1

From Aramaic to Pahlavi: Epigraphic Observations based on the Persis Coin Series

Khodadad Rezakhani (LSE/SOAS)

(Draft 5: Please do not quote; send comments to Khodadad@ucla.edu)

The post Achaemenid coinage of Persis, starting from Baydād and ending in Ardaxšīr V (the future Sasanian king of kings, Ardashir I)1 presents a continuous series issued by over 20 authorities and covering the length of the Hellenistic period in Iran.2 As the series’s start is unique in the fact that even in its earliest issues, unlike other Hellenistic issues, it does not use the Greek alphabet for its inscriptions, it can act as an important source for the study of Aramaic epigraphy and its development into Middle Persian (Pahlavi) script. The present paper aims to study the inscriptions on the Persis coin series in order to understand the roots of the so-called Inscription Pahlavi,3 the earliest representation of that script. The hypothesis is advanced that the Inscription Pahlavi does not actually represent a logical continuation of the Persis script, and that the inscriptions on the coins of Šābuhr and Ardaxšīr V, the two “Sasanian” rulers of Persis, in fact show influences from other, non-Persis sources. As mentioned above, the study of the development of Pahlavi, and its derivative and associated scripts, has been a relatively lively subject of research. Much of this, however, has been concerned with the latter stages of Pahlavi and has concentrated on the development of the Avestan script,4 as well as paleographic remarks on the formation and use of cursive Pahlavi.5 An important issue has been brought up in regards to this matter, and that is the naming of the script itself. Students of Middle Persian often face a puzzling situation when trying to master the language, as the associated scripts are in fact several, and each has its own characteristics, leading many specialists to categorize even the languages based on the script variations. Middle Persian and Pahlavi

* I am greatly indebted to Dr. Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis of the British Museum’s Department of Coins and Medals for allowing me access to their great collection of coins, some of whose pictures are included here, and for guiding me through them. Unless otherwise stated, all pictures belong to the British Museum and are provided by the kind permission of the BM. I am additionally grateful to Prof. Michael Alram of the Austrian Academy of Science/Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna for first introducing me to the field of numismatics, particularly the coinage of Persis. 1 See M. Alram, Iranisches Personennamenbuch: Nomina Propria Iranica in Nummis, Wien: OeAW, 1986. 2 For the argument that Baydād was not in fact the first issuer of the coins in the series, see V. Sarkhosh Curtis, “The Frataraka Coins of Persis: Bridging the Gap between Achaemenid and Sasanian Persia,” in: J. Curtis and St. J. Simpson (eds.), World of Achaemenid Persia, London: I. B. Tauris, 2010, pp. 379-396. 3 Recently, experts including Rika Gyselen and Philippe Gignoux appear to prefer the term Parsig for the handwritten form of this script. See the introduction to the new volume of Res Orientales: R. Gyselen. Objets et documents inscrits en Parsig (Res Orientales 21), 2012. Here, I use the terms Inscription Pahlavi or simply Pahlavi to denote the form of the script that appears in early Sasanian inscriptions and is most prominent on Sasanian coin issues. 4 See R. N. Frye. "The Aramaic Alphabet in the East." Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 1, no. 1 (2006): 57-60, who has a rather straight forward, if not always very insightful, narrative of this development. 5 Weber, Dieter. "Remarks on the development of the Pahlavi Script in Sasanian Times." In Religious Texts in Iranian Languages: Symposium Held in Copenhagen May 2002, vol. 98, p. 185. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 2007(a); also see footnote 3 above.

2

It is normally understood that the earliest accessible manifestations of the language are the early Sasanian inscriptions of Shapur I (240-270 CE), particularly his inscription at Ka’aba i Zardusht (hereafter SKZ) and the famous mobed, Kerdir (active prior to 290 CE). These are written in what is commonly called “Inscription Pahlavi”, a rather clear script with individual letter types, which except in a few cases, do not resemble each other and allow for relatively easy transliteration. This script, however, does use heterograms (or Arameo-grams; MP Huzwarish) to render the most common words, as well as the stems of the common verbs, which are then pronounced in Middle Persian, although actually written in Aramaic. Soon thereafter, Middle Persian appears as one of the languages used for writing the teachings of Mani, the third century Partho-Babylonian religious leader who established the famous gnostic religion of Manichaeism. The Manichaean script, as it is called, is itself a development of Aramaic, although it is not clear in what relation to Inscription Pahlavi, and takes advantage of clear, distinct letter types and is devoid of the use of heterogram. The most common manifestation of Middle Persian, however, is in a script called “Book Pahlavi”, or Pahlavi in the strict sense, and is the script used for writing the secular and more commonly religious literature of the Sasanians and early Islamic period.6 In fact, the evidence of the script that we actually have in form of manuscripts is often much later than the Sasanian period and starts in the 12th century CE and continues on, in form of commentaries, until the 19th century. This script has the disadvantage of using 11-12 signs to represent over 20 sounds. Many of the letter shapes having merged into one, the Book Pahlavi script uses the same sign to render /n/, /w/, /u/, /o/, and even /r/ on occasions. It is further made complicated by the very active use of heterograms, where most common words and verbal stems, as well as specific concepts such as the word for daemons, are rendered in Aramaic. A derivative script of Book Pahlavi, called cursive Pahlavi, although most likely developed from Book Pahlavi, is found on earlier documents, namely various papyri and parchments dated mostly to the seventh century and found in Egypt and various locations on the Iranian Plateau.7 This script, having all the disadvantaged of Book Pahlavi, also presents the patient researcher with the additional challenge of missing, carelessly written - and thus easily confused - words, and wrong spelling. The decipherment of these documents has been the task of only a few very patient scholars. Of course, another famous derivative of Book Pahlavi is the Avestan script, used to write the sacred hymns and later ritual texts of Zoroastrianism sometime in the late Sasanian period.8 A constructed script, and in fact one of the most clear scripts ever created, it takes advantage of carefully distinguished signs which sometimes even manages to render even the variants to a nasal sound, Avestan nonetheless has again reached us in much later, 13th century and later manuscripts. It is worth mentioning here that based on the testimony of early Islamic

6 This script appears to now be called Parsig, particularly in its most crude form as it appears on the handwritten documents; see footnote 3 above. 7 For an introduction to the Pahlavi documents of the Bancroft Library, UC Berkeley, see Guitty Azarpay, Kathleen Martin, Martin Schwartz, and Dieter Weber “New Information on the Date and Function of the Berkeley MP Archive.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2003): 17-29. For their publications, see Ph. Gignoux, “La collection de textes attribuables à Daden-vindad dans l'Archive pehlevie de Berkeley” in R. Gyselen (ed.) Sources for the History of Sasanian and Post-Sasanian Iran, Res Orientales 19, 2010. A newer collection, the so-called “Tabaristan Archive” have also been published by Ph. Gignoux, “Une archive post-sassanide du Tabaristan (1)” in R. Gyselen (ed.) Objets et documents inscrits en parsig (Res Orientales 21), 2012. 8 D. Weber, “Writing Exercises in Late Sasanian Times: a Contribution to the Culture of Writing Pahlavi,” in Maria Macuch, Dieter Weber and Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst (eds.) Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies, Iranica 19, 2010: 255-263.

3

historians (Mas’udi), in the Sasanian period, seven different scripts were used to render various concepts, probably a reference to the varieties of Pahalvi and associated scripts such as the Avestan. Origins of Pahlavi? Here, however, we are most concerned with what preceded the earliest manifestations of Pahlavi. Although the SKZ represents the earliest substantial manifestation of Inscription Pahlavi and the Middle Persian language, it is in fact true that the script with which it is written is actually attested from the evidence of coin inscriptions of Šabuhr and Ardaxšīr V, the sons of Pābag, who constitute the last two kings of Persis before the establishment of the Sasanian Empire by Ardashir I in 223-224 CE. The coins of these two kings, the latter of whom himself is the founder of the Sasanian dynasty Ardashir I, show a formula that in a way anticipates parts of the canonical formula on the Sasanian coins up to the early fifth century. The inscription on the coin of Šabuhr reads as such:

šhpwhly MLK’ BRH bgy p’pky MLK’ “Šābuhr the King, son of Lord Pābag the King”

The use of the term bgy (MP bag/bay, from Old Iranian baga “God”) is one of the most obvious points of departure from the inscriptions of previous kings of Persis, which usually followed the formula of “X the king”, occasionally followed by “son of Y the King”.9 But what is most important is the dramatic way in which the shapes of the letters on Šābuhr’s coin inscriptions, and those of Ardaxšīr, differ from those letters used to write the inscriptions on the coins of the rulers who preceded them. The earliest coin inscriptions of the Persis series (e.g. Baydād), present a famous formula for designating the king. This is as follows:

bgdt prtrk’ zy ’lhy’ br bgwrt 10 Baydād, the frataraka of the Gods, son of Bagawart (Bayward?)

The script used for the writing of the inscription is quite close to what is called Lapidary Aramaic Script11 and the letter forms seem to have been adopted from those designed for being carved on stones.

9 For example, the case of Napād and Nāmbed; see Alram, Nomina Propria, for the full list of inscriptions. 10 D. O. A. Klose and W. Museler, Statthalter und Rebellen Könige. Die Münzen aus Persepolis von Alexander dem Grossen zu den Sasaniden, Staatliche Munzsammlung Munchen, 2008: 34 (plate 2/3a, where the name of bgwrt is visible). 11 Joseph Naveh, “the Inscription from Failaka and the Lapidary Aramaic Script,” BSOAS 297, (Feb. 1995): 1-4.

4

Figure 1: the inscription of Failaka (photo after Naveh, 1995) The inscription of Baydād on his coins shows a remarkable similarity to the Lapidary Aramaic inscription, in fact:

Figure 2: Part of the inscription on the reverse of the coins of Baydād

The shape of the letters ‘b’ , ‘d’ , ‘k’, and ‘r’ are almost exactly the same as the ones on the Lapidary Aramaic inscription. This simply suggests a close affinity between the Persis script and the type of script used to write Imperial Aramaic, which is also close to the inscription above. Similarity of surfaces used for inscribing the lapidary inscription and the coin die is an easy explanation for the preference in using this script. The general shape of the letters stay the same under the immediate successors of Baydād and no major shift is seen, although according to the situation (i.e. the name of the king), more letters are introduced, specifically ‘s’ and ‘š’ used in the name of Ardasxšīr I. This is the case until the reign of Dārāyān I, the first ruler of Persis who gives uses the title of MLK’ or “King” instead of the frataraka, “governor.”12 On the coins of Darāyān I, the shape of the letter ‘d’ has become greatly simplified to a simple vertical line , and ‘l’ has similarly become simplified, with only a small additional

12 J. Wiesehöfer. "Frataraka." Encyclopedia Iranica X 195 (2001). For alternative readings of the name, see P. Naster, "Note d'epigraphie monetaire de Perside: fratakara, frataraka, ou fratadara?" Iranica Antiqua 8, (1970):74-80.

5

half-circle attached to the bottom of the vertical line to distinguish it from the ‘d’ (and eventually even ‘r’ and sometimes ‘k’). The letter ‘a’, previously appearing on the coins of Baydād and his descendants in the shape close to the later Pahlavi form, on the coins of Dārāyān appears to become more similar to the Aramaic shape of it. The most important feature of the coins of Dārāyān is of course the appearance of the letter ‘m’ which becomes quite a prominent feature, particularly due to the constant appearance of the word MLK’ on the subsequent coins of Persis.

Figure 3: the word MLK’ as it appears on the coin of Dārāyān I (Alram type 558)

The coins of Dārāyān II, the son of Vadfradād (Autophradates) IV displays the first instance of the appearance of the ligature used to depict the Aramaic word BRH “son [of]”:

Figure 4: the reverse of a coin of Daryan II (photo by the author)

6

Figure 5: the ligature BRH on the coin of Dārāyān II (Alram type 564)

These coins also display a different type of the letter ‘t’ , now more rounded in its right-side hook. Additionally, the letter ‘p’ , previously written as a vertical line with a rounded bend on top, is made into the semi-circle with a bent in top, anticipating a development into a full “Pahlavi” letter ‘p’. On the coin of Ardaxšīr II, the letter ‘h’ develops from the type on the coins of Baydād ( ) to

a new, open letter resembling a capital Latin ‘N’ ( ). Also remarkable is the new shape of the letter ‘š’, previously seen as on the coins of Ardaxšīr I, but by the time of Ardaxšīr II, written as . It soon, during the reign Vahšīr, the successor and brother of Ardaxšīr II, will come to be written as which is closer to the shape we are used to in Pahlavi.

Figure 6: reverse of the coin of Vahshir (photo: CoinArchives Collection)

One of the most commonly changing letter shapes is ‘k’, with nine different shapes throughout the Persis series. Among the most interesting ones is the shape it takes on the coins of Pākor II. Here, the letter has a more “inscriptional” or lapidary shape, with the main part of the letter formed of a single vertical line and two opposing small extension on either side of the line. In general, the letters on the coins of Pakor II appear to be more straight lined and less curved, as the series seems to be slowly moving towards. On the coins of Mančihr I, we are introduced to the letter ‘č’ which is previously unknown throughout the series. The basic shape of the letter appears to have been copied from Aramaic sade (Hebrew צ) and given the value of ‘č’ which is in fact common in later Middle Iranian. The most interesting change in the shape of a letter happens on the coins of Mančihr II and in

the case of the letter ‘m’. Previously written with three strokes, either crossing each other or forming a square with a missing bottom side , the letter at this point comes to be written as a circle, written in one continuous stroke, starting from the topside, creating a loop, and

7

ending on the bottom right side of the letter, with a slightly flattened top right side of the

letter . The letters stay largely the same, with only slight changes for the rest of the Persis series. However, under Šābuhr and Ardaxšir I, the inscriptions on the coins start to be significantly different than the previous coins. A simple comparison would demonstrate the case:

Figure 7: Coin of Napād, reverse

Figure 8: Coin of Ardaxšīr V, obverse

A comparison of certain letter shapes from the above coin shows us a dramatic departure from the script of the coins of Persis prior to this point. The shape of the letter ‘p’, in particular, will demonstrate this. From the lapidary form to the “normal” Persis, half circular

form the letter on the coins of Ardaxšīr I takes the shape most recognizable in the Pahlavi Inscriptions: . The same can be demonstrated and argued for letter ‘H’, ‘K’ (which receives an unprecedented shape and additional stroke at the bottom), as wee as the letter ‘b’

8

which takes its full “Pahlavi” form, with very little resemblance to the established “Persis” form. Eastern and Western Influences? Considering the suggested departure of Pahlavi, as seen on the coins of Šābuhr and Ardaxšīr V, from the previous letter forms on Persis coin series (Persis ‘Aramaic’?), it seems necessary to try to find some alternative path of development for Pahlavi, possibly via comparison with non-Persis scripts. This might in some cases be unusual, or unnecessary, but might prove to be a useful path of study. In his study of the Mandean Script, Coxon follows Macuch in suggesting that the Mandean script appears to have certain affinities with that of the Nabateans, although he dismisses Macuch’s idea that this would prove the presence of Mandeans in southern Mesopotamia as early as second century CE.13 Based on a passage from ‘Ishodad14 - where he suggests that the Pahlavi script, particularly its use of heterograms, was created by a servant of the king of “Assyria” (really, Syria) and calls the Syriac alphabet “Mesene” – Coxon argues for an eastern Syriac origin of the Pahlavi alphabet. A comparison of letter types from the Characene coin shows interesting similarities between Persis letters and those of the Characene, as well as certain similarities between Persis and Elymais scripts. The basic letter shapes in Elymais – most importantly ‘š’, ‘m’ and ‘r’ – appear to be quite similar to the Persis ones, except the unusual shape of the letter ‘a’ which also has parallels from the inscription of Tang-i Sarvak and Shimbar. Letter ‘b’ too, on the coins of Kamnaskires-Orodes III, has a shape that is unique and dissimilar to the Persis shape, and also a dramatic shift from the Aramaic script.

Figure 9: the reverse of the coin of Orodes II of Elymais The coins of Characene similarly show similar letter shapes to those of Persis, including the letter ‘m’, as well as ‘g’, ‘l’, and ‘z’. The shape of the letter ‘y’, reduced to a single dot, as well as the letter ‘a’, a full circle, are both innovations and seem to have little resemblance to either the scripts that surround them, or the Aramaic script from which they are derived. Both of these, despite their similarities to the script of Persis, are quite dissimilar to the Pahlavi 13 P. Coxon "Script Analysis and Mandaean Origins." Journal of Semitic Studies 15, no. 1 (1970): 16-30. 14 C.S.C.O. cxxvi (1950), 6,11. 20-7.

9

script that is used to write the inscriptions on the coins of Šabuhr and Ardaxšīr V. The development of the Aramaic script used for writing the occasional inscription on the coins of Elymais and Characene seem to be independent both from the Persis script and that of the later Pahlavi.

Figure 10: reverse of the coin of Maga of Characene

Eastern Dynasty, Eastern Script? Instead, a look at the inscriptions on the coinage of the Indo-Saka kingdom, brings to attention the similarities between the letter shapes from this region and those of the terminal Persis/early Sasanian coins. While letters such as ‘m’ or ‘b’ appear to have kept their original, Aramaic style shapes on the coins of Abdagases and Sanabares, more versatile letters such as ‘m’, ‘y’, ‘n’ and ‘t’ have obviously developed further from their Aramaic origins. Most significantly, the shape of the letter ‘a’, a commonly occurring letter, on the coinage of the Indo-Sakas appears strikingly similar to that on the coins of Šabuhr and Ardaxšīr V. Another example is the letter ‘t’ which appears almost exactly the same way as it does on the coins of the Indo-Saka (Alram’s “Pahlava”) ruler, Prahata. Even further down, the last king of the Indo-Saka line, the one defeated and replaced by Ardashir during his eastern campaigns, uses a script quite similar to that of Ardashir’s coins to inscribe his coins. Farn-Sasan, as he is called, uses an ‘r’ that is very similar to the “Pahlavi” letter of the same value, and his ‘s’ letters are entirely different than what one can see on the Persis coins, although it is fair to say that it is not a Pahlavi ‘s’ either. Sadly, the letter ‘s’ does not appear on the coins of Šabuhr or Ardaxšir I. However, its occurrence on the coins of Ardashir I shows that the letter is indeed similar to the shape used by Farn-Sasan.

10

Figure 11: Obverse of the coin of Farn-Sasan, showing part of his inscription on the obverse and the altar on the reverse (photo courtesy of T. Mallon/Grifterrec)

Michael Alram has previously argued for Ardashir’s Eastern Campaigns to have followed his campaigns in the west of Iran and Mesopotamia, following his issuing of coins in Hamedan and Ctesiphone (mints B and C).15 Alram thus suggests that Ardashir already had a well-developed coinage series before he reached Sakistan and the territory of the Indo-Sakas, specifically that of Farn-Sasan.16 This is specifically argued based on the appearance of a fire-altar on the back of Farn-Sasan’s coins, which Alram attributes to the influence of Ardashir’s coinage, and sign of the former’s submission to the latter.

Figure 12: Gold issue of Ardashir V/I as the Sasanian King of Kings, including the full standard Sasanian obverse formula and the altar on the reverse

However, it has also been suggested by some, including Marek Jan Olbrycht,17 that the “Sasanian” dynasty itself might have been originating from further east than Persis, indeed the territory of the Indo-Sakas in Sakistan. This is an intriguing suggestion, considering the mysterious origins of the name Sasan, the eponymous ancestor of the Sasanians, and its apparent abundance in the Indo-Saka territory18, including its appearance as part of the names

15 Michael Alram, “Ardashir’s Eastern Campaigns,” in J. Cribb and G. Herman (eds.) After Alexander: Central Asia Before Islam (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 133.), 227-242, London: the British Academy, 2007. 16 A.K. Nikitin. "Coins of the last Indo-Parthian King of Sakastan (A farewell to Ardamitra)." South Asian Studies 10, no. 1 (1994): 67-69. 17 Unpublished paper/personal correspondence. 18

Martin Schwartz さ*“asﾏ, “eseﾐ, “t. “isiﾐﾐios, “eseﾐgeﾐ Barpharaﾐgès, aﾐd... さ“eﾏaﾐglofざ’ BAI

10, (1996) 253–257.

11

of Farn-Sasan and his father Adur-Sasan. In view of the remarkable similarities between the script used for the coinage of Šabuhr and Ardaxšir V and those of the Indo-Saka kings such as Farn-Sasan, but even Sanabares, an investigation into the eastern origins of the Sasanian family might prove fruitful. Detailed observation of the development of the fire altar, which appears to be an important part of the suggestion that the coins of Farn Sasan followed the style of the issues of Ardashir – instead of the latter following the former – might eventually be useful in establishing the chronology of the coinage of Ardashir. It also remains to be seen how the script of the coinage of the Indo-Saka coins could have influenced the local issues of Ardashir and his older brother. What implications this might have, and in what way the comparison of the scripts might help us in deciphering the inscription of coins such as Ardashir’s “successor” type coins, which are indeed minted in Sakistan, remains to be seen. Bibliography -------------------- M. Alram. Iranisches Personennamenbuch: Nomina Propria Iranica in Nummis, Vienna: OeAW, 1986. ______. “Ardashir’s Eastern Campaigns,” in J. Cribb and G. Herman (eds.) After Alexander: Central Asia Before Islam (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 133.), 227-242, London: the British Academy, 2007. Azarpay, Guitty, Kathleen Martin, Martin Schwartz, and Dieter Weber “New Information on the Date and Function of the Berkeley MP Archive.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2003): 17-29. Coxon, P. "Script Analysis and Mandaean Origins." Journal of Semitic Studies 15, no. 1 (1970): 16-30. Frye, Richard N. "The Aramaic Alphabet in the East." Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 1, no. 1 (2006): 57-60. Gignoux, Philippe. “La collection de textes attribuables à Daden-vindad dans l'Archive pehlevie de Berkeley” in R. Gyselen (ed.) Sources for the History of Sasanian and Post-Sasanian Iran (Res Orientales 19), 11-134, 2010. ______. “Une archive post-sassanide du Tabaristan (1)” in R. Gyselen (ed.) Objets et documents inscrits en Parsig (Res Orientales 21), 2012. Klose, Dietrich and W. Museler, Statthalter und Rebellen Könige. Die Münzen aus Persepolis von Alexander dem Grossen zu den Sasaniden, Staatliche Munzsammlung Munchen, 2008. P. Naster, "Note d'epigraphie monetaire de Perside: fratakara, frataraka, ou fratadara?" Iranica Antiqua 8, (1970): 74-80. Naveh, Joseph. “the Inscription from Failaka and the Lapidary Aramaic Script,” BSOAS 297 (Feb. 1995): 1-4.

12

Nikitin, A. K. "Coins of the last Indo-Parthian King of Sakastan (A farewell to Ardamitra)." South Asian Studies 10, no. 1 (1994): 67-69. Sarkhosh Curtis, Vesta. “The Frataraka Coins of Persis: Bridging the Gap between Achaemenid and Sasanian Persia,” in J. Curtis and St. J. Simpson (eds.), World of Achaemenid Persia, 379-396, London: I. B. Tauris, 2010. Schwartz, M. “*Sasm, Sesen, St. Sisinnios, Sesengen Barpharangès, and... “Semanglof”’ BAI 10 (1996) 253–257. Weber, Dieter. "Remarks on the development of the Pahlavi Script in Sasanian Times." In Religious Texts in Iranian Languages: Symposium Held in Copenhagen May 2002, vol. 98, 185-195. Copennhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 2007(a). ______. “Einige Bemerkungen zur Palaeographie des Pahlavi,” in M. Macuch, M. Maggi and W. Sundermann (eds.), Iranian Languages and Texts from Iran and Turan, Ronald E. Emmerick Memorial Volume (Iranica 13), 433-442, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2007(b). ______. “Writing Exercises in Late Sasanian Times: a Contribution to the Culture of Writing Pahlavi,” in Maria Macuch, Dieter Weber and Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst (eds.) Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies (Iranica 19), 255- 263, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2010. Wiesehöfer, J. "Frataraka." Encyclopedia Iranica X (2001).