. In less than 16 hours, the reactor core melted and dropped to the bottom of the pressure

vessel, burning a hole through the vessel. By that time, water was pumped into the reactor in an effort

to prevent the worst-case scenario overheating fuel melting its way through the containment and

discharging large amounts of radionuclides in the environment.[165]

In June the Japanese government

confirmed that Unit 1 reactor vessel containment was breached, and pumped cooling water continues

to leak months after the disaster.[14]

Cascade of failures

[edit]Regulation

Nuclear opposition protesting following the disaster

Regulatory capturemay have contributed to the cascade of failures which were revealed after the

tsunami receded. Regulatory capture may have also contributed to the current situation. Critics argue

that the government shares blame with regulatory agency for not heeding warnings, for not ensuring

the independence of the nuclear industry's oversight while encouraging the expansion of nuclear

energy domestically and internationally.[264]

World media have argued that the Japanese nuclear

regulatory system tends to side with and promote the nuclear industry because ofamakudari(roughly

translated as descent from heaven), in which senior regulators accept high paying jobs at the

companies they once oversaw. To protect their potential future position in the industry, regulators

seek to avoid taking positions that upset or embarrass the utilities they regulate. TEPCO's position as

the largest electrical utility in Japan led it to be the most desirable position for retiring regulators,

typically the "most senior officials went to work at Tepco, while those of lower ranks ended up at

smaller utilities" according to the New York Times.[265]
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In August 2011, several top energy officials were fired by the Japanese government; affected

positions included the Vice-minister for Economy, Trade and Industry; the head of the Nuclear and

Industrial Safety Agency, and the head of the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.[266]

[edit]Accident rating

Comparison of radiation levels for different nuclear events.

The severity of the nuclear accident is provisionally[267]

rated 7 on theInternational Nuclear Event

Scale(INES). This scale runs from 0, indicating an abnormal situation with no safety consequences,

to 7, indicating an accident causing widespread contamination with serious health and environmental

effects. Prior to Fukushima, theChernobyl disasterwas the only level 7 accident on record, while

theThree Mile Island accidentwas a level 5 accident.Arnold Gundersen, a former nuclear power

industry executive who served as an expert witness in the investigation of theThree Mile Island

accident, said that "Fukushima is the biggest industrial catastrophe in the history of

mankind."[268][269][neutralityisdisputed]

TheJapan Atomic Energy Agencyinitially rated the situation at Unit 1 below both of these previous

accidents; on 13 March it announced it was classifying the event at level 4, an "accident with local

consequences".[270]

On 18 March it raised its rating on Units 1, 2 and 3 to Level 5, an "accident with

wider consequences". It classified the situation at Unit 4 as a level 3 "serious incident".[271]

Several parties disputed the Japanese classifications, arguing that the situation was more severe than

they were admitting at the time. On 14 March, three Russian experts stated that the nuclear accident

should be classified at Level 5, perhaps even Level 6.[272]

One day later, the French nuclear safety

authority ASN said that the Fukushima plant could be classified as a Level 6.[273]

as of 18 March,

theFrench nuclear authorityand as of 15 March, theFinnish nuclear safety authorityestimated the

accidents at Fukushima to be at Level 6 on the INES.[274][275]

On 24 March, a scientific consultant for

noted anti-nuclear environmental groupGreenpeace, working with data from the

AustrianZAMG[276]

and FrenchIRSN, prepared an analysis in which he rated the total Fukushima

accident at INES level 7.[277]

Radiation releases during the initial hydrogen explosions.
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TheAsahi Shimbunnewspaper reported on 26 March that the accident might warrant level 6, based

on its calculations.[278]

The Wall Street Journalstated that Japan's NISA would make any decision on

raising the level.[279]

INES level 6, or "serious accident", had only been applied to theKyshtym

disaster(Soviet Union, 1957), while the only level 7 was Chernobyl (Soviet Union, 1986). Previous

level 5 accidents included theWindscale fire(United Kingdom, 1957); theLucens

reactor(Switzerland, 1969); Three Mile Island (United States, 1979); and theGoinia accident(Brazil,

1987).

Assessing "seriousness" as partial or full meltdown at a civilian plant, The New York Timesreported

on 3 April that based on remote sensing, computer "simulations suggest that the number of serious

accidents has suddenly doubled, with three of the reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi complex in some

stage of meltdown." The Timescounted three previous civilian meltdowns, fromWorld Nuclear

Associationinformation: Three Mile Island;Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant(France, 1980, INES

level 4); and Chernobyl.[280]

On 11 April, the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) temporarily raised the

disaster at Fukushima Daiichi to Level 7 on the INES scale, by considering the whole event and notconsidering each reactor as an individual event per se (rated between 3 and 5). This would make

Fukushima the second Level 7 "major accident" in the history of the nuclear industry; having said that,

radiation released as a result of the events at Fukushima was, as of 12 April, only approximately 10%

of that released as a result of the accident at Chernobyl (1986), also rated as INES Level

7.[267][281]

However, the largest study, as of 21 October 2011, on Fukushima fallout concludes that

Fukushima was "the largest radioactive noble gas release in history not related to nuclear bomb

testing. The release is a factor of 2.5 higher than the Chernobyl 133Xe source term."[282][283]

Arnold

Gundersensaid Fukushima has 20 times the potential to be released than Chernobyl. Hot spots are

being found 60 to 70 kilometres away from the reactor (further away than they were found from

Chernobyl), and the amount of radiation in many of them is the amount that caused areas to be

declared no-man's-land for Chernobyl.[284]

In off-the-record-interviews with Japanese newspapers like the Tokyo Shimbun, Naoto Kan, former

premier minister of Japan, revealed that there were moments he believed the disaster could have

surpassed Chernobyl, many times. At first Tepco denied that fuel-cores were melted, after all cooling

functions were lost. Trade minister, Banri Kaieda, mentioned that Tepco seriously considered pulling

away all staff-members from the plant and leaving it abandoned. Kan could not accept this:

"Withdrawing from the plant was out of the question, If that had happened, Tokyo would be deserted

by now. It was a critical moment for Japan's survival. It could have been a led to leaks of dozens of

times more radiation than Chernobyl." That might have "compromised the very existence of the

Japanese nation".[citation needed]

Tepco's president at that time, Masataka Shimizu, was never clear in his answers, and TEPCO failed

to obey the orders to vent one of the overheating reactors, In an interview to the Asahi Shimbun

newspaper. Kan revealed, that he went to the plant itself and inspected the plant from above in a

helicopter because: "I felt I had to go there in person and speak to the people in charge or I would

never have known what was going on." The American Government was seriously concerned about

the Japanese response to the accident: Kan said: "We were not told straight out, but it was obvious

that they questioned whether we were really taking this seriously."[citation needed]

Kan did defend his changed attitude to a non-nuclear energy policy with the following remarks: "If

there is a risk of accidents that could make half the land mass of our country uninhabitable, then we

cannot afford to take that risk."

[285]
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7/13

[edit]Casualties

Major news source reporting at least 2 TEPCO employees confirmed dead from "disaster conditions"

following the earthquake.[286]

"The two workers, aged 21 and 24, sustained multiple external injuries

and were believed to have died from blood loss, TEPCO said. Their bodies were decontaminated as

radiation has been spewing from the plant for three weeks."

[287]

45 patients were reported dead after the evacuation of a hospital inFutaba. Some of them "were

suffering from dehydration because they had not eaten anything for three days".[288]

The Associated Press has reported that fourteen senior citizens died after being moved from their

hospital which was in the Fukushima plant evacuation zone.[289]

According to the Japanese Government, over 160,000 people in the general population were

screened in March 2011 for radiation exposure and no case was found which affects health.[290]

Thirty

workers conducting operations at the plant had exposure levels greater than 100 mSv.[291]

In April 2011, the United States Department of Energy published projections of the radiation risks over

the next year for people living in the neighborhood of the plant. Potential exposure could exceed20 mSv/year (2 rems/year) in some areas up to 50 kilometers from the plant. That is the level at which

relocation would be considered in the USA, and it is a level that could cause roughly one extra cancer

case in 500 young adults. However, natural radiation levels are higher in some part of the world than

the projected level mentioned above, and about 4 people out of 10 can be expected to develop

cancer without exposure to radiation.[292][293]

Further, the radiation exposure resulting from the

accident for most people living in Fukushima is so small compared to background radiation that it may

be impossible to find statistically significant evidence of increases in cancer.[294]

As of September 2011, six workers at the Fukushima Daiichi site have exceeded lifetime legal limits

for radiation and more than 300 have received significant radiation doses.[295]

As of September 2011, there were no deaths or serious injuries due to direct radiation exposures.

Cancer deaths due to accumulated radiation exposures cannot be ruled out, and according to one

expert, might be in the order of 100 cases.[296]

Frank N. von Hippel, a U.S. scientist, has estimated that on the order of 1,000 people will die from

cancer as a result of their exposure to radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi disaster, that is, an

increase of 0.1 percent in the incidence of cancer, and much less than the approximately 20,000

people killed directly by the earthquake and tsunami. Because contaminated milk was interdicted in

Japan the number of (mostly non-fatal) thyroid cancer cases will probably be less than 1 percent of

similar cases at Chernobyl. Von Hippel added that fear of ionizing radiation could have long-term

psychological effects on a large portion of the population in the contaminated areas.[21]

[edit]Investigations

On 7 June 2011 a government-appointed committee of 10 people convened to investigate the

accident. The panel was headed by Yotaro Hatamura, professor emeritus of theUniversity of Tokyo,

and includedYukio Takasu, Michio Furukawa, the mayor ofKawamata, Fukushima, and author Kunio

Yanagida, considered an expert on crisis management.[297][298]

As part of the government inquiry, theHouse of Representatives of Japan's special science

committee directed TEPCO to submit to them its manuals and procedures for dealing with reactor

accidents. TEPCO responded by submitting manuals with most of the text blotted out. In response,

theNuclear and Industrial Safety Agencyordered TEPCO to resubmit the manuals by 28 September

2011 without hiding any of the content. TEPCO replied that it would comply with the order.[299]
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8/13

On 24 OctoberNISApublished a large portion of Tokyo Electric Power Company's procedural

manuals for nuclear accidents. These were the manuals that the operator of the Fukushima Daiichi

nuclear power plant earlier did sent to the Lower House with most of the contents blacked out, saying

that this information should be kept secret to protect its intellectual property rights, and that disclosure

would offer information to possible terrorists. NISA ordered TEPCO to sent the manuals without any

redaction, as the law orders. 200 pages were released from the accident procedural manuals used for

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. All their contents were published, only the names of

individuals were left out.

From these documents could be concluded:

TEPCO did not make sufficient preparations to cope with critical nuclear accidents.

After the batteries and power supply boards were inundated on 11 March, almost all electricity

sources were lost

TEPCO did not envision such a power failure or any kind of prolonged power loss.

TEPCO thought that in a serious incident, venting pressure in the reactor containment vessels or

carrying out other safety procedures would still be possible, because emergency power sources

would still be available.

The agency said, the decision to publish the manuals was taken, for transparency in the search what

caused the nuclear accident in Fukushim and also to establish better safety measures for the

future.[300]

On 24 October 2011 the first meeting was held by a group of 6 nuclear energy specialists invited

byNISAto dicuss the lessons to be learned from the accidents in Fukushima. Their first remarks

were:

Japanese nuclear power plants should have multiple power sources plants should be able to maintain electricity during an earthquake or other emergencies

TEPCO should examine why the equipment failed to work and should take appropriate actions to

prevent such failures in the future

According to professor Tadashi Narabayashi of theHokkaidoUniversity Graduate School, plant

operators should arrange emergency power supplies with other utilities. These discussion should be

completed in March 2012, in order to be able to implement their conclusions into the new safety-

regulations by the new nuclear safety agency to be launched in April 2012.[301]

[edit]Insurance

According toMunich Re, a majorreinsurer, the private insurance industry will not be significantlyaffected by the accidents at the Fukushima nuclear power plant.

[302]Swiss Resimilarly states

"Coverage for nuclear facilities in Japan excludes earthquake shock, fire following earthquake and

tsunami, for both physical damage and liability. Swiss Re believes that the incident at the Fukushima

nuclear power plant is unlikely to result in a significant direct loss for the property & casualty

insurance industry."[303]

[edit]Radiation releases

Main article:Radiation effects from Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
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9/13

Map of contaminated areas around the plant (22 March-3 April).

Fukushimadose ratecomparison to other incidents and standards, with graph of recorded radiation levels and specific

accident events from 11 to 30 March.

Radioactive material has been released from the Fukushima containment vessels as the result of

deliberate venting to reduce gaseous pressure, deliberate discharge of coolant water into the sea,

and accidental or uncontrolled events. Concerns about the possibility of a large scale radiation leakresulted in 20 km exclusion zone being set up around the power plant and people within the 20

30 km zone being advised to stay indoors. Later, the UK, France and some other countries told their

nationals to consider leaving Tokyo, in response to fears of spreading radioactive

contamination.[304]

The Fukushima accident has led to trace amounts of radiation, includingiodine-

131,caesium-134andcaesium-137, being observed around the world (New York State, Alaska,

Hawaii, Oregon, California, Montreal, and Austria).[305][306][307]

Large amounts of radioactive isotopes

have also been released into thePacific Ocean.

According to one expert, the release of radioactivity is about one-tenth that from theChernobyl

disasterand the contaminated area is also about one-tenth that that of Chernobyl.[21]

In March 2011, Japanese officials announced that "radioactive iodine-131 exceeding safety limits forinfants had been detected at 18 water-purification plants in Tokyo and five other prefectures".

[308]As

of July 2011, the Japanese government has been unable to control the spread of radioactive material

into the nations food. Radioactive material has been detected in a range of produce, including

spinach, tea leaves, milk, fish and beef, up to 200 miles from the nuclear plant. Inside the 12-mile

evacuation zone around the plant, all farming has been abandoned.[309][310]

As of August 2011, the crippled Fukushima nuclear plant is still leaking low levels of radiation and

areas surrounding it could remain uninhabitable for decades due to high radiation. It could take more

than 20 years before residents could safely return to areas with current radiation readings of 200

millisieverts per year, and a decade for areas at 100 millisieverts per year.[311]
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ar_disaster#cite_note-Aus2-303http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_rate


10/13

The total amount of iodine-131 and caesium-137 released into the atmosphere has been estimated to

exceed 10% of the emissions from the 1986Chernobyl disaster.[312][313]

The accidents were rated at

level 7 on theInternational Nuclear Event Scale.

On 24 August 2011, the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) of Japan published the results of the

recalculation of the total amount of radioactive materials released into the air during the accident atthe Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. The total amounts released between 11 March and 5

April were revised downwards to 1.3 1017

Bq for iodine-131 and 1.1 1016

Bq for caesium-137.

Earlier estimations were 1.5 1017

Bq and 1.2 1016

Bq.[314]

On 8 September 2011 a group of Japanese scientists working for the Japan Atomic Energy Agency,

the Kyoto University and other institutes, published the results of a recalculation of the total amount of

radioactive material released into the ocean: between late March through April they found a total of

15,000 TBq for the combined amount of iodine-131 and caesium-137. This was more than triple the

figure of 4,720 TBq estimated by the plant-owner. TEPCO made only a calculation about the releases

from the plant in April and May into the sea. The new calculations were needed because a large

portion of the airborne radioactive substances would enter the seawater when it came down asrain.

[315]

In the first half of September 2011 the amount of radioactive substances released from the plant was

about 200 million becquerels per hour, according to TEPCO, this was approximately one four-millionth

of the level of the initial stages of the accident in March.[316]

According to a report (published 29 October 2011) of the Institute for Radiological Protection and

Nuclear Safety in France the pollution of the Pacific Ocean was probably 30 times bigger than

TEPCO reported in May 2011. The French institute calculated, that between 21 March 21 and 15 July

around 27.1 quadrillion becquerels (= 27.100.000.000.000.000) entered the ocean, on 8 April 2011

already 82 percent of this unprecedented quantity had flown into the sea. The location of the plant on

the coast with very strong currents contributed to the very fast pollution of a large part of the Pacificocean, the contamination on marine life in remote waters would likely wane from autumn, but the

radioactive pollution in the waters on the coastal area of the prefecture Fukushima, northeast of

Tokyo will remain significant for a long time, regarding the 30 yearshalf-lifeof this Ce-

137isotope.[317][318]

Based on worldwide measurements ofiodine-131andcaesium-137, it was suggested that the

releases of those isotopes from Fukushima are of the same order of magnitude as those

fromChernobylin 1986,[319][20]

not confirmed by the following tables:

report-

dateplace

period of

disposal

Iod-131 (TBq)Caesium-137

(TBq)

source

from to from to

2002 Chernobyl25 April June

1986

1 600

000

1 920

00059 000 111 000 NEA

[320]

22 MarchFukushima 12 15 March 2011 400 000 3 000 30 000 ZAMG[321]
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11/13

2011

2 April 2011 Fukushima 12 19 March 2011 10 000 700 000 1 000 70 000 ZAMG[322]

12 April 2011 Fukushima11 March 5

April[323]

150 000 12 000 NSC

[324]

12 April 2011 Fukushima 11 17 March 2011 130 000 6 100 NISA[324]

7 June 2011 Fukushima 11 17 March 2011 160 000 15 000 NISA[325]

report-

dateplace

period of

disposalamount (TBq) source

12 April 2011 Chernobyl 25 April June 1986 5 200 000 NISA[324]

12 April 2011 Fukushima 11 March 5 April 2011 630 000 NSC[323][324]

12 April 2011 Fukushima 11 17 March 2011 370 000 NISA[324]

April 2011 Fukushima 4 April 2011 154 NSC[323]

25 April 2011 Fukushima 24 April 2011 24 NSC[323]

67 June 2011 Fukushima 11 17 March 2011 770 000 NISA[325][326]

7 June 2011 Fukushima 11 17 March 2011 840 000 NISA[citation needed]

17 August 2011 Fukushima 316 August 2011 0.07 Government[327]

23 August 2011 Fukushima 12 March - 5 April 2011 630.000 NISA[328]
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12/13

Decontaminated water[329]

Week from Tons

Plant-

capacity utilisation

29. June 6380 76 %

6. July 6130 73 %

13. July 4510 54 %

20. July 4870 58 %

27. July 6190 74 %

3. August 6720 80 %

10. August 7420 88 %

Issues/problems identification: Critical analysis

http://www.countercurrents.org/hamer050411.htm

1. The danger of accidents such as Chernobyl , Fukushima , Three Mile

Island & Windscale.

#2. The danger of proliferation of nuclear weapons.

#3. The problem of disposing of nuclear waste.
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13/13

#4. Nuclear Power generation can supply only a small fraction of the

world's energy needs.

#5. If careful accounting is made the CO2 emitted by: Constructing nuclearpower plants, running them, mining & refining the uranium &

decommissioning the plants is comparable to that emitted by coal-fired

plants.

#6. Nuclear power generation is heavily subsidized & if it were not for these

subsidies, (nuclear power) would not be able to compete with wind energy

or solar energy. It is vital that the subsidies be shifted from nuclear power

to the development of various forms of renewable energy.

Possibility of criticality

Reports of 13 observations of neutron beams 1.5 km "southwest of the plant's No. 1 and 2 reactors"

from 13 to 16 March raised the possibility that nuclear fission could have occurred after the initial

SCRAMing of the reactors at Fukushima Daiichi.[151]

16 March reports that fuel rods in the spent fuel

pool at Unit 4 could have been exposed to air appeared to indicate that fission may have occurred in

that fuel pool.[152]

Later reports of exceptionally highiodine-134levels appeared to confirm this theory

because very high levels of iodine-134 would be indicative of fission reactions.[153]

The same report

also showed high measurements ofchlorine-38,[154]

which some nuclear experts used to calculate that

fission must be occurring in Unit 1.[155][156]Despite TEPCO suggesting the iodine-134 report was

inaccurate, the IAEA appeared to accept the chlorine-based analysis as a valid theory suggesting

fission when it stated at a press conference that "melted fuel in the No. 1 reactor building may be

causing isolated, uncontrolled nuclear chain reactions".[157]

However, TEPCO confirmed its concern

about the accuracy of the high iodine and chlorine report by formally retracting the report on 21

April,[158]

which eliminated both the exceptionally high iodine-134 and chlorine-38 levels as proof of

criticality. TEPCO did not appear to comment on the criticality concern when withdrawing its

report,[159][160]

but the IAEA has not withdrawn its comments, and some off-site experts find the

currently-measured iodine-134 levels higher than expected.[161][162]
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fukushima daiichi nuclear power plant

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