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The University of Lusaka Science in Public Health- BSPH 113 Introduction to Public Administration and Political Education – BSPH 113 Prepared by Kawila L.E. M.A, B.A, L.L.B, Dip Education

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Page 1: FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR - SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT  · Web viewKarl Marx attempted an explanation of bureaucracy in a scientific manner as he did of every term that he used. Marx examined

The University of Lusaka

Science in Public Health- BSPH 113Introduction to Public Administration and Political Education – BSPH 113

Prepared by Kawila L.E. M.A, B.A, L.L.B, Dip Education [Student in Doctor of Literature and Philosophy in

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Public Administration – UNISA]. 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Course title: Introduction to Public Administration and Political Education.

Course code: BSPH 113

Letter to the Students………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

Course Outline…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

Course Aim………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

1.0 Chapter One – Understanding Public Administration………………………………………………………….9

1.1 Objectives of the Topic Under Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..9

1.2 Meaning and Definitions of Public Administration……………………………………………………………………11

1.3 Public and Private Administration…………………………………………………………………………………………….13

1.4 Is Public Administration a science or art……………………………………………………………......................15

1.5 Evolution and Growth of Public Administration………………………………………………………………………16

1.6 What is New Public Administration……………………………………………………………………………………………16

1.7 On Going Concern………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………17

1.8 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………18

2.0 Chapter Two – Principle Theories and Approaches……………………………………………………………20

2.1 Objects of the Topic Under Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………20

2.2 Classical Theory of Organisation…………………………………………………………………………………………………20

2.3 Bureaucratic Theory…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..26

2.4 Scientific Management………………………………………………………………………………………………………………28

2.5 Human Relations theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………32

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2.6 Hierarchy [Scalar Principle]……………………………………………………………………………………………………….33

2.7 [I] Authority………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34

2.7 [II] Responsibility………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………35

2.7 [III] Delegation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………36

2.7 [IV] Centralisation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37

2.7 [V] Decentralisation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37

2.7 [VI] Coordination………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38

2.7 [VII] Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39

3.0 Chapter Three: - Dynamics in Administration…………………………………………………………………..39

3.1 Objectives of the Topic under Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………39

3.2 What is leadership…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….40

3.3 Trait Theory…………………………………………………………………………………………………............................41

3.4 Theory X and Theory Y………………………………………………………………………………………………………………42

3.5 Contingency or Leadership or situational………………………………………………………………………………….43

3.6 Peter Principle…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..44

3.7 Systems Approach…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….45

3.8 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………47

4.0 Chapter Four: Public Personal Administration….………………………………………………………………47

4.1 Objectives of Topic Under Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………..47

4.2 Recruitment and Selection…………………………………………………………………………………………………………48

4.3 Recruitment Policies and Procedures…………………………………………………………………………………………48

4.4 What are the critical points to be considered on a Job description? .........................................49

4.5 Selection Processes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………49

4.6 The Selection Interviews……………………………………………………………………………………………………………50

4.7 Selection Tests……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………51

4.8 Patronage versus Merit System …………………………………………………………………………………………………51

4.9 Who are the minority in the Job market? ………………………………………………………………………………….53

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5.0 What should an organisation do in preparing for interviews? ……………………………………………………53

5.1 Recruitment practices in the Zambian Civil Service…………………………………………………………………….54

5.2 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….54

6.0 Chapter Five: Political Education………………………………………………………………………………………54

6.1 Objectives of the Topics Under discussion…………………………………………………………………………………54

6.2 Topic One: Administering National Government……………………………………………………..................55

6.4 What are the functions of the chief Executive……………………………………………………………………………56

6.5 The Legislature…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..56

6.6 The Legal System and Judiciary………………………………………………………………………………………………….58

6.7 Topic Two: Theories and Roles of the State……………………………………………………………………………..59

6.8 Marxist………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………61

6.9 Non – Marxist…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….62

7.0 Pluralist theories………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..63

7.1 Topic Three: Democracy Democratisation and Good Governance……………………………………………65

7.2 Conceptual Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………65

7.3 Characteristics of Democracy and Good Governance……………………………………………………………….66

7.3 Administrative Responsibility…………………………………………………………………………………………………….68

7.3 Citizen Participation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..68

7.3 administrative ethics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….71

7.4 Elections and Electoral Systems…………………………………………………………………………………………………72

7.5 Constitutions and Constitutionalism………………………………………………………………………………………….78

7.6 Public Policy Making Process……………………………………………………………………………………………………..80

7.7 Public Policy – Formulation Implementation and Evaluation…………………………………………………….80

7.8 What is the Nature of Public Policy? ......................................................................................82

7.9 What are the Major Types of Policy……………………………………………………………………………………………83

8.0 Significance and Why Study Public Policy…………………………………………………………………………………..85

8.1 What are the Possible Constraints To Rationality? ……………………………………………………………………93

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8.2 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………95

8.3 writing a Good assignment……………………………………………………………………………………………………….95

8.3 A draft sample of essay writing…………………………………………………………………………………………………96

8.4 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………99

8.5 bibliography………………………………………………………………………………..100

LETTER TO THE STUDENT

Dear Student,

Welcome to BSPH 113 [Introduction to Public Administration and Political Education]. The course runs for one semester. The purpose of this batch or module, is not to provide you with complete reading material for the course, but to provide a guide to your reading. The course is intended to briefly introduce to you the foundation topics in Public Administration and Political Education which will give you an insight of the environment in which you may work especially if you will be employed by the Government of the Republic of Zambia. As a student of this course you are advised to read widely from other additional sources about the topics and issues introduced in this batch or module. Our University Library has a worth of books that will provide deeper readings on the topics discussed herein.

You will appreciate that the first topic in your course discusses understanding Public Administration and Private Administration and attempts to compare and contrast the two concept to give you a sound understanding of the two concepts. This course is deliberately put in your program of study so that you have a good understanding of administration in your work environment and you may in future practice these concepts in your work. I have posed a number of questions in the process of developing this module in order to enlighten you on the benefits of this course in your career perspectives. I hope the few points raised will encourage you to understand the importance of this course and move you to be more focused in your pursuit for a degree in Public Health.

I would also like to take this opportunity to appeal to you to submit all your assignment within stipulated deadlines as this is a requirement for your training and assessment. I am

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sure during your orientation you have acquired yourself with the University regulations in order to remain current and avoid unnecessary problems. You therefore now know that there are serious penalties for submitting assignments late.

Students in the three [3] categories, namely Full time, Part time and Distance, are strongly advised to carefully study the whole Module before 12th October, 2015. The mid Examinations planned for 12th October, 2015 to 23rd October, 2015 will draw questions from any section of the Module, with an intention to prepare students for the final examination to be sat between 7th December and 18th December, 2015. Distance students will sit their residential school examinations on the second day of our residential school, which falls on 24th November 2015. In view of the fore going, students are advised to study the whole Module before coming for residential and report on Monday to avoid missing the residential examinations. Reading the whole Module is a MUST, to prepare for the final examination.

I hope you will find the course interesting and inspiring.

Kawila LE [Mr.]

BSPH 113 LECTURER –UNIVERSITY OF LUSAKA.

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COURSE OUTLINE:

COURSE AIM:

The ain of the course is to introduce students to the basic fundamentals of Public administration and political education. This is a fundamental course that shall introduce students to basic concepts in general administration that will give students some knowledge in administration as they carry out their duties in Public health.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

By the end of the course, students should be able to:

[a] Show an understanding of concepts necessary as outlined in the course,

[b] Demonstrate an understanding of the role of administrative structures, processes and behaviour in influencing administrative out put.

[c] Critically discuss and show a higher understanding of concepts that are presented in the course out line.

COURSE CONTENT

Understanding Public Administration

Objectives of the Topic under discussion Meaning and definitions of Public Administration Public and Private Administration Is Public Administration a science or art Evolution and growth of Public Administration What is New Public Administration On going concern

Principle Theories and approaches

Objects of the Topic Under discussion Classical Theory of Organisation Bureaucratic Theory Scientific management Human relation theory Hierarchy [Scalar Principle] Authority Responsibility Delegation Centralisation Decentralization Coordination

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Dynamics in Administration:

Objectives of the Topic Under discussion What I Leadership Trait theory Theory X and Theory Y Contingency or leadership or situational Peter Principle Systems approach

Public Personnel Administration

Objectives of the Topic under discussion Recruitment and selection Recruitment policies and procedures What are the critical points to be considered on a job description? Selection process The selection interviews Selection tests Patronage versus Merit system Who are the minority in the job market What should an organization do in preparing for interviews?

Political Education

Objectives of the Topics under discussion Administering national government What are the functions of the Chief Executive The legislature The legal system and judiciary Theories and the roles of the state Marxist Non Marxist Pluralist theories Democracy, Democratisation and good Governance Elections and Electoral Systems Constitutions and Constitutionalism Public Policy Making Process Public Policy- Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation What is the Nature of Public Policy? What are the Major Types of Policy Significance and Why Study Public Policy? What are the Possible Constraints To Rationality?

PRESCRIBED BOOKS:

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Gerald Caiden, [1971],The Dynamic of Public Administration, Guide Lines to Current Transformation in Theory and Practice, Hoit, Rinehoit and Winston, New York, USA.

Rumki Basu, [2007], Public Administration: Concepts and Theories, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, India

. Robert C. Appleby, [1994], Modern Business Administration, Kent Publishers, China.

Johari J.C. [2012], Principles of Modern Political Science, Sterling Publisher Private Limited, New Delhi, India.

Johari J.C. [2011], Comparative Politics, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, India.

Sapru R.K. [2007], Public Policy: Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation, Sterling publishers Private limited, New Delhi, India.

Ravindra D., Prasad V.S, Satyanarayana P, and Pardhasaradhi Y, [2012], Administrative Thinkers, sterling Publishers private Limited, New delhi, India.

Gary Dessler, [2011], Human Resources Management, Pearson Education Limited, USA.

Pugh D.S, [1982], Organisation Theory, Cox and Wyman limited, Great Britain.

RECOMMENDED BOOKS:

Marx F.M. [ed], [1964], Elements Of Public Administration, Prentice-Hall of India, India.

White L.D. [1955], Introduction To The Study of Public Administration, Macmillian Company, New York, USA.

The electoral and Code of Conduct Act, no. 12 of 2006, of the Laws of Zambia. Muna Ndulo, [2010], Democratic Reform In Africa, It Impact On Governance

and Poverty Alleviation, Ohio University Press, Athens, USA.

CHAPTER ONE: UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC

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This lesson will aim to achieve the listed objectives after the delivery of the whole topic:

The student should be able to define and make a difference between Public Administration, Private Administration and Management.

The student should be able to explain in details the evolution of public administration from ancient and medieval era to the current era.

The student should be able to discuss the crucial roles as assumed by public administration in the contemporary society.

The student should be able to outline and discuss the major principals which differentiate Public Administration from Private Administration.

The students should be able to discuss the aspects of public administration that make a subject to be a science and an art.

The student should be able to explain and demonstrate what we mean by theory and practice.

The student should be able to appreciate the scope of Public Administration.

This topic gives an over view of what is public administration, the content of the term and its scope. A student is expected to clearly define and demonstrate the understanding of Public Administration. The student should further explain the importance and relevance of public administration to anyone who raises a question. The subject will introduce the relevance of administration to a Public Health students. Public administration is real life in a work place and in a workers life.

UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Government administration of the earlier times [ancient and medieval] however differed considerably in its structure and goals from state administration in the modern era. Administration of the state in the ancient and medieval periods in both the East and the West was authoritarian, patriarchal and elitist in character. The maintenance of the law and order, collection of revenue, etc were its compulsory functions where as welfare activities were purely incidental or optionally undertaken. The Administrators were small in number, selected entirely at the discretion of the monarch and their official status was no better than the personal servants of the king.

Today the scope of the state functions has largely increased. Public Administration is indispensably present in all states, be they capitalist, socialist or developing in nature. The modern Public Administration has usurped more and more functions within its scope. Besides law and order, revenue collection, and security functions, it cater for vast array of public Laws, provides public services like post, telegraphic, transport and etc.

Gerald Caiden has listed the following as crucial roles as assumed by Public Administration in the contemporary society:

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Preservation of the Polity: Public administration is a tool used by Political leaders to run a government and manage all developmental projects. The purpose of the political Party in power is to attempt to run the country while remaining in power for a time, even perpetual. The Party in power wants to ensure the peace and order is maintained so that they remain in power. The government should be maintained and live on orderly.

Maintenance of stability and order: For the polity to remain in power, there should be law and order, thus the state preoccupies itself with the rule of law so that there is stability and order that will enable the State stay on while providing for its citizens.

Institutionalisation of socioeconomic change: To institutionalize the socioeconomic life of a country, the Political Leader ship must make prudent and sound social economic decisions that will result in the improvement of the live of citizen and there by allow the Leadership to continue as they ‘citizens’ see their lives changing for the better using good political decisions which allow the economy to grow while changing the lives of citizen.

Management of large scale commercial services: It is now an agreed concept that the State has a role to play in the management of the economy of a nation. The State has the financial and human resource to employ in the commercial ventures of a nation. Big companies that need huge investments will need the involvement of government, for example ZESCO in Zambia and ZAMTEL. These are owned by the State for two reasons, that they have resources that they can invest, while the government holds to such ventures so that the ordinary Zambian can afford the cost of such services of these ventures.

Ensuring growth and economic development: The government has a duty to ensure growth of the economy of the nation, which should translate in the growth and improvement of life of its citizens. As the government participate in the economic arena of the commercial ventures, the economy grows to the benefit of citizens. The government may play this role by encouraging banks to lend money to the small scale business persons and also through prudent intervention in the market arena using well calculated and protected subsidy.

Protection of the weaker sections of society: The government has a duty to protect both the rich and poor citizens, the latter, who are at times referred to as the weaker sections of society. Government will play this role through fair taxation, which latter is ploughed back into society through community services. The government may also come up with programs to empower the weak sections of society by provision of subsidized agricultural inputs and etc

Formulation of public opinion: The current and civilized method of public opinion formulation is by allowing genuine participation in the economy and decision making of the country by the citizens. The more you involve the citizens, the more good ideas you will generate for the benefit of the nation as a whole. Opinions that are public, are likely to receive popular support by the citizens, and will not meet resistance at implementation of projects.

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Influencing public policies and political trends: Public policies are government guide lines will help government deliver goods and services to the citizens in a more mature and focused way as opposed to unplanned implementation of projects. When government has good policies supported by the people, there will be order and unity among all the political players. [ Gerald Caiden, 1971, pages 12-58].

There is a growing trend in the activities of Public Administration in the foreseeable future. Men and women have always needed Public Administration and will continue to do so.

What is the meaning and definition of Public Administration?

Public administration is the management of affairs of the government at all levels covering national, state and local. This is a branch of the wider field of administration. The word administration has many definitions. In the words of Marx, he defined administration... “Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at making those things happen which one wants to happen”.

Another writer in the name of J M Pfiffner while writing with Presthus in the early 1960s gave a different definition to Administration, where they say “Administration is the organisation of human and material resources to achieve desired ends”

Administration has two essential elements namely:

Cooperative effort: there can be no development if there is no cooperation, cooperation brings coordination and pulling of all resources in one direction thereby bringing development to reality. Cooperation means people are working to gather, and there is genuine participation which results in citizens support the venture that government wants to implement, and

Pursuit of common objectives. Public administration is any kind of administration in the public interest which, in other words, has simply come to mean governmental administration. Administration of private enterprises is known as private administration [ Pfiffner and Presthus pg 3].

There are many views regarding the scope and range of activities to be included in public administration. Some thinkers take a broader view and include all governmental activities having for their purpose, the fulfilment of public policy, while the other school of thought take a narrow view and consider only those activities concerned with the executive branch of government as part of public administration.

Public Administration:

a) Is cooperative group effort in a public setting

b) Covers all three branches of government covering executive, Legislative, and judiciary, with a focus on their inter relation-ships.

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c) Has an important role in the formulation of public policy, and this is part of the political process

d) Is more important than and also different in importance from private administration

e) As a field of study and practice has been influenced in recent years by the Human Relations approach.

f) Is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community.

It should be understood that Public Administration is the non-political bureaucratic machinery of the government for implementing its laws and policies in action, for example the collection of revenues, maintenance of laws and order, running of railways, postal services, maintaining an army, running schools and hospitals. All the above are public administration acts. Public administration operates within a political context. One may put it in a context that it’s a means by which the policy decisions made by the political decision makers are carried out.

Public Administration is identified with the following: Public administration is focused at activities of public nature, meant for all people living in a country, both citizens and non citizens. Governments are concerned that they are areas of our life which is public and needs public attention. These areas cover the following:

The formulation and implementation of public Policies: It’s the duty of every good government to formulate and implement good policies that will act as guidelines to providing good life to the citizens. Participation and consultation are very important in policy making. Every area of human life needs a good policy on which the government will focus all its energy to target to achieve [Sapru, 2007, pg 6].

The Executive branch of government: The Executive arm of government supervises the creation of policies and ensure the policies are implemented with the support of citizen participation. The executive arm enforces the application of the law enacted by Parliament and also creates the budget and run it to the benefit of the citizens who are the major stake holders. The executive functions serve to maintain a system of cooperative function, as they act in an impersonal manner as they address the needs of the people [Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 167].

Organisational structure and machinery of administration: Public administration followed clearly laid down procedures of carrying out government duties. This makes the operations of the Public administration to be predictable and clearly known [Pugh D.S. 1982, p 166].

Administrative processes: Government operates following laid down systems approved by the executive with the participation of all stakeholders. The systems are guided by the approved policies and procedure. Administrative acts, decisions, rules and regulations are formulated and

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recorded in writing, even in cases where oral discussions is the rule or is even mandatory [Pugh D.S. 1982, p 20].

Bureaucracy and it activities: Legal norms may be made through agreement or imposition by the bureaucracy, on either rational ground or on ground of expediency, or both system as the case may demand. Officials must be competent and impersonal in doing government business with a view to unite people and create an atmosphere of smoothly running the system of good governance [Sapru, 2012, pg 299].

Coordination of group activities social relationship: Public administration has the responsibility of coordinating the activities of the State through allowing all the citizens and stakeholders to participate and create a good social relation with all those who benefit from government activities [Sapru 2012, pg 373].

Interaction between organisation and their environment: Government has a duty to ensure they protect the environment as organizations carry out beneficial activities that will benefit the people and the State. The organizations should also be responsible and cooperate with Public administration as they operate [Sapru, 2012, 66].

Public and Private Administration, where is the difference?

One group of thinkers covering Urwick, Follett and Fayol, are of the view that administration is an indivisible entity, and its basic principles are applicable equally to all organisations whether public or private. This view is on the basis of observable similarities in the practice of public and private administration. It is difficult to differentiate the two types of administrative activity. Though the activities performed by government agencies are defined as public administration, there are many private agencies which also perform tasks which are strictly public service or welfare oriented. In the same way there are many tasks performed by government bureaucracy which may be of a private nature.

Secondly, methods and work procedures may be common to both public and private administration. Accounting, statistics, office management and procedures and stock taking are problems of administrative management common to both public and private administration.

As, public sector enter the industry and run many business ventures, drawing heavily upon the business knowledge and expertise of private administration to run these enterprises.

The seven [7] major principles which differentiate public from private administration are:

1. Uniformity, government activities are uniform unlike private companies which may differ from one company to another run by the same firm. Government activities are uniform as they are guided by the policies that are created on the basis of agreement and mutual cooperation.

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2. External financial control, the government activities are not exposed to external control, the private firms are sometimes owned by foreigner and therefore are controlled by the owners outside the country.

3. Ministerial responsibility, only government Ministries have Ministerial responsibility, can be summoned by Parliament to explain their operations, while using government resources or tax player’s money. The private companies have no single ministerial responsibility.

4. Marginal return, government aims to give a service to the citizens, so their services and goods attract very little profit, while the private sector go into business purely to make money or profit.

5. Monopolistic, government has the responsibility to provide services like education, health, roads, bridges, security and etc whether they have money or not, where the private sector provides these same services the public has to pay for them, those who cannot pay will be eliminated from enjoying these services.

6. Use of government money, only the governmental activities are funded using government funds while the private sector uses provide funds for their business.

7. Government operations are not cost effective: government incur a lot of looses as they perform business due to lack of seriousness and the I don’t care type of work culture. The private sector are business focused, when they incur looses, they will be thrown out of business and be bankrupt.

The popular view or idea of public administration is that it is bureaucratic, characterised by red tape, inefficiency and inertia, where as private administration is efficient and business like. The following are the differences between the two types of administration as addition to what has been given here above:

Political direction or ministerial responsibility: Public administration which is the machine and tool used by the State to run the affairs of public life for citizens and non citizens living in a given country has the responsibility to given direction in terms of politics to the nation. The Private sector may be influenced by the politics of the day but will not join in as their core purpose of being created is to do business [ Pugh 1982, p 166].

Profit motive or marginal return: while government their reason is to give service to the people and make as little profit as possible, thus marginal return, the private sector aims to maximize profit making as much as they can do. The purpose of existence for the private sector is to make profit whenever they, can

Social necessity: The public institutions exist to give services to the people, where services and goods are for sell, it will be at a minimum cost, however, sometimes even the private sector does also give free services to their clients as a way to appreciate the clients.

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Public responsibility: It’s a duty of public administration to ensure both the citizens and all those living in a country to be safe and be sure of them being taken care off, as for the private sector they take advantage of the secured environment to make business.

Conformity to laws and regulations: It’s the duty of the Public administration to make laws and observe them if possible, while the private sector may avoid the law if they can, for example many big companies have run business without paying tax even when they are making huge sums of money.

Is Public Administration a science or art?

Public administration has two components namely administering governmental affairs, which is an art. While, when you look at Public administration as an academic discipline, then it becomes a science. .

Ordway Tead writes “Administration is the comprehensive effort to direct, guide and integrate associated human strivings which are focused towards some specific ends or aims. Administration is, in short, a fine art, because it summons an imposing body of special talents on behalf of a collaborative creation which is integral to the conduct of civilised living today”.

Quite obviously public administration is the art of government, in reality it is government in action.

Woodrow Wilson, the pioneer of Public Administration as a subject of study called it the “Science of Public Administration” as early as 1887. In 1926, W.F. Willoughby said that in administration there are certain fundamental principles of general application analogous to those characterising any science. In 1937, a collection of papers on the subject made its appearance under the significant title of papers on the science of Administration edited by Luther Gulick and Urwick.

The existence of a body of principles in a discipline entitles it to claim the title and status of science. If public administration can prove that it has developed a set of principles, it obviously qualifies to be rated as science.

For any subject or program to be called a science, public administration, inclusive, has to meet the three criteria namely:

1. The place of normative value should be identified

2. Greater understanding of human nature and

3. The principles of administration could be derived from a body of cross-cultural studies, thereby making them relatively free from cultural bias.

Evolution and Growth of Public Administration

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Public administration as an activity is as old as civilisation but as an academic discipline is a little over a hundred years old. This, however, does not mean by implication that thinkers in earlier ages had never said anything significant about public administration. The functioning of governmental machinery has attracted the attention of scholars and administrators since the earliest periods of history.

Many factors had contributed towards the growth of the study of public administration in the USA as a separate academic discipline in the 20th century. The contributing factors included:

1. The development of modern sciences and technology made an impact on the life of the people and the functioning of the government.

2. The scientific Management movement founded by FW Taylor which began in the USA, towards the 19th Century, gave great impetus to the study of Public Administration

3. A third factor which significantly helped in the growth of the subject of Public Administration was the gradual evaluation of the concept of welfare state. The philosophy of state functions everywhere has now decisively shifted from the traditional notion of laissez – faire to that of social welfare. Government functions have largely increased.

4. The movement for governmental reform gathered momentum in the USA from the early years of the present century which encouraged a steady development and growth of an autonomous and specialised field of knowledge based on the structure and functioning of public administration.

What is New Public Administration?

The new era of new public administration directed attention towards political or policy-making processes and specific public programmes. Like many other disciplines, in social science, public administration was also shaken and influenced by the social turbulence and crisis ridden period of the sixties. Since 1968, the evolving discipline of public administration has come to be enriched by the emergence of what has come to be known as the ‘New Public Administration.’ The literature on new public administration lays emphasis on four [4] major themes namely relevance, value, equity and change.

1. Relevance – Public administration has traditionally been interested in efficiency and economy. The new Public administration movement pointed out that the discipline had little to say about contemporary problems and issues and therefore became irrelevant. The new movement demanded radical syllabi change to facilitate meaningful studies oriented towards the realities of modern day public life.

2. Value: The new era rejected the value neutral position taken by behavioural political science and management –oriented public administration. The new public administrator should be less ‘generic’ and more ‘public’ less ‘descriptive’ and more

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‘prescriptive’ institution oriented and more ‘client-impacted oriented’, less ‘neutral’ and more ‘normative’.

3. Social Equity: New Public administration clearly states that the distributive functions and impact of governmental institutions should be public administration’s basic concern. The aim of Public action should be reduction of economic and social disparities and the enhancement of life opportunities for all social groups inside the organization.

Writers like Frederickson take a bold action-oriented stance inviting Public Administrators to work for the removal of the wrongs of society and openly side with the socially deprived groups.

4. CHANGE: To bring the cause of social equity is to actively work for social change. This is considered as the motto of new public administration. The attack is on the status quo and against the powerful interests entrenched in permanent institutions [Sapru R.K. 2012, pages 370-386].

ON GOING CONCERNS

The foregoing discussion proves that public administration has come a long way since 1887. It has really established it’s credentials as an autonomous field of enquiry, with an ever-expanding literature and concerns which have greatly influenced it’s evolution as an academic discipline.

Scholars of public administration have sought to borrow a lot from other disciplines, making it truly inter-disciplinary in nature. Organisational dynamics also draws heavily on the management sciences. Public administration has faced both empirical and normative thrust from time to time. It has also incorporated much new developments from the field of policy sciences.

Though public administration is not even a hundred years old, it has been marked by a growing output of literature mostly originating in the USA where the federal systems of government, a relatively open social system and rapid technical change provide fertile ground for reform movements and experimentation.

SCOPE

Public administration is concerned with the activities of all the three branches of government, but the widely accepted view is that public administration is connected with the activities of the executive branch only.

In the words of Marx, “at it’s fullest range, public administration embraces every area and activity under the jurisdiction of public policy....By established usage, however the form ‘public administration’ has come to signify primarily the organization, personnel, practices and procedures, essential to effective performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of the government.”

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It has much to do with the activities of the executive branch of the government at all levels national, state and local.

Bibliography

1.GeraldCaiden,[1971] The Dynamics of Public Administration, Guide Lines to Current Transformation in the Theory and Practice, Hoit, Rinehait and Winston, New York, page 25 to 31.

2. F.M. Marx [ed],[1964] Elements of Public Administration, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, page 4.

3. Pfiffner and Presthus,[1960] Public Administration, the Ronald press co. New York, page 3.

4. L.D. White,[1955] Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, Macmillan Co. New York, page 1.

5. Dimock E. Mashall,[ feb, 1937] The Study of Administration, “American Political Science Review”, page 31 to 32.

6. J.M. Pfiffner,[1960] Public Administration, page 6.

7. Felix A. Nigro, [1965] Modern Public Administration, Harper and Row, New York, page 12

8. John J. Corson and Joseph Harris,[1963] Public Administration in Modern Society, McGraw-Hill, page 12.

9. Frank J. Goodnow,[1914] Politics and Administration, New York, Macmillan, page 22.

10. Gulick and Urwick [ed] [1937] Papers on the Science of Public Administration, institute of Public Administration- Past and Emerging .

11. W.S. Sayer, [1958] “Premises of Public Administration-Past and Emerging”, Public Administration Revise,18 page 102 to 103.

12. H.A. Simon, [1947] Administration Behaviour, Growell, Collien and Macmillan New York.

13. R.A Dahl, [1947]“The Science of Public Administration: Three problems”, Public Administration Review , page 1 to 11.

14. F.W. Riggs, [1961]The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia Publishing House, Bombay.

15. The Honey Report and various commentaries on it have been published in Public Administration Review, Vol XXVII, NO.4, November, 1967.

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16. James C. Chailesworth [ed] [1968] Theory and practice of Public Administration: Scope, Objectives and Methods, Philadelphia, the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, page IX.

17. Robert T. Golembiewski,[1947] Public Administration as a Developing Discipline, Mancel Dekker, luc, New York, page 8 to 24.

18. R.S. Parker, [1965]“The End of Public Administration” Public Administration [Sydney] 34, June, page 99.

19. F.M. Marx, Elements of Public Administration, page 5.

20. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public administration, page 3.

21. Pugh D.S. 1982, Organization Theory, Cox and Wyman, Great Britain, pages 15, 148-166.

CHAPTER TWO: PRINCIPLE THEORIES AND APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT

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In chapter two [2] of the course program, students will be required to understand the listed

below:

The students should be able to define a theory and understand the limits of a theory.

Students should be able to define classical theory, bureaucratic theory, scientific

management and human relations theory.

Students should be able to differentiate the above listed theories showing the

strengths and weaknesses of each theory.

Students should be able to point out clearly the criticisms of each theory and

underline the contribution of each theory to public administration as we know it

today.

Students will be required to know the detailed characteristics of each of the theory

referred to above.

Students should be able to identify each of the theories in the current administration

of institutions.

These theories covering classical theory, bureaucratic, scientific management, and human

relations in their own capacity have contributed highly to administration as we know it today.

Each theory contributes consciously and unconsciously to public administration.

(a) Classical Theory of organisation:

A “Theory” is an idea or set of ideas that tend to explain something about life or the world,

especially an idea that has not yet been proved to be true. It is a general principle [s] and an

idea [s] about a subject. An idea or opinion that someone thinks is true but for which they

have no proof [Dictionary Of Contemporary English, New edition, Advanced Learners,

page 1828].

Classic may mean standard, near to uniform in terms of ideas but with differences in the

presentation of ideas, but are similar in a way.

The other name of classic theory is structural theory, and the major authors in this theory is

Henry Fayol, Luther Gulick, L.F. Urwick, J.D. Mooney, A.C. Reiley and etc.

The most important concern for classical theorists was the formulation of certain universal

principles of organisation. This theory deals with the formal organisational structure. The

theory assumes that there are certain fundamental principles on the basis of which an

organisation can be established to achieve a specific objective. The two important wards in

this theory are efficiency and economy. The principles tried to state that if the two words are

adopted and used wisely, the result will be maximum organisational efficiency and economy.

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Fayol attempted to critically discuss classical theory, [1841-1925], he said management was

an under taking common to all human activities. He argued that management was a

teachable, theory dealing with planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and control

of all works process. Fayol’s theory of management is after considered the first complete

one. Fayol was concerned with the job of the Chief Executive and pinned his faith in the unit

of command. Henry Fayol divided all activities in an organisation under six [6] groups,

technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and administrative.

Fayol in his book, General and Industrial Administration, he discussed fourteen principles

of organisation, as listed here below:

Division of work: Division of work put emphasis on specialization as a natural

thing in the world order, The purpose of division of labour was to produce quality

and specialized work. Division of work brings in an aspect of a worker

concentrating on specific tasks which one is required to know very well and

execute them with a high level of skill and knowledge.

Authority and responsibility: Fayol defined authority as ‘the right to give order

and the power to exact obedience’. [Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 103]. Authority carries

with it responsibility by the authority holder. Those who fail to follow orders must

be given sanctions.

Discipline: Discipline carries with it obedience, application, energy, behaviour

and respect of good orders given to an individual in accordance with the standing

agreements. As a result, discipline is what comes out of one’s actions which are

guided. Discipline brings unity and a focus in what is to be achieved.

Unity of Command: an individual employee must receive orders from one single

supervisor if order and discipline is to be achieved, this makes the workers to

predict every course of action at work place and can control abuse of employees.

It’s a known factor that dual commands are very common almost in every case at

home, school, company both small and large thereby result in confusion and

frustrations and failure to make any single meaningful development.

Unity of direction: this idea is usually expressed as ‘one head and one plan for a

group of activities having the same objective’ [ Hugh D.S. 1982, pg 107]. A group

that has two heads is a monster, and there are high chances of the institution

failing to achieve its objectives. Unit of command should not be confused with

unity of direction the two mean two different things in the life of an organisation.

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Subordination of individual interest to general interest: This point attempts to

advice that the interest of an individual or group of individuals should not take and

over shadow the interest of a given organization. Staff who enter a firm must to

gather set aside their interest and focus on the interest of a firm, its survival and

growth will be a benefit to all employee, its demise will leave all employees

without work. Its true to say ignorance, ambition, selfishness, laziness, weakness

and all other human passions and vices causes the general interest to be lost and

thereby cause the firm to lose direction and purpose of existence.

Remuneration of personnel: This should be considered as a price or reward for

the services rendered to the company by the employees. The reward should be fair

to both parties the employee and the company, as both are required to survive and

move on. There is need for bonus and profit sharing between the employees and

the company, non should disadvantage the other party.

Centralisation: for Fayol centralisation belongs to the natural order, the centre of

the organisation is the brain from which everything starts from in terms of

operation. Without the centre holding to power and deciding what to do, then

there will be disorganization and disorder. ‘Centralization is not a system of

management good or bad of itself, capable of being adopted or discarded at the

whim of managers or of circumstances, it is always present to a greater or les

extent. The question of centralization or decentralization, is a simple question of

proportion, it is a matter of finding the optimum degree for the particular concern’

[Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 114].

Scalar chain which means a laid down hierarchy: This is the flow of authority

from the chief executive to the lower man or woman in the rank of authority. This

is the route followed by authority in a given institution, small or large, private or

public, all official communication may follow this path. This path comes into

being because of the principle of unity of command.

Order: For Fayol he coined order to mean ‘a place for everything and everything

in its place’ and it may mean ‘a place for everyone and everyone in his place’

[Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 118]. In view of the forgoing, one would see that order is

very important for everything, persons, materials, plans and anything to be done

must at all times follow an agreed pattern of doing things. Where ever, there is no

order, things will not move in the right direction, and everything and everybody

will be affected in a way.

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Equity: One might ask, why equity and not justice? Justice attempts to put into

practice already established conventions, which might not for see everything else

that might happen, these will need to be interpreted or bring out their inadequacy

with a view to supplement them. The desire for equity and equality in dealing with

all employees is need for core existence and for peace and progress. Where people

feel and see that they are not being treated fairly, they will be a spirit of rebellion

and conflict which will result in affecting the operation of the organization.

Stability of tenure of personnel: The employee needs to be sure that the job is

his or hers, otherwise there will be no commitment to the tasks to be done. A

worker needs to be sure that the job is his or hers and cannot be taken without a

reasonable cause. Insecurity will lead to non commitment to work and lack of best

performance. ‘Instability of tenure is at one and the same time cause and effect of

bad running. In common with all the other principles, therefore, stability of tenure

of personnel is also a question of proportion’ [Hugd D.S. 1982, pg 120/121].

Initiative: Thinking out a very good plan and put it into practice and it works is

one of a factor to motivate an employee and create future platform, where success

is the target. Initiative is the power to think and execute your thoughts into a

successful action that benefits the organization and brings motivation to the

thinker to bring many more ideas that will bear fruit. Blocking initiative is a

danger to the organization and the individual himself or herself.

Esprit de corps: meaning a common spirit of comradeship, enthusiasm, and

devotion to a cause among the members of a group. Others have said ‘union is

strength’ [Hugh D.S. 1982, pg 121]. Harmony, union among the staff of a given

company will raise moral and will move the workers to put in their best. Unity of

command is one fundamental principle to be observed and taken serious, while the

pitfall will be the misguided interpretation of the motto ‘divide and rule’ and the

abuse and misuse of written communication that may provoke the workers and set

them high to raise against the institution [ Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 121].

Mooney and Reileys worked on onward Industry as a pioneering work on the development of

organisation theory and is considered the first coherent approach to the establishment of an

organisation universally. Mooney argued that organisation structures are based on a system

of superior- subordinate relationships arranged in a hierarchical order. This he called scalar

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principle. This means in every organisation there is a grading of duties in a varying degree of

authority and corresponding responsibility. The scalar chain constitutes the universal process

of coordination through which the supreme coordinating authority becomes effective

throughout the entire structure. The scalar process has its own principle process and effect.

These they termed as Leadership, delegation and functional definition.

The other two known writers who have contributed to classical theory are Luther Gulick and

Lyndal Urwick. Gulick defined major management techniques by the ward POSDCORB.

Each letter of the word stands for a different technique covering planning, organising,

staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting.

Gulick talks of ten principles of organisations, namely:

Division of work or specialisation: Division of work was targeted to bring

specialization at a place of work. Specialization makes workers sharp their skills

and increase efficiency in work performance. Among the ten [10] principles of

administration, Gulick has put emphasis on the principle of division of work as

supreme foundation to administration. He argues that division of work is the basis

for every organization, it makes organization easy and predictable, as you divide

work to officers, you also place responsibility on such officers, and it’s the reason

why we organize. Work division means that the job to be carried out is broken

into its component functions and further each component function is to be broken

into simple and clearly repetitive activities or tasks to be carried out by specific

officers who are also responsible for such [D. Ravindra Prasad and others Ed.

2012, pgs 84/85].

Base of departmental organisations: Organizations are better run when they are

streamlined in departments. The departments are divided in accordance with

specializations found in the organization.

Coordinating through hierarchy: the best way to coordinate the activities of any

organization is by following hierarch which is a clearly established channel of

organization.

Deliberate coordination: Coordination should be planned and deliberately taken

to make things work out in a given system of doing things.

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Coordination through committees: Gulick finds coordination done by a

Committee to be helpful and neutral in nature, individuals when given duties tend

to do it their way, which may not be the way for the entire organization.

Committees regulate each other and minimize each other as they attend to

business in an impersonal way.

Decentralisation: For Gulick decentralisation was taking power to where the

people are and the tasks are carried out, this avoids remote control and brings

reality to the workers who are on the spot to decide what to do and when to do it.

Unity of command: Unity of command entails that one superior only gives

instructions to a particular subordinate or official under him, this makes the

subordinate to be focused and know what is expected of him at a given time.

Where several bosses give instructions to one worker or subordinate, the

subordinate will be confused, and over loaded with work thereby make him or her

to be inefficient.

Staff and line: in an hierarchy, the central hierarchy of the organization is called

‘line’, while those that fall on the margin, are known as ‘staff’ and ‘auxiliary’

agencies. The term ‘line’ is drawn from military organization where in line refers

to command. The hierarchy, which commands the military forces in the battle

field is known as line. Those agencies which help the commanders are known as

‘staff’ and ‘auxiliary’. The difference between the two kinds of services is

essentially based on the type of work performed by the different branches or units

of a department or agency. Most of the functions performed by the several

divisions or units of an agency are regulatory or operational meant for the

achievement of line services. Besides, in any given department or agency there are

certain housekeeping activities, institutional or managerial activities without the

performance of which the substantive function of the department cannot be

achieved. These activities are known as staff [Rumki Basu, 2007, pg225].

Delegation: Delegation may mean the transfer of professional duties to your

subordinate to perform on your behalf, while you still remain responsible and

answerable. Delegation makes work to move fast, as you also train your

subordinates, while you may not be sure of the quality of work to be produced,

and you over load yourself as you will need to cross check all work done for you

to be sure before you adopt it as your own work [Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 186].

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Span of control: the term refers to the number of subordinates one is capable of

supervising in performing his/her duties. This covers the number of direct,

habitual communication contacts between the chief executives of an enterprise

and his or her principle fellow-officers. For specialized works you can only

supervise few subordinates, while to perform unskilled tasks, you can supervise a

little more subordinates [Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 188].

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY

Max Weber’s bureaucratic model continues to be the most dominant paradigm in Public

Administration. The word ‘bureaucratic’ comes from the French Ward ‘bureaucratic’.

The classical writing on bureaucratic can be traced to several sources which include Marx,

Max Weber and Roberts Michaels. Karl Marx attempted an explanation of bureaucracy in a

scientific manner as he did of every term that he used. Marx examined it, as Weber tried to

do as an ideal type which can exist only in abstraction, but as a set of relationships that arise

in a specific socioeconomic context.

“The bureaucracy is a circle from which no one can escape. Its hierarchy is a hierarchy of

knowledge. The top entrusts the understanding of details to the lower levels, whilst lower

levels credit the top with understanding of the general and so all are mutually deceived”.

Bureaucracy as an organisational model was first developed systematically by Max Weber,

an eminent “German Sociologist in the nineteenth century. In his words, every organisation

can be defined as structure of activities [means] directed towards the achievement of certain

objectives [ends].

The bureaucratic form of organization in the words of Weber is distinguished by the

following structural and behavioural characteristics:

1. Division of Labour: This reflects the competences that officials have, based on

qualifications and special training.

2. Hierarchy: hierarchy is the second fundamental characteristic which is the feature of

any bureaucratic form of organisation. There is a clear separation between superior

and subordinate office, the higher office supervise the lower office.

3. Rules: bureaucracy operates on the basis of laid down rules. The role of rules was

stressed by Weber.

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4. Rationality: Weber’s views on efficiency and rationality are closely related to his

typical model of bureaucracy. The state is the most rational form of administration.

5. Impersonality: The system has no room for personal whims, fancies or irrational

sentiments. Official activity is conducted in a business manner with a high degree of

operational impersonality.

6. Rule orientation: Rationality and impersonality are mainly achieved through

formulation of rules and procedures which clearly define official spheres of authority

and conduct, which the employees are to rigidly maintain in carrying out their duties.

7. Neutrality: Bureaucracy is supposed to be non political and neutral in its orientation

and support to the political regime it serves. It is also value-neutral committed only to

the work it is meant to perform.

CRITICISM

The bureaucratic theory of organisation is criticised along several lines.

1. The formal aspect of the bureaucracy wears down efficiency as compared to informal,

was the observation of behavioural theories like Herbert Simon.

2. Bureaucracy tends to have internal contradictions for example expertise and

obedience based on discipline.

3. Bureaucracy has weakness for not paying attention to human behaviours, relations,

morale and motivational factors.

4. Bureaucracy ignores the whole range of socio cultural environment and behavioural

characteristics of large formal organisations.

5. Bureaucracy is characterised by a passion for routine in administration, the sacrifice

of flexibility to rules, delays in the making of decisions and the refusal to embark

upon experiments.

FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR - SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Scientific Management and its early advocates

Productivity emerged as a serious business problem during the first few years of the twentieth century. Business was expanding and capital was readily available, but labor was in short supply. Hence, managers began to search for ways to use existing labor more efficiently. In response to this need, experts began to focus on ways to improve their performance of individual workers. Their work led to the development of Scientific

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Management. Some of the earliest advocates of Scientific Management are Frederick Winslow Taylor [1856-1915], Frank Gilbreth [1860-1924], Lillian Gilbreth [1878-1972], Harrington Emerson [1853-1931]. Taylor played the dominant role.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

Taylor gave up going to college and started his career as an apprentice pattern maker and Mechanist. He joined a steel company called Midvale in Philadelphia as a Mechanist in 1878 and rose to a position of Chief Engineer after earning himself a degree in engineering through evening classes. He made high speed steel cutting tools and spent most of his life as a consulting engineer.

Taylor is generally acknowledged as the “Father of Scientific Management” because he was the first to advocate the adoption of scientific methods in the field of industrial work process and management to promote industrial efficiency and economy. His experience as an apprentice, a common laborer, a foreman, a master mechanic and then Chief Engineer of a steel company gave Taylor a chance to know first hand the problems and attitudes of workers and to see the great possibilities of improving organizations. His major concern was basically promoting efficiency of production. He was concerned with organization improvements and believed that this could be achieved through recruiting of qualified staff.

What motivated Taylor to come up with Scientific Management?

Taylor developed his theory of "Scientific Management" as he worked his way up from a laborer to a works manager in a US steelworks.

From his observations, Taylor made three key assumptions about human behavior at work:

Man is a rational economic animal concerned with maximizing his economic gain, the question normal human beings always ask is what is my gain as I work for the organization? Is my gain equal to the effort and risk am putting in the organization? If the input does not equal the output in terms of gain, employees will also put in less, if the gain is high, employees naturally will consciously or unconsciously going to put in more too. This is something that friends or management may not influence as its related to the two the input and gain.

People respond as individuals, not as groups, here the assumption is that no matter how much you want to influence fellow employees to raise against the organization, at the end of it, whatever decisions employees will take are decisions reached by each individual, as much as others may attempt to influence others, finally each individual will choose what to do, either join the strike or riot or ignore depending on the decisions of each individual employee.

People can be treated in a standardized fashion, like machines, Taylor here believed that human beings whether man or woman are made in the image of one person, so they are the same, whatever one does, the other person can as well do, thus he designed work procedures to be followed by all in the work place, this would mean persons had the potential to achieve the same at work as long as they

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put in their best, and supervisors would expect similar output from all workers.[ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 130].

Taylor had a simple view about what motivated people at work - money. He felt that workers should get a fair day's pay for a fair day's work, and that pay should be linked to the amount produced [e.g. piece-rates]. Workers who did not deliver a fair day's work would be paid less [or nothing]. Workers who did more than a fair day's work [e.g. exceeded the target] would be paid more.The implications of Taylor's theory for managing behavior at work were: The main form of motivation is high wages, linked to output, Taylor believed that

High wages motivate employees to put in the best at work, not considering that they are other factors that may influence performance at work, other than money.

A manager's job is to tell employees what to do, the thinking here was that its Managers that think and plan the work, the job of the worker is simply to carry out lawful instructions without questioning the thinking of the Manager.

A worker's job is to do what they are told and get paid accordingly, to Scientific management theory the workers simply carry instructions without any single modification, what one is told to do does it in that manner and gets paid for what he has done. [ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 129].

Fundamental Assumptions of Scientific Management[i] Industrial processes can be made open to scientific observation and experimentation.

The work procedures of labor can be reduced to basic motions to ascertain the longest, shortest and average time needed for each motion, for example walking a stretch of 10 meters, bending down to pick up something, etc.

[ii] The standard time prescribed for each operation can be used to achieve a designatedstandard of efficiency and economy.

[iii] The workers can be trained in the best methods for achieving the industrial objectives, by the management.

Taylor's 4 Principles of Scientific Management

After years of various experiments to determine optimal work methods, Taylor proposed the following four principles of scientific management:

[a] Development of a Scientific Method for each element of a person’s work to standardize work methods and replace the old rule of the thumb.

This was to be achieved by scientifically investigating the working conditions and total quantum of work to be done in any enterprise in a given period, and then fixing daily task assignments so that work may be done in a planned way, with higher productivity and lower unit costs. A worker who achieves optimum level of production must be rewarded, but if he fails to increase his output, he should be punished.

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[b] Scientific Selection, Training and Development of workers

Taylor argued that workers must be scientifically selected, trained and placed in jobs for which they are best suited by their physical and intellectual abilities. This, according to Taylor would ensure high productivity and efficiency in organizations [ Rumki Basu 2007, pg 130].

[c] Equal Division of work and responsibility between management and workers

Taylor had noted in his observations that managers placed increasing burden on the workers, while assuming for themselves only minimum responsibilities. Equal division did not mean everybody doing the same work. It simply meant that managers must take over all work for which they are better suited and better trained e.g. planning, organizing, controlling, directing and determining work methods. This is in the same way that men and women in a family setting share work according to their abilities, disposition and training [ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 130].

[d] Mutual cooperation between workers and managers

There must be active cooperation and cordial relations between managers and workers. This is the responsibility of both management and workers. Taylor believed that by maximizing the productive efficiency of each worker, scientific management would also maximize the earnings of workers and employers and hence all conflict between capital and labor would be resolved by the findings of science [ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 130/131].

Successes of Scientific Management

[a] Taylor’s principles were implemented in many factories, often increasing productivity by a factor of three or more. Henry Ford applied Taylor's principles in his automobile factories, and families even began to perform their household tasks based on the results of time and motion studies. For example, in homes when you are baking you use time and motion to ensure that your cake comes out well. When writing examinations especially practical examinations, you also apply time and motion.

[b] According to its proponents, Scientific Management became the accepted management philosophy because: It provided a response to labor unrest and production problems that prevailed at the time.

Its labor-oriented features won its acceptance by managers.

[c] Scientific Management had a strong and positive impact on administrative thought and practice and was an important step in the evolutionary development of management thought. Its growth can be measured by the growth of a science of management through the application of scientific method.

[d] Scientific management helped economies in the USA , Soviet Union and Europe

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to grow because of the increased productivity in industries and the harmonious labor relations brought about by Taylor’s ideas.

Drawbacks of Scientific Management[a] While scientific management principles improved productivity and had a substantial

impact on industry, they also increased the monotony of work. The core job dimensions of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback all were missing from the picture of scientific management.

[b] While in many cases the new ways of working were accepted by the workers, in some cases they were not. The use of stopwatches often was a protested issue and led to a strike at one factory where "Taylorism" was being tested. Complaints that Taylorism was dehumanizing led to an investigation by the United States Congress. Despite its controversy, scientific management changed the way that work was done, and forms of it continue to be used today.

[c] The basic ideals of scientific management and trade unionism were incompatible at the time Taylor came up with scientific management.

Weaknesses in Taylor's Approach

[a] The First and most obvious weakness in Taylor's approach is that it ignores the many differences between people. There is no guarantee that a "best way" will suit every one.

[b] Secondly, whilst money is an important motivation at work for many people, it

isn't for everyone. Taylor overlooked the fact that people work for reasons other than financial reward. In addition, he ignored the human factor in management because the workers wanted justice, status and opportunity above everything else, and as such simply a rise in wages could not automatically lead to added efficiency.

[c] Thirdly, Taylor’s approach was mainly concerned with organizational efficiency viewed in purely mechanistic terms. It completely ignored the human element in the production process and treated workers like machines which can be programmed. It is not practical to set standard time for the performance of each activity by all individuals and use a “whip” to enforce your scheme.

[d] Fourthly, while scientific selection or merit recruitment based on technical qualifications and competitive examination of workers is ideal, it does not guarantee high performance or efficiency. Furthermore, although training of workers is vital, it nevertheless can drain an organization’s resources without necessarily bringing any returns. For example, if an organization spent its time, financial and material resources to train workers who then decide to leave the organization thereafter, would you say that such an organization has benefitted from its investment? It seems that many organizations today prefer to engage people that are already trained and experienced so that there is no loss of resources in training and development. However, the question that may arise here is – can one guarantee the loyalty of such an employee to the organization which did not train them?

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[a] In addition, Scientific Management concerned itself mainly with production, efficiency and managerial problems and ignored the psychological and emotional problems of workers, the routine and monotony of their work, uncertainty of employment etc. all of which affected their productivity.

[b] Finally, it has been argued that Scientific Management was only relevant during Taylor’s time and it is archaic and unsustainable in today’s organizations.[ Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 124-146].

HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY

This theory puts primary emphasis on human beings, psychological innovations and informal

group behaviour in contradiction to the structuralists, exclusive concern for the principles of

the organisation. It lays greater stress on the behaviour of role occupants in an organisation

than on the formal structure of the organisation.

The greatest single influence of human relations theory came from the Hawthorne experiment

which were carried out in the USA by Elton Mayo and his colleagues of the Harward

Business School in the late twenties and early thirties of this century.

The experiment offered a higher salary for much work, but workers only worked up to a point

of earning enough, they avoided over production that it will lead to retrenchments.

Men are motivated by a variety of factors, not purely economic in work and are influenced by

the social environment.

The results of Western Electric Company at Hawthorne in the USA is a historic land mark in

organisational theory since it helped to develop the Human Relations School of organisation,

which focuses on the human being as opposed to focusing on the formulation of the

organisations as a way to influence work performance. The human relations theory or

organisation rejects formal institutionalisation. It considers the informal, day to day function

of the structure more revealing than the mechanistic study of structure and principles of

organisation. It points out that the study of organisational behaviour is very complex process

which has to take into account, both economic and the non-economic variables. In case you

want to know the truth, all the realistic analysis of workers’ behaviour need to be considered,

all the factors motivating them to be studied. White while supporting human relations school

of thought, wrote, “it is the set of work relationships that grow out of the mutual interactions

of persons working together over a long period of time. The informal organisation is more

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subtle, reflecting such matters as social and economic status, race or language differences,

educational levels and personal likes and dislikes. The formal organisation tends to be

rational and impersonal, than informal, emotional and personal. The two usually overlap,

may nearly coincide, or may be far apart, [Rumki Basu, Public Administration Concepts

and Theories, page 140].

Abraham Maslow has also contributed to Human Relation School of thought by bringing in

motivation. Maslow arranged human needs in the hierarchy, the physiological and security

needs, and the higher order needs, the self-actualisation need. In between, there are social

and self esteem needs, which may be called middle order need to surface itself. The meaning

and implication of each of the five needs in the hierarchy versus physiological, security,

social, esteem and self actualisation. A satisfied need is not a motivator. Maslow’s theory of

need hierarchy was criticised mainly on the grounds of sophistication and validity of his

research data and the order of hierarchy of needs. Some criticise that the needs from a lower

order to a higher order do not necessarily operate in the same order all the time. His concept

of self-actualisation is criticised as vague, imprecise and too general. However, all these

theories, they have made a contribution or two, to theories of management and public

administration.

HIERARCHY [SCALAR PRINCIPLE]

Any organisation entails essentially the division of functions among people. The distribution

of functions and responsibilities can be both horizontal and vertical. When additional levels

are added in an organisation structure, its called vertical expansion. But when more functions

or more positions are added without increasing the number of levels like top management,

middle management, supervision and the other levels it is called horizontal growth.

The basic features of a hierarchical organisation may be stated as:

1. A person has only one superior from whom he/she receives orders and instructions.

2. No intermediate level [of authority]

3. A job incumbent who is given responsibility for getting a work done is also endowed

with authority which equals his or her responsibility

4. The entire administrative organisation is divided in successive units and sub units.

5. It is structured in a pyramidal form

6. Authority, command and control in the organisation descends from the top down

wards step by step [ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 185-221].

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The need for the scalar system is important for two major reasons:

1. The division off work into its most economic parts with a view to pursue the ideal of

tasks specialisation is so essential to managerial philosophy; and

2. The patterns of integrating the voluminous behaviours and actions of the

specialisations into one combined effort.

AUTHORITY

Different organisations have different levels of authority, varying from one to ten or more.

The levels will depend on the type of work done, either clerical or manual work. Fayol

defined authority as “the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience’. [Robert C

Appleby, Modern Business Administration, page 154]. While Herbert Simon defined it as

‘the power to make decisions which guide the actions of another.’ Page 154. Authority is not

power, authority can be delegated while you cannot delegate power.

Weber in attempting to define authority he stated, ‘the probability that one actor within a

social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance’.

‘Impersonal control’ or authority on the other hand may mean, probability that a command

with a given specific content will be obeyed by a given group of persons [ Rumki Basu, 2007,

pg 191].

Authority can be considered as the right or power to delegate responsibility and it emanates

in a company from shareholders to the Board of Directors, and down the scalar chain.

There are three [3] types of authority namely Legal Rational Authority, Traditional Authority

and Charismatic Authority. The Legal Rational Authority rests in the Legality of normative

rules, meaning legal authority, in the other word the law gives authority to an office, and the

officer holding office exercises the authority. The authority as guided by the law. The legal

rational Authority draws its power from the law, you have to meet all the set standards in

order to occupy office, entry into office and removal from office will be based on the law and

not arbitrary.

Traditional Authority is passed on from one to another on the basis of inheritance and

lineage. This authority is for life and cannot be questioned even when the office holder goes

against the culture of the people. The practice of this authority at times goes against the

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human rights and accepted international conduct, for example King Mswati is expected to

marry one woman every year till the time of his death, in a modern life with issues of HIV

and Aids, one may be considered out of order to have multiple partners, however, this act

takes place every year.

Charismatic authority, is one based on grace, may be strong at one time and may wither at

another time. Charismatic authority depends on loyalty, the moment loyalty goes down,

authority will go too. Charismatic authority will depend on the personality and influence to

make people move and tender in loyalty, here you cannot question, as soon as loyalty

disappear, power is lost too.

RESPONSIBILITY

Is an obligation to use authority to see duties or tasks that they are done. It is in another way

an obligation to perform duties owed to a person’s superior. Accountability is concerned with

the fact that each person who is given authority and responsibility must recognise that the

executive above him or her will judge the quality of his or her performance [Rumki Basu,

2007, pg 185].

When an officer accepts authority, a person donates the acceptance of responsibility and

accountability. The person or officer who is delegating requires subordinates to allow their

performance to be reviewed and evaluated and holds them accountable for results.

Any sound organisation attempts to define the power of its various members through rules

that control the conduct of its officers. Power is the ability of individuals [officers] or group

of officers to induce or influence the beliefs or actions of others. This ability may be derived

from various sources of rules and a manager must understand these rules and further develop

them in order to gain and maintain the support of followers and understand the social

relationships among them.

Power exists in many ways namely legitimate power, reward power, exercise power and

information power. Other forms of power, covers expert powers, connection powers, and

referring power.

DELEGATION

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Delegation may mean entrusting of one’s occupational authority to another, usually a

subordinate, to facilitate work in the organisation. Authority is always delegated to officers

of a lower rank who should always be accountable for the use of the delegated powers to the

person who delegates them. Delegation of authority is a common feature in all types of large

organisations. For Mooney, delegation is the devolution of authority by a superior person to

his agent or subordinate, but must always supervise and control his subordinate. Delegate is

not a final transfer of power and responsibility to the delegated authority.

Why delegate?

No one person can carry out all tasks in an organisation

Way to avoid delays in administrative bottle necks

In some cases proper adjustment of policy and programme to local conditions requires

discretionary field decisions

As a way to train and educate his subordinates in the out of sharing responsibilities

and making decisions, which is possible only through delegation

Lack of time or energy

Complexity of rules and new techniques means specialists are needed

Need for training for management succession

What are the disadvantages of delegation?

Can be a source of spreading rumours as many members of staff will have access to

information on files delegated to other staff.

You are not assured of competent work, as some officers delegated to will either be

new in the system of less qualified to handle such matters.

You over load yourself, as you have to check again all the work done by others,

thereby slowing down your work pace and speed.

Can bring conflict between the boss and those delegated to who will feel used by

there boss who claims all the credit for work done.

It encourages the boss to be lazy as he will pass all the files to others.

CENTRALISATION

Refers to the withholding of delegated authority at the centre. This may mean all operations

are done under one roof or one location. The degree of centralisation to be adopted is not

easy to determine, it various from one organisation to another. Centralisation slows decision

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making and results in having development at the centre while the outside may not see any

single meaningful development.

DECENTRALISATION

Decentralisation should be distinguished from delegation. Decentralisation may mean the

transfer of administrative authority from the centre to local agencies, who function

autonomously in the field. While delegation on the contrary, implies devolution of authority

by a person to his agent or subordinate subject to his right of supervision and control.

Delegation is distribution of power of functions and not authority and responsibility, which is

delegated only in decentralisation. Creation of institutions like local authorities is not

decentralisation, till authority and power to make decisions is passed on to the local authority,

its at this point that we can talk of decentralisation.

There are two major defects of centralisation:

1. Remoteness of control resulting from loss of contact with Local centres.

2. Top heavy management or over load of work at the centre

Advantages of decentralisation:

1. It helps in the extension of popular control over a large number of functions

2. Facilitates the adjustment of national policies

3. Gives powers to the local units and encourages speedy disposal of cases

4. Decentralisation brings administration closer to the people encouraging participation.

Disadvantages of decentralisation:

You may not find suitably qualified and experienced staff in some rural areas to

employ and do the work.

Once the little resources are spread to all districts the impact of such little funds to

bring development may not be meaningful

You may encourage tribalism and nepotism as other tribes who have settled in those

local areas may be slide lined in employment and involvement in local matters.

The centre may have difficult to supervise the local areas which are far apart and etc

COORDINATION

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In the words of Mooney, coordination “is the orderly arrangement of group effort to provide

unity of action in the pursuit of a common purpose”.

Coordination is needed for three main reasons:

1. Prevent over lapping, conflict and constant interdepartmental functions

2. Enable the employees to take a broad over view of administration instead of a narrow

departmental one

3. To ensure that the right people and right resources are available in the right quantity

in the right circumstances at the right time.

Mac Farland has proposed four (4) major ways of achieving effective coordination:

Clarifying authority and responsibility: one way to achieve coordination is to

ensure the supervisor clearly specify the authority of all involved in a task and

each one understands where his or her authority end to avoid over lapping and

specify each officer’s responsibility so that non does the other person’s work.

Checking and observation: as officers carry out their duties the supervisor must

check and observe that non takes tasks to be done by another, this will strength

good work relation and coordination.

Facilitating effective communication: Coordination is almost impossible

without good and effective communication, communication makes everyone to

appreciate what others are doing, and also know to what extent one should do his

duties without interfering with other people’s duties.

Coordination through leadership: Coordination is not a duty for everyone,

coordination is done through leaders who are supervisors. Good leaders know

their responsibility in coordinating the work and the result is effective

performance, which is supervised and coordinated by the Leaders.

There are two [2] major means of coordination:

Planning: Coordination is only possible if work is planned, and each person

knows his or her duties according to the plan. The plan gives guidance of what is

to be done, when is it to be done, and by whom is it to be done. This process

brings coordination and steady performance of duties.

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Sound principles of organisation: The organization may have a good written

plan and officers are given details how to work within the plan, if the institution

has no principles to guide in performance of duties, coordination will break as

there are no rules or principles to guide workers in performing their tasks. Rules

and principles, play the role of control of excesses.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rumki Basu, Public Administration, Concepts and Theories, 2007, New Delhi,

India, pages 128-153, 185 – 221.

Robert C Appleby,[1994] Modern Business Administration, Kent, China, pages

144-168, 132-143.

CHAPTER THREE: DYNAMICS IN ADMINISTRATION

This chapter will introduce leadership to the students. The term ‘leadership’ may mean a lot of things and no single author explains all details on what leadership may comprise in full.

The major objectives of the topic on leadership among others include:

Students should be able to define the word leadership.

Students should be able to give the different types of leadership that exist.

Students should be able to identify and discuss the different qualities that leaders may have.

Students should be able to discuss and know the behavioural theories of leadership.

Students should be able to discuss theories X and Y and know their impact and influence on leadership.

Students should be able to know what Peter Principle advocates and teaches, and of what use is this principle to leadership.

Students should be able to discuss whether leaders are born or made out of training.

Students should be able to outline and critically discuss the known characteristics of leaders.

While the lecturer will introduce students to leadership, It’s important that each student finds time to read widely on leadership.

What is Leadership?

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Leadership is a means of directing .A Leader’s actions are directed to helping a group to attain its objectives. Leadership is the ability of management to induce subordinates to work towards group goals with confidence and keen interest. Leadership may mean that the Leader accepts responsibility for the achievement of the group objective and it is therefore essential for trust and cooperation from both sides to be in evidence all the time.

What are the types of leaders that exist?

So far, leadership appears in two forms or type known as authoritarian and democratic. These two can either be formal or institutionalised or informal.

The Authoritarian Leader gets others to do things by giving them orders and threats, or little scope to influence decisions. He or she uses fear, threats, and his authority and personality to get his way to what he/she wants done. On the other hand, the democratic leader seeks to persuade and considers the feelings of persons and encourages their participation in decision making.

Studies over the years have shown that the democratic methods gives followers greater job satisfaction and enables them to co-operate better but there is doubt as to whether decisions taken under this sort of leadership are better. Recent studies are more doubtful about democratic leadership because outside influences for example government, consumers, exert pressure and if a leader becomes too employee – centred, production may suffer and morale fall.

Leadership can be formal, having delegated authority, and can exert great influence. Informal leaders can initiate action, but do not have the same authority. The choice of a leader should be based on an accurate diagnosis of the environment, taking into consideration that effective Leadership depends upon many conditions.

What are the qualities of a Leader?

No two persons would ever agree on the desired qualities, as almost every human strength or virtue will be required. The elements of persuasion, compulsion and example may be considered to be essential to effective leadership.

Lord Montgomery, in his book “Path To Leadership”, noted that ‘.... one who can be looked up to, whose personal judgement is trusted, who can inspire and warm the hearts of those he leads, gaining their trust, and confidence and explaining what is needed in a language which can be understood”.

As for Chester Bernard in his function of an executive considers a leader as one who has skill, technology, perception, knowledge, physique, memory, imagination, determination, endurance and courage.

It should now be clear to everyone that the Leadership qualification that are needed in a particular situation are not usually found in any one individual. From this hypothesis it can be seen that, if a particular vacancy has to be filled, the strengthens and weaknesses of the

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person who is being appointed should be considered, along with those of the people he will be working with, as no single person may have all the qualities in himself or herself.

In view of the foregoing, a successful leader therefore can be considered to be perceptible and flexible and able to act appropriately, in one situation he/she is strong, in another he/she is permissive. It is worth noting also that the formal status of an individual does not indicate the ability he has to influence others, as such ability is rather a combination of his position and his personality.

What are the known behavioural theories of Leadership?

As we already know, a theory is an idea, opinion which has not been tested or proved. In this regard one would say the theories of leadership begun when unique leaders’ traits were questioned in the 1940s. It was considered that the qualities of leaders could be analysed better by looking at their behaviour or their behavioural style that causes others to follow them.

Trait theory?

A trait is a physical or psychological characteristic that counts for the behaviour of a person. Trait theories grew out of quality found in greater or well known natural leaders, whom it was thought were born with leadership qualities.

It was later agreed that if traits of natural leaders were identified, it would be possible for others to acquire them through learning and experience.

The known social psychologists were interested in Leadership as an aspect of behaviour in the work place and not just in personal characteristics. Two studies on leadership, which are important, occurred at the University of Ohio and Michigan in the USA. The studies were led by R. Stogdill and R. Likert and both concluded that there were two principle aspects of Leadership behaviour namely:

A concern for people

A concern for production

These two studies led to the development of a matrix to depict managerial leadership styles.

The study concluded that in making an appropriate choice of how autocratic or democratic to be, a manager needed to consider three sets of issues.

Personal concerns –own values, level of confidence, confidence in the subordinate

Subordinate concerns – subordinated needs for responsibility and independence, then knowledge and interest of the problem at hand

Concern for the situation: nature of the problem, competences of the group in handling the problem and time available

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Leadership style as presented in theory X and theory Y by D. McGregor:

McGregor presents two theories of management based on the assumption of two human characters. Theory X is a traditional view of direction and control, while Theory Y is the integration of individual and organizational goals. In theory X, the argument is that in every managerial decision or action are assumptions about human nature and human behaviour.

Theory X assumes that:

[i] The average person has an inherent dislike or dislikes work and will attempt to avoid work if possible, management has a responsibility to counteract an inherent human tendency to avoid work.

[ii] People therefore must be coerced, forced, controlled and directed and threatened with punishment in order to get them work towards organisation goals. The dislike of work is so strong that even the promise of rewards is not generally enough to overcome it. People have a tendency to accept rewards and demand continually higher ones, but these alone will not produce the necessary effort. One will assume that the threat of punishment may move people to do work.

[iii]The average person prefers to be directed and wants to avoid responsibility; he has if any, little ambition and desires security above all.

In the views of McGregor he considered this approach was based upon wrong assumption about motivation and theory Y was preferred which entails:

[i] Expenditure of physical and natural energy is as play or rest. Work can be a source of satisfaction. Here we find that an average human being does not inherently dislike work, they want work without supervision of any kind. Depending on the conditions available, work may be a source of satisfaction, thus can be performed voluntarily, or could be a source of punishment, thus will be avoided if possible.

[ii] People can exercise self direction and control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. Here the argument is that external control and threats of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.

[iii] Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement, the thinking here is that the satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs, can be direct product of effort directed towards organizational objectives.

[iv] Under proper condition people can learn to accept and seek responsibility. This means that an average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. For anyone to avoid responsibility, lack of ambition and

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emphasis on security are generally consequences of experience, not inherent human characteristics.

(v) Ability to use imagination and creative thinking is widely distributed in the population. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.

(vi) The intellectual potential of the average person in industrial life is only partially realized. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.

One would in this view conclude that the practical manager can be helpful by analysing various approaches to leadership styles, but he/she must come to his/her own conclusion and adapt to the actual situation.

[ Pugh D.S. 1982, Organization Theory, pages 305-323].

WHAT IS CONTINGENCY OR SITUATIONAL THEORIES OF LEADRSHIP?

The most recent approach to understanding of leadership is based on the previous behavioural theories. The theories state that the value of the actions of a leader depend upon the actual situation in which actions are taken. An autocratic leadership approach may, for example, be a situation for managers in a factory but not for managers of the development and design staff.

This is known and called the contingency or situational approach, and attempts to explain leadership within the context of a larger situation in which it occurs. This is in contrast to earlier theories which concentrated on the behaviour of leaders.

Research into leadership by F. Fiedler in Ohio, USA, has been summarized in his book ‘A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness [1970, McGraw-Hall]. Leaders are placed on a scale depending upon whether they are task-oriented or people-oriented. R. Likeit was involved in these investigations and he finds this approach to conform to research by others. This showed that whenever foremen created an atmosphere which contributed to discussion of work problems in a relaxed, national way, when they had time to discuss personal problems Leaders could stand up and support their men, the result showed the workers had a higher satisfaction and low absenteeism.

Fiedler suggested that the extent to which a manager should be democratic or authoritarian in leadership style related to:

[a] The authority and power he had in his position as manager because he/she has the right to hire dismiss and reward.

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[b] The extent and nature of the interpersonal relations between the leader and members of the group, for example, high as on a conveyor assembly while low or unstructured as on investigation, needing wide discretion.

In this contingency or situational theory of leadership, he suggested that where relations between members and leaders are good and the task basically unstructured and the power of the leader weak, his style should be more democratic and considerate. If the opposite was the case, then more authoritarian style would appear to be appropriate.

WHAT PETER PRINCIPLE ADVOCATES AND WHAT IT TEACHES?

There are people who arrive at a senior position through their abilities, but these abilities may not act to their advantage when they are there. This seems to reflect the approach taken by Laurence J. Peter in his book the “Peter Principle”. Which states “in a hierarchy, each employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence: Every post tends to be occupied by an employee incompetent to execute his duties”. He illustrates this by suggesting that usually competent workers become incompetent senior executives. The fact is that there are competent person at the top of hierarchy, but only because there are not enough ranks for them to have reached their levels of incompetence. This idea has wide implications, particularly for management training, but must not be considered a universal statement applying to all organization or persons.

LEADERSHIP TRAINING

Some abilities that leaders have may take a person to the top but may not work well for him or her when he/she reaches the top. This means that any member of the team may become a better leader if there are circumstances that enable him or her to perform the needed functions of leadership, and different persons may contribute in a different way to a leadership of the group. This implies that leadership is an organizational function rather than a personal quality.

Training for leadership is organised around the eight elements. The eight [8] elements are objective setting, planning, controlling, evaluating, motivating, organizing, briefing and setting examples. Any good training for Leaders will take into account the eight [8] elements, each element should be taught carefully so that the Leaders understand the importance and value of each item

Objective setting: The objectives usually give direction to where the group wants to go. This will only be achieved if the leader takes interest in setting good and clear objective which are achievable and can easily be measured to see how much you have achieved in terms of execution.

Planning: A plan gives the details of what a group wants to achieve, it will give details of activities to be done, by whom, when and the cost of such activities. The plan should be clear and detailed enough to be understood by every member of the group.

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Controlling: Control is very important, even where objectives and the plan are clear, if there is no control, nothing will move, the leader must learn the art and act of controlling other without putting their morale low. The control must be within what the objective and plan intends to achieve.

Evaluating: The purpose of evaluation is to determine whether you are in line with the objectives and the plan. The current thought is that as you begin to implement the plan and the objectives, you begin to evaluate immediately, this will help you to change direction the moment you see that you are off target, and you will waste little resource than wait to go a long way in the wrong direction and later return.

Motivating: A lot of workers and members of the teams always limit motivation to receiving money or rewards, and yet, good work culture and practices can also motivate people to higher standards. The good working environment can also play a very important role in motivating those that are led.

Organizing: Organizing brings in the aspect of putting human resource, material resource and financial resources where they are needed and at the right time and in right quantities. This will avoid wastage and un necessary work stoppage due to running out of necessary materials.

Briefing: Briefing may mean passing information to concerned personnel so that they understand and appreciate what is going on, and why they are doing things the way they are doing them. Lack of briefing results in speculations, rumours and brings the morale of the team low, they lose direction and confidence.

Setting examples: You can only be a good leader if you understand the tasks done by the group you lead. Since you know the tasks being done, you can do them to show others what to do, thus leading by example. Even, before a mistake is done, you will be able to know as you understand the whole process of doing such an activity.

It should be noted that the idea of the model is to encourage a flexible approach to leadership and he considers leadership to be more in the adopting of appropriate behaviour than of person traits.

SYSTEMS APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP:

A system approach to leadership would require the leader, to follow a situation as inter-dependent units all engaged in the production of desired out puts, and would consider what are the relationships involved and to what extent are they aimed at mutual goals? There are several key factors to consider in a more modern approach that the leader and the group adjust their behaviour dynamically to each other.

It is not easy to summarise briefly the various approaches, but it appears that no one type of person, or set of personality characteristics, can be associated with successful leaders. Factors which were considered important were found by examining the type of task personally done, whether the leader is elected or appointed and any special competence of the leader.

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The last few years have seen a great deal of uncertainty confronting managers in their role as leaders. Many factors which were usually considered fixed are now unpredictable.

Like many other authors on leadership, John C. Maxwell in his article, ‘Developing the Leader in You’, [Nashville: Thomas Nelson, inc, 1993] pages ix, 201 and 202 has attempted to list qualities of a successful leader as follows:

Uses his/her own power for good at the right time and in the right way: the Leader uses his or her power for the good of the institution and at the right time. He or she never uses public time and resources for private ends.

Is accountable for his/her mistakes: A good Leader accepts his mistakes, does not look for praise, he or she attributes success to the group and not an individual. One is accountable for his mistakes without pushing them under the carpet or throwing them to his junior.

Is honest in not just large but the small things as well: Honest is to start with small things then latter in big things, if one I not honest in small things how can one be honest in big things? In big things its easy to cover up than in small things.

Motivates and inspires others: The Leader has an important role of motivating others and giving them hope, if the Leader is the first to get discouraged then everyone else will give up. The Leader give hope and motivation to others in the group.

Leads by example: A good Leader leads by example, does not expect others to do what he/she fail to do, what he or she fail to do, will not demand others to do, what the leader does and achieves, will then motivate others to do after him or her.

Puts others first : The majority of Leaders, especially in the Political arena are bad Leaders, they want to be worshipped and praised, they always want to get the best out of the nation, some want to enjoy even in their death at the expense of those they lead. Good leaders always put the needs of the lead first, and their needs last, just like a good parent wants first his or her children to eat first and the parent last.

Overcomes adversity: A good Leader always never give up, attempts to fight on till it completely fails. The Leader who gives up to soon, discourages the group he or she is leading. A good Leader has good determination and is focused to the point.

Hold fast to integrity: Integrity is the standard expected of Leaders and other employees. To build integrity takes along long time, to destroy integrity is a one second business. Therefore, one who is a Leader needs to be careful of activities one gets involved in, as some activities may spoil your good integrity built after a long time.

Knows when to compromise without compromising principles: The world has a big challenge as we encourage participation, which calls for compromise, a good Leader may compromise on general issues but not principles of the organisation, any compromise on the principles will affect the integrity, reputation and the business ethics, and may damage the image of the company or group. The

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principles on which the firm, company or group stands should never be compromised.

Bibliography

Robert C. A Appleby, Modern Business Administration, 1994, 6th Edition, Prentice Hall, London, pages 190 to 197.

John C Maxwell, 1993, Developing the Leader within You, Nashville, Thomas Nelson, inc, pages ix, 201-202

Rumki Basu, 2007, 5th edition, Public Administration- concepts and theories, Sterling Publishers private Limited, India page 233.

CHAPTER FOUR: PUBLIC PERSONAL ADMINISTRATION

This topic intends to introduce students of Public Health to Public Personal Administration.

The topic aims to make students familiar with the process of recruitment and selection. With

a focus on patronage versus merit systems, minorities in the job market and give sound

reasons why each ruling party in Africa claims the ownership on Civil Servants of their

respective countries.

This topic has several objectives among which are:

Students should have basic knowledge on the content of recruitment policies and

procedures.

Students should know generally important questions that should be considered in

developing questions for recruitment.

Students should know in details the recruitment and selection process.

Students should be able to outline and discuss the critical points to be considered on

job description.

Students should be able to discuss the whole process of selection and recruitment

from the time that the vacancy is filled.

Students should know the various tests that are necessary in the selection and

recruitment process.

Students should know the difference between patronage and merit system of

recruitment and be able to give the merits and demerits of each system.

Students should be able to know and identify the minorities on the job market and

create an environment in which all human beings will be treated in the same way in

the market.

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Students should be able to know the general preparations that are required to be done

before an interview is set in motion.

Students should be able to explain in details the preparations that are made for an

interview.

Recruitment and Selection

This topic addresses and outlines the typical stages of recruitment and selection process in

organizations, and considers certain aspects of the process in greater details.

There is a difference between “recruitment” and “selection”. The main aim of recruitment is

to make sure that the organization‘s demand for employees is met by attracting potential

employees [recruits] in a cost effective and timely manner. The aim of selection is to identify,

from those coming forward, the individuals most likely to fulfil the requirements of the

organization. To put it in another way, recruitment is concerned with assembling of the raw

materials and selection is the right blend for the organization, at a particular point in time.

RECRUITMENT: POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

Recruitment policies and procedures constitute the code of conduct which the organization is

prepared to follow in its search for possible recruits on the market place. Some good

examples of reputable policies in the field are as follows:

Advertise all vacancies internally before use of external sources.

Always advertise under the company name when advertising externally.

Endeavour to ensure that every applicant for a position in the Company or Ministry is

informed in advance about the basic details of the vacancy, and the basic conditions

of employment attached to it.

Endeavour to ensure that applicants are kept informed of the progress through the

recruitment procedure.

Seek possible candidates on the basis of their ability to perform the job required

Avoid making knowingly exaggerated or misleading claims in recruitment literature

or job advertisements.

Avoid discrimination or unfairness against possible candidates on the ground of sex,

race, age, religion or physical disablement.

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The recruitment activities of an organization are carried out mainly by the human resources

officers. These activities represent the marketing role of human resource, reaching out across

the organization’s external boundaries into the labour market. It’s important, therefore, that

such activities are conducted in a manner that sustains or enhances the good reputation of the

organization.

What are the critical points to be considered on a job description?

ITEM QUESTION TO BE CONSIDERED

1 Has the vacancy been agreed by the responsible manager?

2 Is there an up – to – date job description for the vacant position?

3 What are the conditions of employment [salary, hours, holidays etc] for the vacant

position?

4 Has a candidate specification been prepared?

5 Has a notice of the vacancy been circulated internally?

6 Has a job advertisement been agreed? Have details of the vacancy been forwarded to

relevant agencies?

SELECTION PROCESSES:

In the recruitment process, there are six [6] stages namely: Man power planning, attracting job candidates, selecting job candidates, medical examinations, engagement and finally you induct the new employee into the organization through the laid down procedure.

Man power planning: Man power planning is a task for Human Resource Department. A good and well run HRA always takes stock of its staff, by ensuring they have a quarterly staff return, for all employees. This will ensure you know when any single employee will retire and get replaced. Those on contract, you will know when their contracts will come to an end and either renew or advice them to leave the organization following laid down procedures. This is a very difficult task as its difficult to know who will die or even resign from work, however, this should not stop us from planning.

Attracting job candidates: this can be done through internal and external job advertise. These should be put, in terms of external, in news papers that are read widely.

Selecting job candidates: You can select job candidates either by interviews or screening of curriculum vitae. Following the company or organization policy you may be guided as to which method to use.

Medical examinations: Those applicants who are chosen may be subjected to medical examinations, however, individuals should not be subjected to HIV/Aids tests

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against the wish of the applicants. HIV /Aids tests may be taken by respectful applicants voluntarily if there is a benefit to be received by those who are found positive during the test.

Engagement: Those applicants chosen may at this point be saved with letters of appointment to the organization. The letters will spell the conditions of engagement and the formal way to separate, or disengage.

Induction: This is the method by which an organization introduces its new employees to how the organization operates and works. This is a two way process, the worker is introduced to the work environment and to the exactly tasks that an employee will be performing in an organization.

THE SELECTION INTERVIEWS:

There are basically three [3] types of interviews namely selection interviews, appraisal interviews and exist interviews. The three types of interviews are used for separate reasons.

Selection interviews: This type of interview method is used when you want to recruit persons in an organization. Individuals appear before a panel to assess their suitability for employment to a vacant post.

Appraisal interviews: Carried out to assess the employees for promotion or for training opportunity. The panel attempt to assess the suitability for promotion, or establish the gaps in skills so that they are sent for further training, to improve skills and close the gaps.

Exit interview: These are interviews to establish reasons why a particular employee has resigned from employment.

When does interviews begin for an applicant?

Interviews for a serious applicant begins the moment you tender in your application, you will need to begin gathering information about the institution and the particular post you have applied for. You can collect information through the Public Relations office of the organization or from any reliable source.

How to prepare for interviews as an applicant?

Collect all the necessary information that you may require during interviews. The information to collect may cover, duties of the post, structure of the

organization, why the organization exist, salary structure especially for your particular post, etc

Prepare all your academic and professional papersKnow where the interviews will be held, timings for the interviews and the necessary requirements to carry

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SELECTION TESTS:There are many types of tests given to effect a selection of employees, this paper will attempt to given a brief on six [6] of the tests commonly used in Zambia, The following are the Common tests used:

Interview test: The most common method used is interview test, this can either be oral or written, guided or unguided, random or specific.

Psychological tests: Standard tests designed to provide a relatively objective measure of certain human characteristics.

Intelligence test: These are designed to measure the thinking ability. How one can get from his or her brain what he or she has not been taught, purely using intelligence.

Aptitude tests: Basically are tests to measure innate skills, skills which exist in a person before they are developed and put to use.

Attainment tests: These measure the depth of knowledge the one has grasped or acquired.

Personality tests: Usually a choice of questions in response to theoretical situations. Identify an individual’s principal personality traits or dimensions for example introverts, sociable or isolate.

PATRONAGE VERSUS MERIT SYSTEM:

Basically there are two [2] major systems used in recruitment namely by patronage and by merit.

Patronage: The term patronage may mean the power of employers, both public and private, and elected officials of government to make appointments on partisan considerations and to confer licenses, contracts, honours, franchises and other benefits on political supporters, friends or relatives. One would say this system is an incentive or ‘spoil system’ by filling of public offices with political supporters or a favour to a political supporter.

What are the merits of patronage? Allows for the appointment of people who are not only well qualified but are also

flexible and adaptable to the employer’s philosophy. You employ someone you know and you are comfortable to work with and can trust. You employ people that you know their capabilities and skills that they will bring in

the organization to put it on high.

What are the demerits of patronage?

This may compromise on efficiency in the organization as people without suitable qualifications and relevant experience might be employed.

Officials employ without regard to suitability, as a result performance, nepotism and corruption may destroy the organization.

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The employee may not perform neither follow organizational rules as he or she feels protected by the boss who single handed employed him or her.

Recruitment by Merit: Recruitment on the basis of merit principle by contrast, is seen as selection of candidates on the basis of technical and professional qualifications, competitive examination, equal opportunity and political neutrality. Recruitment on merit means meeting the basic standards and requirements as articulated by selection criteria that reasonably relates to work to be done. It is an objective, and often quantifiable measure, requiring few value judgement apart from the professional judgement of those involved in determining educational qualifications or aptitude test standards.Merit recruitment is usually associated with Max Weber’s model of Bureaucracy. His argument was that a Bureaucrat should recruit the best personnel possible, and that merit recruitment was the only criteria that guaranteed filling the available positions with the most qualified personnel.

What are the demerits of merit recruitment? Takes no account of the importance of harmony in the working relationship. People

are recruited without out considering how the new employee will relate with his supervisors and other employees in the organization.

Possession of technical and professional qualifications alone does not necessarily guarantee efficient performance.

You may recruit a person that you will need to teach the job, regardless of their academic qualifications.

What are the benefits of Merit recruitment?

You tend to recruit employees purely on the basis of the set standards without favouring your relatives and friends.

Work is done professionally You accept to work with anybody who has the set qualification regardless of their

tribe, origin, etc

WHO ARE THE MINORITY IN THE JOB MARKET?

The term minority means any group of employees who are few in any given firm or organization. These include the blind, the lame or physically challenged, the deaf, uneducated, over qualified with no experience, foreigners with legal documents to be in the country, and those who are properly qualified but lack experience as they are straight from college and universities. These find it hard if not impossible to penetrate the job market unless helped by those that know them.

HOW CAN YOU ENSURE THE MINORITY’S INTERESTS ARE PROTECTED IN THE JOB MARKET?

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The fact that the minority are discriminated against is a very serious issue, their human rights are affected, and may live in their own country as if they are refugees. The government of the day has a responsibility to protect the interest of the minority or disadvantaged. The following measures can be taken to protect the minority in the job market:

Develop a system backed by a law which can be used by the minority to complain about injustice and an immediate remedy be enforced to correct the situation.

Develop a system where all vacancies are advertised and a transparent method of recruitment is used which removes all manner of favour and nepotism.

Stiffen the punishment for those practicing the evil. Introduce monetary gains through reduction of tax by those who show details of the

minority accessing employment in such firms.

What should an organization do in preparing for interviews?

Advertise in popular media all positions. Short list suitable candidates. Hire conference facilities in a good place. Contact all the short listed candidates after fixing a day for interviews, better you

follow up with phone calls to be sure they have received invitation letters. Inspect facilities at the hired conference. Prepare scoring sheets in good time. Confirm with the people on the panel that they will be available. Ensure refreshments are of good standards. Let the panel agree on how they will be scoring candidates during interviews. Agree on ground rules to be followed during interview sessions.

RECRUITMENT PRACTICES IN THE ZAMBIAN CIVIL SERVICE:

The Zambian Civil Service has used both patronage and merit systems in recruiting Civil Servants. Interviews has been applied as a tool to select would be employees to enter the Civil Service, while all positions of Permanent Secretaries and Commissioners are filled on patronage by each of the five [5] Presidents that Zambia has had, this has greatly dragged the standing of the Civil Service to higher levels of compromise and mistrust by the General Public. Of late Party interference in the recruitment of the Civil Servants has largely increased, which results in the ruling Party claiming ownership of the Civil Service.

[Gary Dessler, 2011, pages 28-254]

CHAPTER FIVE: POLITICAL EDUCATION

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This chapter will give a brief discussion of political education. Students of Public Health may wonder whether it’s necessary that they have knowledge of political education. All public workers including, health workers cannot avoid politics as their employer is government run by politicians. In this regard, politics are a necessary evil that cannot be avoided. In real sense, the topic is broad, but for the purpose of a student in Public Health, the requirement is to know the basic concepts. In view of the foregoing, students will be required to know a list of concepts.

The listed below are the objectives of the study in Political Education:

Students should be able to define, understand and explain to others the following terms Parliament, Executive, Judiciary [Legal System] Marxist, Non – Marxist, Pluralist, Theories, Democratisation, Good Governance, Elections, Electoral Systems, Constitutions, Constitutionalism, Policy Design, Policy Decision Making, Policy Implementation and Policy Evaluation.

Students should be able to understand and explain to others the core existence that is found between Parliament, Executive and Judiciary in Zambia and other countries, while using the differences on the interaction of the three arms of government between developed countries and underdeveloped countries or third world countries.

Students should be able to understand, explain to others and appreciate the theories and roles of the state covering Marxism, Non – Marxism and Pluralist theories.

Students should be able to understand, explain to others and appreciate the role of democratisation as related to good governance and how the later may foster development in a given nation.

Students should be able to explain the role elections and electoral systems may play as an effective input on social economic development.

Students should be able to understand that a Constitution is a primary law of any given country on which all other laws in that land point to.

Students should be able to understand that a policy is not what is on a piece of paper in black and white, but the actual practices of a nation or an institution both local and international.

Topic One: Administering National Government

The Zambian government has three arms of the government, namely the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary. In general, and world over there are two [2] types of Executive, namely the Parliamentary and Presidential. Zambia falls in the hybrid type, it neither Parliamentary nor Presidential, combines some of the elements from the two [2] major systems.

A careful analysis of the Cabinet and Presidential types of chief Executive reveals many points of difference. In countries having the Parliamentary System of Government, the real Chief Executive is the Cabinet, which is a plural body, power is not in a person but persons that form Cabinet [Rumki Basu, page 233.]

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The Prime Minister, who is the head of the Cabinet, is only a first among equals and regards other members as his colleagues. Unlike, the Chief Executive in a Presidential system of government is a single individual, the President. The US President has ten Secretaries in charge of the ten administrative departments, his subordinates, not colleagues, and are removable by him [Rumki Basu page 233].

The second difference between the two systems, Parliamentary system and Presidential system is that the difference concerns the Executive-Legislature relationship. In a Parliamentary government, the Members of the Parliament, the Members of the Cabinet are also Members of the Parliament, in fact, they provide legislative and fiscal leadership to it, the Ministers imitate, pilot legislation and the budget. The cabinet is accountable to the Parliament, which has a ultimate power of removing it from the office. This means that there is continuous and ultimate executive and legislative relationship. When you look at the presidential system on the other hand a President is neither a Member of Parliament nor accountable to and removable by it, this creates some of genuine separation of powers and a system of checks and balances. This makes the Presidency and the Congress two separate co-equal entities, independent of each other and does induce in the Congress a feeling of distrust towards the Chief Executive [Rumki Basu page 233]

The Swiss Executive belongs to neither of the two systems discussed above, though it has features of both systems. The Swiss Executive is a plural body of seven [7] members of equal status, thus eliminating a situation of any one like a Prime Minister. These members have seats in the legislature to which they are accountable, but have no right to vote. The Swiss Executive is elected for a fixed period during which it cannot be ousted or removed from office. This elected body has no power to dissolve the legislature. The collegiate type, thus retains the principal merits of both Parliamentary and the Presidential system.

What are the Functions of the Chief Executive?

[I]. in the modern era, the Chief Executive has many functions and duties to perform which fall into major categories namely; Political and Administrative. Political covers the obtaining and retaining legislature support for his policies and programmes, by providing leadership to the nation. These are very important functions, which the Chief Executive cannot afford to neglect only at the risk of his losing power or office. The administrative function covers planning, organizing, directing, staffing, coordinating, reporting, and budget which Gulick called ‘PODSCORB’.

[II]. The Chief Executive authorises the structure of the organization through which the administration functions. New activities may cause the creation of new departments and agencies. Generally speaking, the internal structure of the department or ministries are usually determined by the Chief Executive.

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[III]. The Chief Executive is the custodian of the power of the government personnel administration, he appoints and dismisses Public Officials. He gets his/her power from the constitutional system of the Land. Thus the power of the Chief Executive differs from country to country depending on the content of the Constitution which gives him or her power.

[IV]. The Chief Executive issues directives, proclamations, orders, to make the administrative activities conform to the statutory provisions. The tone of administration is largely set by the quality of the directives or orders etc issued by the Chief Executive.

[V]. The Chief Executive has budgetary responsibilities. The Chief Executive prepares and submits the annual budget to the legislature, after the approval by legislature, it executes and implements it.

[VI]. Coordination is among the most important functions of the Chief Executive. In administration, conflicts and differences do occur; it’s his or her duty to coordinate and solve out all conflicts and differences. Also at times more than one department might be engaged in some single activity, which may result in duplication and over lapping. It is among his/her major functions to see that the many activities currently under taken by several departments in pursuance of a particular policy lead up to the realisation of the desired objectives. No single person can do all these activities by himself, he appoints Ministers and others that help him/her carry out the functions, but he/she remains responsible and answerable to the voters.

The Legislature

Normally legislature performs the task of Law-making in a political system. This does not mean that they have independent decision making power or that they actually frame the official policy. It’s often said that the British and Indian Parliaments merely consent to laws that are originated by political parties and pressure groups, framed by bureaucrats and introduced in the legislature by the government. This is because the government enjoying a comfortable majority in the legislature knows that it can get any measure of its choice passed by Parliament, [Rumki Basu, page 450].

In the course of approving or passing the law, Parliament performs other important functions like deliberating, scrutinising, criticising, publicising government policies and their consequences for the public on the floor of the House. However in the American system of separation of powers, legislature often take an independent and final decision in matters of the law-making. In the USA Congress, the Standing Committees have ultimate authority over proposed legislature [Rumki Basu, page 450.]

In the American system, in matters of foreign and defence policy, the Congress is guided more by Presidential initiatives. An individual legislator while voting will be guided more by his Party affiliations than personal bias ideological orientations. He may also be guided by his or her constituency requirements in particular cases. In Parliamentary democracy[s] especially in third world countries voting is essentially on party lines. [Rumki Basu page 450.]

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In comparison, the Chinese National Legislature often merely ratifies or confirms decision made by high officials within the Communist Party. One would conclude that legislatures generally tend to show greater independence in policy formulation in presidential system [USA] than in the Parliamentary [India].

Finally, in the Parliamentary system, a mass of legislation is made under the power delegated to the Ministers, a mass of legislation is made under the powers delegated to the Ministers by parent statutes for reason of pressure on Parliamentary time, the technical quality of such legislation, and need for sufficient time to develop adequate administration machinery. However in most countries only small proportion of such statutory instruments delegated legislation receive any Parliamentary scrutiny at all [Rumki Basu, page 451]

The Zambian legislature is founded on the Constitution, Articles No: 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, Section 63 gives the Membership:

1. 150 elected

2. 8 nominated

3. The speaker of the National Assembly.

In the Zambian scene, the Executive sits in Parliament which results in compromise on the separation of power. Parliament among other things does the following:

Pass laws: Parliament in Zambia passes all laws which are later assented to by His Excellence the President of the Republic of Zambia to become Laws, until they are amended they remain law to be obeyed by all living in the country both citizens and no citizens.

Ratify appointments: All constitutional appointments covering Secretary to the Cabinet, chief Justice, Supreme Court judges, High Court Judge, and other constitutional officers are ratified before they take office.

Pass budget: Parliament debates and passes the national budget, any additional expenditure is further approved by Parliament.

Discuss policy and give policy direction: Parliament while in sitting, they discuss and give direction to any policy. All policies must be in line with the approved law of the land. Ministers of respectful Ministries, from time to time present Ministerial statements which are debated on the floor of the House.

Delegates legislation to Ministers: Parliament delegates to respectful Ministers the power to make Laws outside Parliament, which laws are known as Statutory Instruments [S.I.], these are supposed to be later approved by the whole House.

Scrutinize expenditure by government and other agencies that are government run: Public Accounts Committee and the Auditor General are the major institutions used by the Government to monitor and scrutinize public expenditure.

Etc

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The Legal System and Judiciary

In countries where Courts have power of Judicial review, they have [as in the United States] plays an important role in policy formulation. The courts have often greatly affected the nature and content of public policy through exercise of the power of judicial review and statutory interpretation in cases brought before them.

However, the judiciary, in any political system, participates in the policy making process indirectly. Courts are approached to interpret and decide the meaning of Legislative provisions that are often generally stated and permit conflicting interpretations.

The Judiciary in democratic systems play a major role in the formulation of social and economic policies. Much of the law relating to such matters, equal protection of the law relating to property ownership, corporations, and the position of women in society has been developed and applied by the Court in the shape of Common law.

The Zambian Judiciary is founded on the Constitution, Articles 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99. The Zambian Judiciary has four [4] major levels, Supreme Court, the final Court of decision or appeal, the High Court and Industrial Relations Courts, the Magistrates Court, with three grades or classes, namely Class one, Class two and Class three and the Local Courts. The President directly appoints Supreme Court Judges and High Court Judges, with the Chairman or Deputy Chairman of the Industrial Relation Court. The appointment of Judges by the Head of State is ratified by Parliament.

The world call for the separation of the three arms of the government, but must at all times interact, it’s the thin area where separation may exist. In third world countries, separation is a myth and may never take root, unless the mind set of individuals change as to make laws that will make it possible to operate in a separation but interactive manner.

The Constitution of Zambia gives the Executive powers of creation and existence in Articles 33 to 61

TOPIC TWO: THEORIES AND ROLES OF THE STATE

The study of Political Education entails exploring the nature of the State and Society. This implies that citizens need to know what constitutes the State, the activities of the State, and how the State relates to a citizen and society at large. In order for one to gain such knowledge he/she must first of all have basic knowledge about the rules and the regulations that control the State. This is in view of the fact that the State is a legal association. The State, in this sense, is distinguished from society, nation and other associations by virtue of its being the exclusive possessor of a cohesive power, a power that issues forth in the form of law. Every State is therefore, known by the system of laws it maintains because this is what makes it

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possible for one to distinguish bad governance and good governance. Considering that the functions of the State is not merely limited to the execution of law, but also to enforcing law in a just manner, this unit introduces the theories of the role of the State covering Marxist, non- Marxist and Pluralist theories. The knowledge of these theories will enable one to understand how Public Policies are not made in a vacuum, but that their formulation and implementation are guided by a legal frame work on the basis of the beliefs of the rulers and the ruled.

THEORIES AND THE ROLE OF THE STATE:

The term State is used interchangeably with other terms like ‘government’, ‘nation’, ‘society’, ‘country’ although one would argue that the State is distinguishable from all above. However, different views about its nature with the result that it ranges from anything like an agency of positive good to the liberals and the democratic socialists to an instruments of exploitation and oppression by one class over another to the anarchists and the Marxists, or from its idealisation at the hands of Hegel in the form of ‘the march of God on earth’ to its condemnation as an almost unnecessary and undesirable evil at the hands of Proudhon [Johari JC, 2012, pg. 39]. One needs to know that the State is the fundamental theme of the discipline whose best manifestation appears in the form of power that, in the words of Austin, makes a society, political as well as independent [ Johari, 2012, pg 40].

MEANING AND ELEMENTS OF THE STATE:

The word ‘State’ in a literal use, may mean different things to different people. It may mean a condition or description of things, it can as well refer to anything official, in contrast to things that are private owned or controlled, in this sense it becomes synonym of the word ‘government’. However in Political theory or arena, it has a technical expression implying a human association having four [4] essential elements, population, territory government and sovereignty. The term State is very old, but its last elements [sovereignty] is a contribution of the modern age. The Greeks used the term ‘polis’ that meant ‘city-state’ and as such, political science was like a municipal science for them.

Population: Since State is a human association, the first essential elements is the people. There is no exactly fixed number that makes a State. Plato suggests a figure of 5,040 people for his sub-ideals State in the laws and a modern thinker like Rousseau prefers the population of 10,000 in a real democratic State. The fact is that the ‘State” of the world vary in terms of demographic strength. We have States with a population of more than 100 million as China and with a strength of few thousand people like San Marino. Aristotle argues that the population of a State should neither be so large that administration may be a problem, nor o small that the people may not lead a life of peace and security. It should be so much that the people may lead a life of self-sufficiency [Johari JC 2012, pg 41].

Territory: Always the State has a territory of its own. The nomadic tribes cannot have a State of their own for the reason that they do not have a fixed territory. The territory of a State covers land, water, and also the air space, it has maritime jurisdiction extending up to a distance of 5 kilometres, while others claim up to 25 kilometres. The whole territory answers

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to the laws of a specific sovereign, who forms the State and the laws that the State develops. We have very large States like Russia and China, while there exists very small states like Fiji and Mauritius in respect of their territorial make up [Johari JC 2012, pg 42].

Government: The government is the soul of the State. This is the tool used to implement the will of the Community, where there is genuine democracy. The government protects the people against conditions of insecurity. The State is considered as the first condition of a civilized life, its due to the existence of a government that maintains law and order and makes ‘good life’ possible.

The government is the machinery that terminates the condition of anarchy. Government is another name for administration. If we deeply scrutinize the views of the anarchists who want to abolish the State root and branch, we may take note of the fact that even they desire the administration of public affairs in some form by the free and voluntary associations of the people. Its now widely accepted that as long as there are diverse interests in society, some mechanism is needed to bring about and maintain a workable arrangement to keep the people to gather in a good order and harmony [Johari JC, 2012, pg 42].

Sovereignty: Sovereignty is one modern attribute of any given State. This is the highest power of the Stat that distinguishes it from all other association of the people in any given area. This has two [2] aspects the internal and the external. This implies that inside the State there can be no other authority that may claim equality with it. While the external means that the country should be free from foreign control of any kind or type. However the State can willingly accept some international obligations in the form of Membership of the League of Nations or the United Nations. The existence of sovereign authority appears in the form of law. It is for this reason that the law of the State is binding on all and its violation is visited with suitable punishment. The world over now agrees that a sovereign State is legally competent to issue any command which is binding on all citizens and their associations. Leacock in addressing the State and sovereignty, points out that the territory and population in question must form no part of a wider political unit, nor must the territory contain any portion or portion which, while forming geographically a part of it, are not a part of it politically [Johari JC, 2012, pg 43].

A State has four essential elements, as such, a proper definition of this term should include its physical and spiritual elements. It is important that the four [4] elements be studied in the order given above. We have many definitions of the State, but the point of difficulty is that most of them either fail to include all the four [4] elements.

It is now evident from the definitions, that the concept of State as a concept of political science and public law, is a Community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent or nearly so of external control, and possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience [Garner, pg 52].

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The State has a key role to organize its Community in an order that will create an atmosphere of peace and order that will facilitate development and result in ‘good life’ for the majority of its citizens.

MARXIST THEORIES: The State is neither a product of human consciousness, nor is it an artificial institution based on the consent of the people, nor is it a mere consequence of a very long evolution effected by the factor of kinship, religion, consent and force, nor is it an instrument of positive good. It is nothing else than an instrument of exploitation and oppression by one class over another. The State has the source of its origin in the evolution of the fact of class contradictions and it should continue until class contradictions are finally resolved. Lenin describes a State as ‘an antagonistic class society the State is a political instrument, a machine for maintaining the rule of one class over another’ [Lenin, ‘The State’ in Collected Works, Vol 29, pg 478].

Marxist tells us that the mode of production of the material means of life determines in general the social, political and intellectual processes of life. In the social production of the means of life, officers join into definite and necessary production relations which correspond to a definite stage in the development of their productive forces. Marxism argues that there was no state in the primitive communistic system as there were no contending classes. However, with the new inventions of the new means of production like cultivation of land and smelting metals caused significant social changes. Social divisions emerged and grew that led to the disappearance of the primitive pattern of communistic life, private property system arose and that opened the way of exploitation of the ‘have nots’ by the ‘haves’. The first exploiting State was the slave-owning State. It was succeeded by the feudal States, which in turn was superseded by the capitalist State. Although there certain differences, all the three had one task in common, to keep the people in check and to crush any attempt of the working people to emancipate themselves from exploitation [Afanasyev V.G.Marxist Philosophy, pg 283-84].

The State is always characterised by three [3] basic features or attributes namely:

1. It is a public power in contrast to the direct organization of the armed people which existed in tribal societies. A feature of the State is not its power, of coercion in general which is to be found in some form or other in any society, but above all its public power, that coincide with the mass of production and is exercised by a special category of people. A permanent Civil Service, special contingents of armed men and women [Army, Police, Secret Police].

2. The State organization of society presupposes the levying of taxes that are needed for the up keep of the appointments of the power. As internal and external contradictions become more intense and the State apparatus grows, its maintenance swallows up more and more resources of society. Not for nothing is the exploiting State compares to a gigantic octopus, whose tentacles encircle all society and suck its blood.

3. The subjects of State are divided not according to blood relationship but on the basis of territory. The power of the State is exercised directly over a certain territory and its population. The territorial division of people effects the development of economic ties

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and the creation of political conditions for their regulation. The State usually or always protects the interests of the ruling class primarily within the boundaries of the given territory, keeping the oppressed classes there in subjection. When the ruling classes has eaten, all is well and the oppressed too must be satisfied and praise the oppressors, consciously or unconsciously [The Fundamental of Marxist-Leninist Philosophy, pg 408-9].

THE MARXISM THEORY OF NATURE OF THE STATE MAY BE CRITICISED ON THREE IMPORTANT GROUNDS:

1. It is reasonably wrong to say that the State is a mere instrument of exploitation and oppression by one class over another. It is an agency of public welfare and it is ultimate aim is, as Aristotle said to make ‘good life’ possible for its citizen.

2. The factor of exploitation should not be treated as the only or decisive factor in making and sustaining the entire political structure. The authority of elders over the younger kin was not exploitation, but it played a part in the making of the State.

3. It will not be fair, to treat a State as a mere apparatus of coercion, as this is a mistake. It could be true that most States uses force to deal with its enemies and those who oppose them. But force is not always the only factor that commands obedience of the people. The role of other factors like habits, social customs, good sense of the people etc. Should also be given due recognition. Coercive power is a criterion of the State but not it essence. There are many other influence, more subtle and even more resistless which restrain and control us [Maclver, pg 223].

NON-MARXIST:

The Non-Marxist Theory is also known as the Idealist Theory by Plato and Aristotle. The clear expression of the idealist or metaphysical theory is contained in the interpretations of Hegel that a State is a ‘perfected rationality’ an absolute fixed end in itself. It means that human consciousness procreates claims in an environment of freedom that are translated into ‘rights’ after receiving recognition of the community and ultimately State is needed to protect the whole system of rights by the machinery of law. The sovereign authority which uses force must in the ultimate analysis be reduced to the society itself, or rather to the common consciousness creates rights, it creates the sovereignty which is the condition of their maintenance [Barker pg 28].

The whole idea may be contained in these words ‘that the State alone is self-sufficing and that in it alone is the individual capable of living the good life and releasing the highest end of his existence. The idealists exalt political authority to highly philosophical and mystical heights and instead of actualising the ideal, they do the job of idealizing the actual that is imperfect in the form of an all-wise ruler [as conceived by Plato] or the sovereignty of the general will [as conceived by Rousseau] or the infallibility of the nation- State [as affirmed by Hegel]. The aim of the theory is to study the State in its past and present manifestations, it should also be broad enough [Garner pg 239].

PLURALIST THEORIES:

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Opposed to the school of Monism is the school of Pluralism. The Pluralists present a new interpretation of the real nature of sovereignty. They consider Monism as being a futile doctrine. They distinguish between State and society and try to bring down the State from a place of Supremacy to that of servitude. The State is just one of the social associations. Due to this relationship, the State cannot claim total allegiance of man. The authority should be shared by other social groups also that satisfy man’s need and play an important part in the working of social mechanism. This implies that the new kind of State that is not Omnipotent [having total power, able to do anything] nor Omnipresent [present everywhere], it is just a little superior from other social groups and organizations. The State is a multiplicity in its essence and manifestation, it is divided into parts and all parts are important [Johari JC, 2012, pg 123]. Pluralism aims to change the position of the State from that of honour to a place of servitude. The State should look at the citizens as Masters, while the State is the servant of the citizens who should provide a service and should not be worshiped [Johari JC, 2012,pg 123]. One author points out and outline the following as characteristics of Pluralism:

1. It emphasises individual freedom2. It emphasises the importance of social organizations3. A good political system includes the government, and law and emphasises all social

relations between men as many-sided moral beings4. Looks at the manifestation of a whole some reaction to paternalism and absolution of

the Political State.5. It has helped western political thought to develop from abstract Monism through

abstract Pluralism to concrete Monism.6. It compels and forces Monists to restrict the State to it narrow political sphere. The

State should not have too much power [Hsiao K.C. Political Pluralism, pg 8].

ESSENTIAL FEATURES THE DOCTRINE OF POLITICAL PLURALISM:

The doctrine of Political Pluralism rejects the sovereignty of the State. The State should not interfere with other social groups and associations become insignificant.

Social groups and associations have a ‘personality’ of their own and if they meet the requirements of their members, the State must compete with them while maintaining the federal structure of the society. It must compete with churches, trade unions, employers’ associations, friendly society, political parties and the like. The State is like an association of associations of society, as such it should not expected a peculiar merit[Johari, JC, 2012, pg 124].

Miss M.P. Follet summaries the essential features of the doctrine of Pluralism as:

1. The pluralists deny and don’t support the idea of a State being supreme.

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2. That all social groupings are important and should share the same platform with the State.

3. They request that a revivification [To give new life or health to something] of local life.

4. They see that the interest of the State is not always identical with the interest of its points or other social groupings.

5. Pluralism is the beginning of disappearance of its crown.6. Pluralism has seized upon the problem of identity of association and of federalism.

Pluralism wants to advice the State to relate with other associations in the country on a fair footing. The State is just one of the association so should not take supremacy over other associations [ Johari JC, 2012, pg 126].

CRITICISMS OF PLURALISTIC THEORY:

To say that sovereignty should be shared by all important social groupings and associations is understandable, but there is no unanimity [complete agreement about something among a group of people] of thought on this point.

We have already seen that sovereignty is a whole thing, it cannot be divide. Calhoun argues that the division of sovereignty would mean it destruction.

The pluralists adopt a reactionary approach. They draw inspiration from the social system of the middle ages when guilds, burghers and other corporate entities were in existence to manage affairs of the people. [Gilchrist, p 108].

BIBLIOGRAPHY Johari JC, 2012, Principles of Modern Political Science, Sterling Publishers

Private Limited, New Delhi, India, page 39-130. Johari JC, 2011, Comparative Politics, Sterling Publishers Private limited,

New Delhi, pages 32, 34, 36, 93 and 99.

TOPIC THREE [3].

DEMOCRATIZATION AND GOOD GOVERNANCE:

OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC:

The student should be able to define the term democratization, The student should be able to explain in details the linkage between democratization

and development, Students should be able to explain how the democratization of any given nation may

improve in its economic development,

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Students should be able to understand and explain how democratization may enhance good governance.

Democratization has many definitions among them are:

“A government of the people, by the people, and for the people” John Locke and Edmund Burke, 2012, page 379.

“Limited government bound by the laws of the land”, Johari JC, 2012, page 379. Johari JC, quoting Bentham and James Mills who belonged to the philosophy of

utilitarianism, defined democracy as “Greatest good of the greatest number”, Johari JC, 2012, page 379. For Bentham and his friend, democracy is not about having periodic elections, its about a large number casting a vote and getting real benefits of greatest good to those individuals. Where a few rig and win an election is not a reflection of democracy as those who will be happy will be few.

Democracy is where power is vested in the people not a single person as President like in most African countries, Zambia included.

The people have certain natural rights which are inalienable and cannot be abrogated or diminished. This tend to result in one man one vote, the doctrine of happiness of many measured in term of material pleasure. Its not about elections, its about the citizen drawing material benefit from the process of governance.

Democracy has many label, pure democracy, liberal democracy, socialist democracy, guided democracy, participatory democracy etc.

Amazingly the word “democracy” may be recklessly applied to a system that has hardly anything like democratic in it, Johari JC, 2012, page 383.

Further Johari has put forward, that democracy is a state that has a government where the people are more powerful, 2011, page 491.

Abraham Lincoln, said democracy was “the government of the people, by the people, and for the people” Johari JC, 2011, page 491.

Democracy has many definitions, it is important for a student to read widely on this current and topical issue to ensure you begin to appreciate the concept in its right way and right perspective.

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF DEMOCRACY IN THE WORLD?

The elements are so many, we cannot put them down in one note, example will be put down, students need to know the elements are in hundreds if we are to go into details. The most prominent cover:

The rule of law: meaning the agreed laws of a country regulate everyone equally in the whole nation, from the Head of State and Government to the least citizen of a State and Government, without fear or interference. Any State whose laws exempt Heads of State because they have immunity means that such States have no rule of law. The rule of law takes it that all citizens including leaders are the same and must be treated so.

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Participation: means that all citizens are involved in making decisions from the beginning of making a decision to a point where the actual decision is made. Leaders must not decide without direct consultation with the beneficiary of the decision.

Decentralization: This does not mean creation of districts which have no power to decide what they want to do. Decentralization means power is transferred from the centre to the districts, people will decide on everything covering, expenditure, employment, termination of employment, policy and etc without the centre interfering. For fifty [50] years now Zambia has lamentably failed to implement decentralization.

Responsiveness: means that the government implements the decisions of the ordinary people, the government must not behave like a father who thinks he knows what the children want, citizens are not children and know what they want as long as it will not break the law or interfere with the human rights of others. Government must timely respond to the requests and desires of its citizens.

Consultation: may mean real asking the citizens on matters that affect them, not government imposing its political views on the unsuspecting citizens. The citizen must be the ones to raise issues, which they feel need decisions, and must be the one to reach the final decision for the implementation of a democratic government.

Free and fair election: means that the people are driving the decision, without being forced or bribed by the ruling party or a few selfish individuals. There can be no free election when you see the presence of the Police, government agents and etc.

Independence of institutions of governance: this includes Police, Military, ECZ, DEC, ACC, and Commissions covering PSC, TSC, PPSC and etc. These institutions must operate without interference of the Executive arm of Government and its agent, otherwise they will implement the likes of the ruling party and so, there will be no democracy and good governance.

Economic freedom and competion: the government of the day will make good laws that shall set the perimeters in which whoever enters business will operate within, as a leader and as an ordinary citizen. The State must not interfere in business in favour of cadres and those who seem to support them.

Political diversity: entails that the government of the day, in practice allow the people with other views to save in the government, while implementing the policies of the party in power. Citizens should not loose employment because they are suspected of having supported the opposition during an election. There can be no genuine election if everybody belongs to the ruling party.

Fight against corruption and maladministration: means that institutions are created that report to a body of persons, for example Parliament and not an individual in the name of the President who might protect his peers and relative, let there be a body of many and treat all in the same way regarding these vices.

Accountability: where you find accountability, there are already made laws and sanctions to be given to leaders and public workers who fail to account for what is

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put in their care. Judges rule according to the law, and law enforcement agents implement the sanctions, from 1964, public workers who are sited in Auditor General’s report go unpunished, rendering the services of AG meaningless and of no use, if not further wastage of resources that can be used in needy areas.

Transparency: Public work must be done in openness, no public worker must be annoyed when questioned about any single public action. Let everyone know what is being down for the public.

Checks and balances: there should be institutions of governance that will check the activities of the public worker without government interfering in the process.

As earlier pointed the list is endless, you may wish to study and add some more to the list.

THE IMPACT DEMOCRATIZATION HAS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATION:

Democratization results in stable governments, which create an environment, where genuine investors are attracted. Not investors who come to sell chicken and cabbages.

Wastefulness in unnecessary by elections in the name of democracy is avoided. In 2014, we saw in five by elections, Mkushi South, Zambezi west, Vubwi, Kasenengwa and Solwezi central, more that two hundred ballot papers where printed in the UK, and only forty-three [43,000] voted, the rest of the ballot papers were thrown, what a waste in this generation.

Creates institutions that can check every one from the President of a Nation, at the time he or she is in office, there and then, to the ordinary citizen, ACC, DEC, etc.

Creates an environment in which monitoring of the uses of public resources is clear, wastage is controlled, for example, where the ruling party carries cadres to campaign using public resources while the opposition use private resources.

Politics is turned into service and not an opportunity to plunder, etc.

ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITYCitizen Participation

Citizen participation denotes the process by which citizens of the country are involved in the process of problem solving, decision making and decision implementation. Citizen participation is also seen as a mental and emotional involvement of citizens in group situations that encourage them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them. Beginning in the late 1960, the term ‘participation’ has grown in importance and used almost everywhere in the word. The word has become so popular that a lot of meanings have been generated, some to a point where they give a misleading definition. Participation has not yet

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achieved a full meaning and depth, though a very popular word and a measuring tool for most governments in terms of good governance. Of late it represents a revived interest in the philosophy of participatory democracy promoted by the French political philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville who spoke much that individual citizen participation is essential to the survival of a democracy, he also argued that democracy will be undermined and collapse if citizens are incapable of influencing government decisions. The author has further argued that a state that ignores the needs and interests of large sections of their society in setting and implementing policies is not an effective state. The United Nation has also emphasized popular participation in government decisions and development as one of the ideals in democracy and is reflected in Article 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states that ‘everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives……The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government’ [Sapru R.K. 2012, pg 355].

Sapru argues that ‘citizen participation has come to mean the direct involvement of citizens in the process of administrative decision-making, policy formulation, and policy implementation. In relation to development, it embraces all forms of action by which they participate in the operation of development administration. It refers to the role of citizens as distinguished from that of public servants [in their official capacity] in exerting influence on developmental activities of government’ [ Sapru R.K 2012, pg 355].

United Nation has further defined participation as ‘involvement of people in contributing to the development effort, sharing equitably in the benefits derived there from and in decision-making in respect of setting goals, formulating policies and planning and implementing economic and social development programs’ [Sapru R.K. 2012 pg 355].

What is the importance of citizen participation?

There are many merits or advantages of citizen participation which include the following:

It kindles the interest of local people in imparting a new thrust to programs of which they are the beneficiaries. It is a means of showing, by their behavior and action, that they are capable of assuming responsibility.

Participation is a means of ventilating their feelings and thoughts. They are attached to the product because they had it in mind and later in reality.

Participation creates an environment where the citizens take an opportunity to demonstrate their willingness to do constructive work and show that they are good citizens.

It is also a cure for the unresponsiveness and repressiveness of traditional decision-making mechanism. It allows the citizens, especially the poor, to gain control over decision affecting their lives through direct participation in program operations. It is a remedy to check corrupt practices.

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Community based programs is that they may be less of a financial burden on governments since they can be managed by volunteers or community-based workers.

Citizen participation ensures that the accruing benefits of education, health, and family planning programs, for example, reach the residents of remote and rural areas.

Why should participation be very important this time?

Many people have argued that participation is very important today than it was yesterday due to the change in the expected social relations in a democratic era, the three major reasons for participation today are:

The increasing expansion of government responsibilities has given one important reason why participation has grown in importance. Government has assumed increasing responsibilities in regulating the economies, planning for financial resources for accelerating development and exploitation of natural resources.

The second reason which has led to the growth of citizen participation is the explosion of knowledge and communication. More new knowledge in science and technology and education has been develop in the last thirty years than in the previous history of mankind.

The third contributing factor in the citizen participation is the perceived failure of the bureaucracy to meet the growing demands of the citizens at the local level. The bureaucracy has been accused of biases, which has caused an urgency in desiring popular participation to replace the biased bureaucracy.

[ Sapru R.K. 2012, pg 359].

There are three principal themes in this definition and these are as follows:

The Thesis of Mental and Emotional Involvement

Of prime importance, participation means mental and emotional involvement rather than mere muscular activity. In other words, a person’s self is involved rather than his skill. This involvement is psychological and not physical.

The Thesis of Motivation

A second important theme in participation is that it motivates citizens to contribute their ideas to various issues. They are given an opportunity to release their own resources of initiative and creativity towards the objectives of the organization. Participation usually improves motivation by helping citizens understand and clarify their goals.

The Thesis of Accepting Responsibility

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A third idea in participation is that it encourages people to accept responsibility in their group activities. It is social processes by which people become self involved in an organization and want to see it work successfully. When they talk about their organization they begin to say, “we” instead of “they”. When they see a problem, it is “ours” not “theirs”. Participation, therefore, helps people become responsible citizens rather than non responsible citizens. As individuals begin to accept responsibility for group activities, they begin to be interested in, team-work. They also become receptive to team work. The idea of getting the group to want team-work is a key step in developing the same approach into successful work unit.

Broad Application of Citizen Participation

Citizen participation is not a useless theory developed by people for the purposes of looking for a new idea. Whenever there is a problem, like Zambia has several problems covering need for a new constitution, creation of jobs, food on the table, housing for all, clean water, freedom of expression, freedom of association, quality medical services for all, good roads, and the least is endless. Where there is genuine popular participation, its not for the Head of State, the member of Parliament, Minister or Councilor to choose for the people, people know what they want, give them time and space to let there views be known to you, as Leaders, its wrong for the Leaders to tell the led that they need a road and not a constitution, such conduct belittle the intelligence of the people who later feel disrespected by people who were a few months ago begging for votes later they turn to appear they have no regard and respect of those who sent them to office. Popular participation means the people have a voice that should be heard, right from thinking, planning, deciding and implementing while monitoring the project.

The greatest benefit of citizen participation is that it restores to people their birth right to be contributing members of the communities in which they live. It also builds human values in communities and promotes a sense of belonging, duty, affection and giving. This improvement of human values in communities is very important for the health of not only citizens, but the nation as a whole.

Citizen participation has also been noted for the fact that it increases the power to both the rulers and the governed. It is claimed that the power of a leader depends heavily on certain conditions such as trust, feeling of team-work and a sense of responsibility. Citizen’s participation, it is argued, improves these conditions. It is further noted that since citizens feel more cooperative and responsible, they are likely to be more responsive to the influence placed upon them by their rulers. In simple terms, therefore, what occurs is that rulers make social transactions with the people they govern. These transactions ultimately improve goodwill and responsibility.

There are various methods which are used to induce citizen participation. For example, citizens can participate in committees, workshops and can join organizations which would enable them participate effectively in identifying problems as well as finding solutions to issues that affect their communities.

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Administrative Ethics

There is no academic consensus on the definition of the term administrative ethics. At one level, concern about administrative ethics centers around the code of conduct which assume that a bureaucrat must represent the welfare and interest and should not therefore be sacrificed for self interest. At another level administrative ethics are equated with the high standards of integrity and conduct from public servants. This approach suggests that any conduct that may be influenced by a desire for private gain by public servants should be strictly prohibited. Taken together therefore, administrative ethics emerge as norms or rules of behavior which prohibit public servants from:

[a] Having a direct or indirect financial interest that may conflict substantially with their official duties and responsibilities.

[ b]Accepting or soliciting a fee, payment of expense, gratuity or any other thing of monetary value in circumstances in which acceptance may result in or create the appearance of conflict interest.

[c] Influencing or coercing other to gain a financial or other advantage for themselves or a family member.

[d] Engaging directly or indirectly in a financial transaction as a result of information not available to the general public.

These are the four principal dimensions which have influenced some countries the world over to turn to independent commissions to help check the abuse of power. They stand as protestors of citizens against oppressive and corrupt public servants. In Zambia, for example, the establishment of the Anti-Corruption Commission and the Commission for Investigations are testimony to this.

[Sapru R.K. 2012, pg 355-369].

THE ELECTORAL AND CODE OF CONDUCT ACT NO 12 OF 2006 OF THE LAWS OF ZAMBIA.

OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC

Students should be able to understand and appreciate that the Electoral and Code of Conduct Act, solely was enacted to foster the smooth running of elections,

That the Electoral and Code of Conduct Act, Chap of the Law of Zambia, if put in practice would create a seemingly conducive environment to enhance democratization,

That the Electoral and Code of Conduct Act, in its present form, if put to practice as written may be a first step to democratization.

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ELECTORAL CODE OF CONDUCT, STATUTORY INSTRUMENT NO. 52 OF 2011;

ARRANGEMENT OF REGULATIONS:

PART I

PRELIMINARY

Regulation

1. Title2. Interpretation3. Enforcement of Code4. Publication of Code5. Rights of Person PART 11 CODE OF CONDUCT6. Duty of Person during election campaigns or elections7. Duties of commission8. Campaign Period9. Political Party and Candidate to subscribe to Code10. Duties of Political Parties and Candidates11. Duties of Election Agents and Polling Agent12. Duties of Zambia Police Force13. Duties of Media14. Allocation of Airtime15. Election Results Programme16. Monitors and Observers17. Powers of Commission18. Complaints19. Conflict Management Committee20. Prohibition of Coercion and Intimidation PART 111 GENERAL

PROVISIONS 21. General Offences22. General Penalty23. Revocation of S.I. No. 90 of 2006

IN EXERCISE of the powers contained in section one hundred and nine of the Electoral Act, 2006, the following Regulation are hereby made:

PART 1 PRELIMINARY 1. Title

These Regulations may be cited as the Electoral [Code of Conduct] regulations, 2011.

2. InterpretationIn these Regulations, unless the context otherwise requires-

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‘campaign material’ means party or candidate manifestos, posters, chitenges, T-shirts and any other materials with party or candidate symbols or pictures of candidates used in connection with an election;‘campaign period’ means such period as the Commission may determine under regulation 8;‘candidate’ means a person nominated as a candidate for an election;‘caricature’ include cartoons, effigy, picture, drawing or sketch of a person for comic effect;‘code’ has the meaning assigned to it in the Act;‘Commission’ means the Electoral Commission established under the Constitution; ‘Election Officer’ has the meaning assigned to it in the Act;‘Media’ includes print and electronic media, whether publicly or privately operated.‘Monitor’ means a person accredited as such by the Commission;‘Observer’ means a person accredited as such by the Commission;‘Polling Agent’ means an agent appointed by a candidate in respect of each polling station;‘Public Officer’ means a person holding or acting in any public office but does not include any person holding the offices referred to in Article 139 [2] and [3] of the Commission; and ‘Traditional Leader’ means a Paramount Chief, Senior Chief, Chief and Village Headman.

3. Enforcement of Code

The commission shall promote conditions conducive to the observance of this code.

4. Publication of Code

The commission, civil society, traditional leaders, the church, faith-based organisations and political parties shall endeavour to publicise this code through out the Republic.

PART II CODE OF CONDUCT.

5. Right to Person(1) A person has, subject to regulations 21, the right to –(a) Express political opinions;(b) Debate the policies and programmes of political parties;(c) Canvas freely for membership and support from voters;(d) Distribute election literature and campaign materials;(e) Publish and distribute notices and advertisements;(f) Erect banners, placards and posters;(g) Campaign freely(h) Participate freely in partisan political activities; and (i) Seek the protection of the law from harm as a result of that person’s political

opinion or affiliation.

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(2) A public officer shall not engage in any active partisan political activity referred to in sub-regulation (1) whilst in the public service.

6. Duty of person during elections campaigns or elections A person shall, during an elections campaign or elections, promote conditions conducive to the conduct of free and fair elections and be bound by this code.

7. Duties of commission (1) The commission shall where reasonable and practicable to do so-

(a) Meet political party representatives on a regular basis to discuss all matters of concern related to election campaign and election itself;

(b) Ensure that political parties do not use state resources to campaign for the benefit of any political party or candidate;

(c) Avail political parties with the election notices in accordance with the Act;(d) Censure all acts done by leader of political parties, candidates, supporters,

Government and its organs, which are aimed at jeopardising elections or done in contravention of this code;

(e) Declare elections results expeditiously from the close of the elections day;(f) Ensure that campaign rally or meeting which is legally organised by any

political Party is not disrupted or arbitrarily prohibited;(g) Ensure that no election officer, police officer, monitor, observer or media

person is not victimised in the course of their election duties;(h) Ensure that police officers act professionally and impartially during the

electoral process;(i) Ensure that traditional leaders, do not exert undue influence on their

subjects to support a particular political party or candidate;(j) Ensure that equal opportunity is given to all stakeholders, particular

political parties and independent candidates to participate in and conduct their political activities in accordance with the law; and

(k) Condemn acts of media organisations and personnel aimed at victimisation, punishment or intimidation of media practitioners implementing any of the provisions of this code.

8. Campaign period

The campaign period shall commence and close on such a date as the commission may determine.

9. Political party and candidate to subscribe to the code.

(1) A candidate for presidential, National Assembly and Local Government elections shall, when filling the candidate’s nomination papers, subscribe to the code in form I set out to the schedule.

(2) A political party shall, on such date such the commission direct, subscribe to the code in form I set out in the schedule.

(3) A person who, or political party contravenes this regulation commits an offence.

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10. Duties of political party and candidate(1) A political party and candidate shall-

(a) establish and maintain effective line of communication with the commission and with other registered political parties and candidates, at national, political and local level, including the provision of names and the contact details and addresses of party election agent and other relevant.

(b) accept and respect decisions of the commission in respect of election results announced by returning officers and the commission in accordance with the law;

(c) Issue directives of their member and supporters to obverse this code and take any necessary steps to ensure compliance;

(d) hold public meeting in compliance with the law;(e) adhere to the election timetable issued by the commission in conducting

election campaigns in accordance with section twenty-six Act;(f) take appropriate measures to ensure environmental protection and

cleanliness in the course of posting or distributing electoral campaign materials;

(g) remove campaign materials within fourteen day of the declaration of election results;

(h) take necessary measures to insure public safety in the course of posting or distributing electoral campaign material and

(i) carry out campaign meetings and rallies peacefully(2) a member or supporter of political party or candidate shall not-

(a) use language which incite hatred or violence in any form against any person or class of persons or issue any pamphlet ,newspaper r, poster or other propaganda which contains material that incite people to violence or rebellion;

(b) deface, remove or destroy campaign materials of another political party or publications of the commission;

(c) disrupt another political party’s rally, meeting ,march or demonstration or seek to obstruct another person from attending a political rally of another political party;

(d) continuously remain at a polling station during the campaign period or elections; and

(e) wear any campaign materials within four hundred metres of the polling station on the polling day.

(3)without prejudice to any other written law, any person who contravenes sub-regulation(2) commits an offence and shall be liable upon conviction to a fine not exceeding two thousand five hundred penalty units or to imprisonment not exceeding one year, or to both.

11. Duties of election agent and polling agent

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(1) An election agent or polling agent shall, subject to regulations 10 and 21, have the following duties during elections:

(a) Observe the opening and closing of a polling station to them on polling day

(b) Witness the voting process

(c) Witness the count of ballot papers for candidates;

(d) Witness the announcement of results; and

(e) Witness the declaration of results, where applicable.

(2) An election agent or polling agent shall counter sign the election results duly announced or declared by a presiding officer or returning officer, as the case may be:

Provided that failure to countersign the election results by such election agent or polling agent shall not render the results invalid.

(12) Duties of Zambia police Force

The Zambia Police force shall-

(a) enforce law and order at campaign meetings and processions in order to maintain peace and order;

(b) ensure that police officers do not abuse their authority or government resources to campaign for benefit of any political party or candidate;

(c) Refrain from disrupting any campaign, rally or meeting which is legally convened by any political; and

(d) Ensure that police officers do not use their office to oppress any political party, candidate or supporter.

[13]Duties of Media(1) All print and electronic media shall-

(a) Provide fair and balanced reporting and press conferences of all registered political parties and candidates during the campaign period;

(b) Provide news of the electoral process up to the declaration of results;

(c) Abide by regional codes of conduct in the coverage of elections provided that such guidelines are not in conflict with this code;

(d) Be bound by the provisions of this code during elections; and (e) In liaison with the commission, recognise a representative media

body authorised to receive complaints and provide advice regarding fair coverage of elections.

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(2) A media organisation shall endeavour to (a) undertake capacity building of media personnel in their respective

organisations;(b) report election news in accurate manner and not make any abusive

editorial comment, incite violence or advocate hatred based on race, ethnicity, tribe, gender, sex, political or religious conviction; and identify any editorial comment it intends to make and separate it from the factual reporting of the news.

(3) The heads, senior management and staff of public or private media organisations shall not intimidate media practitioners and shall allow them to exercise professional judgment without undue influence.

(4) Public and private media personnel shall-(a) Conduct interviews with candidates with fairness both in the style

of the interview and in the time given;(b) Refrain from broadcasting their own political opinions,

commentary or assessment, and where they do so, clearly identify the opinion, commentary or assessments as their own and carefully balance it in order to avoid bias; and

(c) Be duly accredited by the commission to enter a nomination centre, polling centre or totalling centre.

14 Allocation of air time(1) A public television, radio and electronic media shall allocate

public air time equally to all political parties and candidate for their political broadcasts.

(2) A political party or candidate shall not buy more than thirty minutes air time in any given language on public television or radio in any one week.

(3) On polling day all media shall not broadcast any campaign interviews for political parties or independent candidates or predict election results.

(4) Broadcasters shall inform the public on the source of any public opinion poll and shall indicate the margin error.

Election Results Programme.

CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTIONALISM

AIM: To introduce students to the general concepts of constitution and constitutionalism and indicate how the two concept enhance good governance by a government voted by the people in a democratic institution.

OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC: By the end of this topic, students should be able to

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Define and explain the concept of constitution and constitutionalism. Explain why it is necessary to embrace the concept of the rule of law as a land mark

for constitutionalism. Explain and appreciate the concept of constitutional state and constitutional

government.

This topic will focus on the discussion of the terms constitution, constitutionalism and a constitutional state. Sa is often said, there can be no state without a constitution of its own. Generally the word constitution has many meanings. The word constitution is used in many senses as that of constituting a body such as a club, a trade union, a political party etc. However, here we are concerned with its use in a political sense alone signifying the body constituting a state. It follows, therefore, that every state has a constitution of its own and its for this reason that it is called a constitutional state, signifying another term for democratic political order. The term ‘constitutionalism’ is thus centred on the very idea that every state must have a constitution of its own and that its government must be organized and conducted according to the rules of the constitution.

THE CONSTITUTION:

The constitution of a state may be defined as a body of rules and regulations, written as well as unwritten, whereby the government is organized and it functions. The constitution creates institutions of government and allocate power to each institution to make it operate independent of the other institutions. The constitution further guides all institutions not to interfere with the operations of other institutions of government. It is another matter that in order to meet the requirements of a democratic order, a constitution embodies some more principles specifying relationships between the people and their state in the form of a specific charter of their fundamental rights and obligations. Thus, a constitution may be said to be a collection of principles according to which the powers of the government and the relations between the two are adjusted. In other words, it may be described as a frame of political society organized through and by law, in which law ha established permanent institutions with recognized functions and definite rights. By all means, it is a legal document known by different names like rules of the state, instrument of government, fundamental law of the land, basic statute of the polity, cornerstone of a national-state and the like [ Johari, 2009, pg 407].

Further, every state needs some kind of order, some system by which a reasonably orderly process of government may emerge. Without such an order there is likely to be anarchy. This order or system, in technical terms called constitution, must lay down certain rules which define the organs of government and how they originate, their mutual relationships, and the relationship between government and the people over whom it is authority is exercised. A constitution is, therefore, the basic designs of the structure and powers of government and the rights and duties of citizens. There can be no state without a constitution. Sometimes the constitution of a state is definitely formulated in a document or documents, sometimes it is found in an established body of rules, maxims, traditions and practices in accordance with which its government is organized and its powers are exercised [ Kapur, 1996, pg 485.a].

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A constitution therefore provides a collection of principles according to which the powers of the government, the rights of the governed, and the relations between the two are adjusted. It is used to describe the whole system of a government of a country, the collection of rules which establish and regulate or govern the government. As already alluded to this democratic political order is what signifies a constitutional state and hence a constitutional government. What then, is a constitutional government?

CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT:

A constitutional government means government limited by the terms set by the constitution, not government limited only by the desires and capacities of those who exercise power. It follows, therefore, that a constitutional government is one that operates within a universe of positive restraints, therefore, a state can be said to be ‘unconstitutional’ if it has no restraints. For this reason, it is only in a democratic country that constitutional governments can be said to exist. However, it must be pointed out that the notion of constitutional government essentially presents a continuum on which at one pole is located government with very strong restraints and at the other pole you have governments with very weak restraints, and between these two poles, can be ranged all actual governments. This scenario is what makes it possible for one to identify the quality of governance for a given government.

CONSTITUTIONALISM:

Constitutionalism refers to the evolution of constitutional thinking through the ages. While theorizing on constitutions goes back to Aristotle, modern theory is based on the seventeenth century social contract theorists. The hallmark of modern thinking on constitutions is the notion of a limited government whose ultimate authority is the consent of the governed [ Shafritz, 1988, 134].

Constitutionalism is a modern concept of that desires a political order governed by laws and regulations. It stands for the supremacy of law and not of the individual, it imbibes the principles of nationalism, democracy and limited government. Constitutionalism , by dividing powers, provides a system of effective restraints upon government action. It is a body of rules ensuring fair-play, thus rendering the government responsible. Constitutionalism , thus, stands for the existence of a constitution in a state, since it is the instrument of government, or the fundamental Law of the land, whose objectives are to limit the arbitrary action of the government, to guarantee the rights of the governed and to define the operations of the sovereign power. It is another names for the concept of a limited, and for this reason, a ‘civilized’ government. Restraints are the core of constitutionalism and hence some systems of restraint is central to the constitution of any regime that aspires for constitutional government. Simply by establishing the framework of government, any constitution, in a measure, acts as a restraints on power. The rule of Law is probably the deepest and strongest tradition of constitutionalism [Kapur, 1996, 592].

One writer states, ‘in every country a national constitution articulates the vision of society, defines the fundamental principles by which the country is organized, and distributes power within it, and plays an important role in nation-building and consolidating the national state.

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The idea of a constitutional democratic government, or constitutionalism, connotes a government defined, regulated and limited by a constitution. Constitutional democracy is founded upon the notion of checks and balances, namely that different institutions, the legislature, the judiciary and the executive-while operating independently of one another, act to check each other’s operations and balance each other’s power. In essence, all three institutions are duty-bound to up hold the rule of law. This necessitates the precise definition of the roles of each institution and that of public officials’ [Muna Ndulo, 2006, 2].

PUBLIC POLICY-FORMULATION, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUTION

Public policy deals in the sphere which refers to public, meaning it covers all the citizens of a

given state and it’s for public interest as opposed to private interest, [R.K SAPRU page 2 and

3]. The concept of public policy presupposes that there is an area or domain of life which is

not private or purely individual, but held in common, Public dimension is generally referred

to public ownership or control for public purpose. The public comprise that domain of human

activity which is regarded as requiring government intervention or common action. However,

there is always conflict on what is public and what is private.

W.F. Baber has argued that the public sector has ten key differences from the private sector:

[i]. It faces more complex and ambiguous tasks;

[ii]. It has more problems in implementing its decisions;

[iii]. It employs more people with a wider range of motivations;

[IV]. It is more concerned with securing opportunities or capacities;

[v]. it is more concerned with compensating for market failure;

[VI]. It engages in activities with greater symbolic significances;

[vii]. It is held stricter standards of commitment and legality;

[viii]. It has a greater opportunity to respond to issues of fairness;

[ix]. It must operate or appear to operate in the public interest;

[x]. it must maintain minimal levels of public support above that required in private industry.

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Public administration has emerged as an instrument of the State for securing public interest

rather than private interest. Whereas the political economist’s only markets could balance

private and public interest, the new liberalism was based upon a belief that public

administration was more rational means of promoting the public interest. The public and

private sectors reveal themselves as over lapping and interacting, than as well defined

categories.

The concept of policy, like the ideal of public, the concept of policy is not a precise term.

Policy means, among other elements, guidance for action it may take the form of:

[i]. A declaration of goals;

[ii]. A declaration of course of action;

[iii]. A declaration of general purpose; and

[IV]. An authoritative decision

Hogwood and Gunn specified ten uses of the term policy:

[i]. As a label for field of activity;

[ii]. As an expression of desired state of affairs;

[iii]. As specific purpose proposal;

[iv]. As decisions of government;

[v]. As formal authorisation;

[VI] As a programme;

[vii]. As output;

[viii]. As out come

[ix] As a theory or model

[x] As a process

Unfortunately, policy itself is something which takes different forms. Others take it that

policy is an output of political system. In another way, public policy is more less

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interdependent, policies dealing with many different activities or areas, tend to focus on the

evaluation of policy decisions in terms of specified valves- a rational rather than a political

analysis. [R.K Sapru page 4]

James Anderson has defined policy as a purposive of action followed by an actor or set of

actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern. (R.K Sapru page 4 ) in this regard, we

may say policy mean a purposive course of action taken or adopted by those in power in

pursuit of certain goals or objectives . This can further be considered as valves for the whole

society [ R.K Sapru page 5] public policy are usually formulated by authorities in political

system, namely, elders, paramount chiefs, executives, legislators, judges, administrators,

councillors, monarchs, and the like [R.K Sapru page 5]. In the words of Thomas Dye’s

definition states: “public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do. While

Robert Line berry says that public policy is “what governments do and fail to do- to and for

their citizens.” In these words, there is divergence between what governments decide to do

and what they actually do [R.K Sapru page 5]

WHAT IS THE NATURE OF PUBLIC POLICY?

A policy may be general, specific, broad and narrow, simple or complex, public or private,

written or unwritten, explicit or implicitly, discretionary, or detailed, quantitative, the

emphasis is on the public policy, which a government choose as a guide to action. Public

policies in modern political system are purposive or goal oriented statements. A public policy

may be either positive or negative in form. Public policy has a legally coercive quality that

citizens accept as legitimate, e.g. taxes must be paid unless one wants to run the risk of fires

or jail sentence. Thus legally coercive quality of public policies makes public organizations

distinct from the private organizations.

WHAT IS POLICY MAKING AND DECISION MAKING?

Policy making is closely related to decision-making. However it is not the same as decision-

making. Policy making does involve decision-making but a decision does not necessarily

constitute a policy. Decision making often involves an identification of a problem, a careful

analysis of possible alternatives and selection of one alternative for action.

Policy decisions are decision made by public officials that authorise or give direction and

context to public action. These may include decisions to issue executive orders, promulgate

administrative rules, or making important judicial interpretations of the Laws.

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POLICIES AND GOALS

Policies are distinct from goals and can be distinguished from the later as means from ends.

By goals or objectives one means the ends means the ends towards which actions are

directed. The policy indicates the direction towards which action is sought. Policies involves

a deliberate choice of actions as directed.

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF POLICY

There are six [6] major types of policy which cover:

1. Distributive Policy Issues: Distributive Policy issue is concerned with the distribution of new

resources or wealth to the citizens as to reduce the difference between the rich and the poor,

such a Policy is known as distributive policies.

2. Redistributive Policy Issues: Redistributive Policy Issues are those which are concerned with

changing the distribution of existing resources. The citizens fall into either haves and have

not, government will tax individuals in accordance with the wealth that people have.

3. Regulatory Policy Issues: Regulatory policy issues are those which are concerned with

regulation and control of actives that citizens and people living in the country get involved in,

for example the Energy regulation Board of Zambia, controls the pricing of fuel and other

energy sources, the use and storage of energy and how energy is carried from point A to point

B.

4. Constituent Policy Issue: Constituent policy issues are those which are concerned with the

setting-up or reorganisation of institutions. Each of these policy issues forms a different

power arena. However, it may be mentioned here that Lowi’s view of politics as a function of

policies has been criticised as over-simplistic, methodologically suspect, and testability.

Cobbe and Elder, for instance, observe that Lowi’s typology has basic limitations. It does not

provide a framework for understanding change as the types become less clear and more

diffuse.

5. Conflict Policy Issues: Cobbe and Elder propose an alternative classification of policy issues

in terms of conflict rather than content. Their focus is on the way in which conflict is created

and managed. To them a conflict may rise between two or more groups over issues relating to

the distribution of position or resources. These may be created by such means and devices

as :

(a) Manufacture by a contending party who perceive unfairness or bias in the distribution of

positions or resources

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(b) Manufacture of an issue for person or group gain ; and

(c) Unanticipated human events, natural disasters, international conflict, war and technological

changes

Such issues then constitute the agenda for policy or decision-making and are known as the

Conflict policy Issues.

6. Bargaining Policy Issues: Hogwood and Wilson use the criteria of costs and benefits from the

point of view of the possibilities of different outcomes, forms or bargaining and conflict and a

range of alternatives. There are redistribution or cuts issues which involve bargaining over

who get what, who gets more, and who gets less. For Wilson, criteria of costs and benefits

may be concentrated or dispersed. An issue, which may have very concentrated benefits to a

small section of society but whose costs are widely dispersed, is of a different kind to one that

may be for “the greatest happiness of the greatest number”.

In most developing countries, the Executive branch of government has either of three [3]

listed below, or all of them:

(i) The policy-making bodies such as the Cabinet, or National Development

Council, etc.

(ii) A Planning Commission or a Planning Unit and

(iii) A Budgeting Unit.

An important question here is, whether these units work together with an integrated approach

or independently of each other. From a point of view of institutional development, it is

important for these units to be organized in an integrated Central Policy Cluster. Thus cluster

should consist of the Head of Government, the Cabinet Ministers, and other key political

advisers. Under the political advisers in the Central Policy Cluster there must be economists,

statistician, public administrators, planners, specialists, financial and other experts to analyse

the policies and advice on them and the Policy alternatives or inter disciplinary basis.

Within the Central Policy Cluster appropriate machinery should also be established for

(i) Policy and Plan Implementation

(ii) Reporting and Feed back

(iii) Reviewing, and

(iv) The adjustment and revision of policies and plans

DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLICY APPROACH

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The development of policy approach rested on the ideals that government could by making

good policies solve problems of the society. It was America where initiative towards a more

integrated approach to the study of public problems and policy really began in the work of

Harold Lasswell which resulted in the publication of Lerner and Lasswell’s volume on the

‘policy sciences’. In this development, theorists made substantial contributions [Sapru, page

14]. In the wards of Lasswell, policy-sciences focused on three [3] aspects namely:

(i) Contextual

(ii) Multi-disciplinary and

(iii) Problem-oriented

SIGNIFICANCE AND WHY STUDY PUBLIC POLICY.

It’s argued that the study of Public Policy is an important mechanism for moving a social

system from the past to the future. In other words policy helps to shape the future if properly

implemented with less political interference. Alvin Toffler stated that what may be trivial to

day may be of colossal important in a future decade later. We can understand the future by

walking wisely on the present trends.

CONCLUSION:

It can be noted that the field of public policy has assumed considerable importance in

response to the increasing complexity of the society. It’s no longer concerned with the

description and explanation of the cause and consequences of government activities and

actions, but also with the development of scientific knowledge about the forces shaping

Public Policy. The study of Public Policy helps to understand the social ills of the subject

under study. One would say Public Policy is an important tool for moving a social system

from the past to the future. [Sapru page 20]

One need to understand that in the current phase of liberalisation, privatisation, and

globalisation, the role of the government has greatly changed the delivery of goods and

services is important, but it is not the critical role of the government. In the words of Kirlin,

“government is the institution of society with singular obligations to facilitate societal choice-

making and action.” [J.J.Kirlin, A Political Perspective” page 163 {23}].In Lasswell’s words,

the major aim of policy making, he wrote, was the formation of values which could shape the

full development of individuals in the society, the ultimate goal of policy-making was the

progressive democratisation of mankind. [Harold Lasswell power and personality [page 221-

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[55/23].it’s the clarification, shaping and sharing of values so as to extend and enhance

democratisation which still remains the core and vital task of the theory and practice of the

Public Policy. Policies do more than effect change in societal conditions. They also hold a

people together and maintain an orderly State [Sapru page 21]

POLICY ANALYSIS

The study of Public Policy prepares and helps us to cope better with the future. It does greatly

improve on knowledge about the society we live in. An important part of the study of Public

Policy is concerned with society’s future. Gibson Winter notes the problem of policy is

intimately how the future is grasped and appraised. The essential meaning of responsibility

and accountability in human fulfilment in shaping of the society’s future [Sapru, page 50]

MEANING AND ISSUES OF POLICY ANALYSIS

The question of policy ultimately rest on the application of knowledge to political decisions.

Such knowledge is generated both within and outside the government agencies and other

public affairs institutions. An understanding of the causes and consequences of policy

decision permits us to apply the knowledge of social science to the solution of practical

problems.

Policy analysis is a technique to measure organizational effectiveness through the

examination and evaluation of the effect of a programme. Public Policy analysis is have

nothing more than the impact of Public Policy on the government programmes.

Thomas Dye looks at policy analysis as the thinking man’s response to demands. He says

public analysis involves three major things:

1. A primary concern with explanation rather than prescription

2. A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of Public Policies

3. An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes and consequences

of Public Policy and to accumulate reliable research findings of general relevance.

Policy analysis puts data to use in deciding about estimating and measuring the consequences

of Public Policy. Its purpose is to fold forward in organising information that will be of help

in solving societal problems. It provides maximum information with minimum cost about:

[1] The likely consequences of proposed policies, and

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[11] The actual consequences of policies and the policies already adopted.

STAGES IN POLICY ANALYSIS

There are basically five [5] stages in policy analysis namely identifying the underlying

problem, determining alternatives for policy choice, forecasting and evaluating the

alternatives, making a choice, and limitations in policy choice.

1. IDENTIFYING THE UNDERLYING PROBLEM:

You first identify whether and why there is a problem at all. Here you define the problem,

you diagnose the form of making failure, that is confronted. Paying attention to the objectives

is very important at this stage of the problem.

2. DETERMINIG ALTERNATIVES FOR POLICY CHOICE

The next step is to determine the alternative courses of action to save the current problem.

Here it is important to determine which kind of intervention is most positive in any particular

situation. Defining alternatives for polices generally offers a chance for creative thought and

makes people to work hard in solving their problems. Often, the process is usually treated

merely as medicinal exercise, and consequently attractive ‘polices are not developed’,

adequate attention rarely proceeds on a straight forward fashion from the identification of the

problem to the selection of the preferred action.

3. FORECASTING AND EVALUATING THE ALTERNATIVES:

Having identified the underlying problems and having determined the alternatives for the

Public Policy, the desired step is to establish what are the consequences of each of the

alternatives? Here you have to use relevant models for forecasting consequences. If the

consequences of an alternative course of action are uncertain, especially if the possible

outcomes differ widely from one another, the analyst may wish to develop a decision tree and

evaluate the possibility of each outcome. However, evaluation of the outcomes is greatly

importance as it reminds us to look carefully at the cost-benefit analysis of particular policy

choice. To offer, policy choices have been sabotaged or blocked by bureaucrats and

interested politicians. The analysts should seek the advice and counsel of experts on the field

without bias.

4. MAKING A CHOICE: The last step in policy making analysis relates to making the

preferred choice, which means the cause of action. The situation may appear to be simple for

the policy taken he/she can simply look at the consequences predicted for each alternative

and select the one that is best. In contrast, it may be so complex that he will have to think of

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this preference among the various possible outcomes, reflecting how the world will behave in

response to the possible choice.

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Problem structuringPolicy alternative

Policy problem

Evaluation

ForecastingPolicy process

Policy outcomes

Monitoring

Policy selection

Policy action

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5. LIMITATIONS: As the future is always uncertain it is questionable whether policy analysis

can find solutions to the problems regarding the future of society, poverty, unemployment,

inequality, environmental pollution, poor health facilities are some of the major problems in

Africa, of course, this can be considered as an excuse for failing to strive for a better society.

It must be realised that the solutions to these problems may be difficult to find.

It has been observed that policy analysis is gathering dust because they are either too long or

too hard to understand. A policy analysis is of no use if it cannot be communicated to others.

Too often, the policy analysis deals with subjective topics and must rely upon the

interpretation of results. Professional researchers often interpret the results of their analysis

differently. Obviously, quite different policy recommendations can come out of these

alternatives interpretations of the results of research.

Secondly, policy analysis cannot provide solutions to problems when there is no general

consensus on what the problems are. It’s purely incapable of resolving societal value

conflicts. At best, it can offer advice on how to accomplish a certain set of end values. It

cannot determine what those end values should be. Further, social science research cannot be

value-free.

One may also state that it’s very difference for the government to care for all citizens, even

most of the problems of society cannot receive full attention. The government is constrained

by many forces, both within and outside, such forces cover population growth, patterns of

family life, class structure, religious beliefs, diversity of culture, financial limits, and some

social ills are very complex in nature to be easily and properly handled.

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MonitoringPolicy action

CYCLES IN THE POLICY PROCESS

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The fact that some ills are complex, posse a challenge to the state to adequately predict the

impact of proposed policies.

Despite the above limits, the government has a challenge to attempt to predict a feasible

solution than sit down and do nothing. Policy analysis may not provide an answer, but it’s an

appropriate tool in approaching policy questions and challenges. Policy analysis is applied to

inform the policy makers about the likely future consequences of choosing various

alternatives.

Models for policy analysis:

Different countries use different models of policy analysis. However the most common ones

cover the systems used for policy analysis, institutional approach to policy analysis and

Rational Policy Making Model.

In analysing public policy we construct models, maps or think in terms of metaphor. These

constitute frameworks within which and through which we can explain problems and social

processes. A variety of models and approaches has been advanced and used by theorists and

social scientists in the world. A few of these models and approaches to policy analysis are

discussed here below.

[1] Systems Model for Policy Analysis: This model for policy analysis has been

regarded as a black box which converts the demands of the society into policies

Inputs: are seen as the physical products of the environment. They are received into the

political system in form of both demands and supports.

Demands: are the claims made on the political system by individuals and groups to alter

some aspects of the environment. Demands occur when individuals or groups, in response to

environmental condition, act to affect public policy.

The environment: Is any conditions or events defined as external to the boundaries of the

political system. The supports of a political system consist of the rules, laws, and customs

which provide a basis for the existence of a political community and the authorities. The

support is given when the individuals or groups accept the decisions or laws.

Output: are the authoritative value allocations of the political system, and these allocations

constitute public policy or policies.

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WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE LIMITS OF THE SYSTEM APPROACH TO POLICY

ANALYSIS?

1. This input and output model appears to be simplistic to serve as a

useful aid to understanding the policy making process. This model

employs the value- laden techniques of welfare economics which are

based on the maximisation of a clearly defined social welfare

function:

2. This traditional input and output model tend to ignore the fragmentary

nature of the ‘blade box’. The missing ingredients in the systems

approach are the “power, personal, and institutions” of policy making.

3. The policy makers have a potential of influencing the environment

and policy making process.

4. Both the political and bureaucratic elite fashion mass opinion more

than the actual masses shape the leadership views. In western

democracies, the bureaucrats’ role in shaping of policy direction is

largely technical and fairly minimal.

5. The extent to which the environment, both internal and external, is

said to have an influence on the policy making process is influenced

by the values and ideologies held by the decision-makers in the

system.

(1) Institutional approach to policy analysis: in a democratic society, a state is a web of

government structures and institutions. The state performs many functions. It attempts to

adjudicate between conflicting social and economic interests. The positive state is considered

as the guardian of all sections of the community. It does not defend the predominance of any

particular class or community. It attempts to protect all economic interests by accommodating

and reconciling them.

In a democratic society, the activities of individuals and groups are generally directed to

wands government institutions such as the Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, bureaucracy etc.

Public policy is formulated, implemented and enforced by governmental institutions.

Government institutions give policy [3] different characteristics:

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[1] The government gives legal authority to policies. Public policy is the outcome of a

certain decision and is characterised by the use of legal sanctions. The State commands

the obedience of all the people.

[11] The application of public policy is universal. Public policies extend to all citizens in

the State and those living in its jurisdiction.

[111] Public policies involve coercion. The policy conveys the ideas of a capacity for

imposing penalties, through coercion of a kind usually resolved to the government itself.

[2] Rational Policy-Making Model: the rational idea emphasises that policy-making

is making a choice among policy alternatives on rational grounds. Rational policy

making is “to choose the one best option”[Y. Drov, Public Making Re-examined,

page 132-141/88]. Robert Haueman observes that a rational policy is one which is

designed to maximise “net value achievements” [Robert Henry Haueman, The

Economics of The Public Sector, 1970]. In the words of Dye Thomas ‘a policy is

rational when it is most efficient, that is, if the ration between the values it achieves

and the values of sacrifices is positive and higher than any other policy alternative.

‘[Thomas Dye, Understanding Public Policy, page 28-88]. He further says that the

idea of all efficiency involves the calculation of all social, political and economic

values sacrificed or achieved by Public Policy, not just those that can be measured in

dollar or kwacha.

Rational Policy-Making thus requires making hard choices among alternatives. It may mean

following given stages:

[1] The rationality assumes that the policy-makers identify the underlying problem.

[11] The rational policy-maker identifies the range of policy alternatives and options that

might attain some of the set goals.

[111] The calculation of predictions about costs and benefits of policy alternatives. The

rational policy-maker here is required to calculate for each alternative both the

expectation that will achieve the goals and also the costs.

[1v] Although simultaneously with calculating net expectations for each alternative, the

rational policy-maker is required to compare the alternatives with the highest benefits.

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[v] The fifth stage is the stage of selecting the most efficient policy alternative. If the rational

policy-maker has done this properly, the policy choice should be straight forward.

Once a policy choice is complimented, the rational policy-maker is required to monitor this

implementation systematically to find out the accuracy of the expectations and estimates. If

necessary, the policy-maker will complete the gaps in policy or give it up all together. This

can also be referred to as ‘the feed back stage’ of rational policy-making. If the decision-

makers make use of the feed-back to monitor and adapt policy, the policy system becomes

self-correcting or cybernetic.

What Are The Possible Constraints To Rationality?

It has been clearly established that rational decision making suffers from many constraints.

The concept of rationality is bandied about so much and so discriminatingly that it threatens

to lose its meaning. It is more widely spoken about than put to real practise. Some of the

known constraints of rational policy-making include:

[a] In accomplishing goals: Rational policy making is a very difficult exercise. By the time

the policy-maker makes a recommendation, the policy in question becomes more complex

that rational prescriptions become decisions which are made on the basis of societal goals.

Instead, the try to maximise their own rewards, such as power, status, money and re-election.

Therefore, making a more rational policy is more an exercise than a goal.

[b] In Securing Optimisation: the rational policy-making process is expected to produce

optimal results. However in real life, it does not always do so. Usually the public interests are

taken to be of more importance than being merely the sum of individual interests in political

arena.

[c] Conflict Between Rational Choice And Need For Action: there is usually a conflict

between rational search behaviour and the need for action. As already stated, policy-makers

are not motivated to make decisions on the basis of societal goals, but try instead to maximise

their own rewards such as power, status, money, personal gain.

[d] Dilemma of Political Feasibility: By political feasibility we mean, “the possibility that,

however rational and desirable, a policy option would actually be adopted and implemented

by the political system.” [Ralph Huitt, Political Feasibility, page 263-275/89. Politicians too

often resolve the dilemma of political feasibility by avoidance of conflict.

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[e] Problem of Cost-Benefit Analysis: it’s difficult for the policy-makers to calculate the

cost-benefit ratios accurately when many diverse social, economic, political and cultural

values are at stake. Apart from the above, policy-makers have personal needs, inhibitions and

inadequacies which render them incapable of making decisions.

[f] Nature and Environment of bureaucracy: The other barrier to rational policy-making is

the environment of the bureaucracies. Thomas Dye in his words notes ‘the segmentation

nature of policy making in large bureaucracy is difficult to coordinate decision-making so

that the input of all the various specialists is brought to bear at the point of decision’.

Fragmentation of authority, satisfying goals, conflicting values, limited technology,

uncertainty about the possible policy alternatives and consequences and other public

organizations do make rational policies making process difficult.

Conclusion

One might be forced to conclude that rational decision making model sets up goals and

procedures that are both naïve and utopian. It appears like rational policy making is very

difficult exercise to go into. Most theorists have a tendency to think that rational-making is

impossible. Yet this model still remains of critical importance for analytic purposes as it

helps to identify the constraints to rationality.

Simon’s Bounded Rationality

Herbert Simon has argued that policy-makers do not really ‘optimise’ but rather ‘satisfy’. To

him a “good” decision will do even if it is not the best decision [Herbert Simon, “a

behavioural Model of rational choice”, page 99-118]. A rational decision depends on

having a clear and well defined goal as well as sufficient authority to coordinate action.

Actual behaviour falls short of rationality in at least three [3] ways:

[1] Complete knowledge of the consequences of choice is necessary for rational

behaviour, but knowledge is always incomplete.

[2] Our valuation of future consequences is usually and most of the times imperfect.

[3] Rationality requires a choice among all possible alternative behaviours, but in reality,

only a few unclear alternatives usually come to mind.

Bibliography

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Sapru R.K. [2007], Public Policy: Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation, Sterling publishers Private limited, New Delhi, India, p 1- 288.

Chapter One of the Laws of Zambia, Constitution. Rumki Basu, 2007, Public Administration- Concepts and Theories, Sterling

Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pages 450 to 462.

WRITING A GOOD ASSIGNMENT

EXAMPLE 0F AN ASSIGNMENT:

The President of the Republic of Zambia has appointed you as Special Assistant to the President for Politics and Good Governance. The Cooperating Partners have aired their views that they are concerned with the governance record of the country. HE directs you to come up with suggestions and good practices for democracy and good governance so as to improve the relationship of Zambia with the international community.

Prepare a paper in which you highlight the four [4] major actions and practices that Zambia should take to be considered a democratic nation with a good record of good governance.

ANALYZING A QUESTION TO ESTABLISH COMPONENTS OF A QUESTION.

Here you will need to carefully look at the question to establish key concepts that you need to know before you can begin to do a research, the key concepts are democracy, good governance and the elements of democracy.

Having established these concepts, you will need to research from current books, in this case books in the range of publication from 2005 to 2014. The recent the book, the better quality is the information to be obtained in such a book. Avoid researching on the internet, unless the book you access on the internet has the name of the author, year of publication, full title of the book or article, where the book or article was published, which company published the article and

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which pages did you refer too. In case your internet article does not give the full information given above in high light, don’t use that information to support your writings, in your essay.

You will need to know the details of the definition of democracy, good governance and the elements of democracy and good governance.

Keep a good record of books you refer to in terms of author, full title of book, year of publication, who published it and where was the book or article published. You will need this information for references and later bibliography at the end of the essay.

Establish what the question wants you to do exactly, in the question above, you are required to give through discussions the four [4] actions and practices that will make Zambia a country with a good record of good governance. Any extra information is unnecessary and unwanted, and there is no marks for what is not asked for.

Below is a draft answer of the question above. No two people will write exactly in the same way and using same words, there for take the below as a draft and guide, in terms of content.

A DRAFT SAMPLE OF AN ANSWER

In this essay, I am going to define democracy and then discuss the four [4] major actions and practices that I will recommend that Zambia take to enable her be considered a democratic nation with a good record of good governance. The four [4] areas of focus will be the rule of law, decentralization, rights, liberty and equity and finally the separation of powers and checks and balances of power among the three arms of government.

Many writers have defined democracy and good governance in many different ways. John Locke and Edmund Burke have defined democracy as “a government of the people, by the people and for the people” [Johari JC, 2012, p379]. While another author has defined democracy a “Limited government bound by the laws of the land” [Johari, 2012, p379]. In both definitions, there is a focus on putting in place the rules that control both the rulers and the ruled to a point where non of them has excessive power. All are controlled by the same laws and rules in a fair way.

In the words of Bentham and James Mills, democracy means “the greatest good of the greatest number” [Johari JC, 2012, p 379]. This means, if few citizens of a country are happy with the way things are going, it means there is no democracy unless the majority of the citizens are the ones that are happy. In the case of Zambia, where few cast their votes in a bye

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election, and a candidate win, Bentham and James Mills, will say although an election was held, there is no democracy in this country since only a few will celebrate and not the majority.

Some writers have said, surprisingly, the word democracy may be recklessly applied to a system that has hardly anything like democratic in it [Johari, 2012, p 383]. Most of the African countries fall in this sad trap.

There are many points that one would want to recommend to HE, in order to make Zambia a democratic State. These may include rule of law, participation, decentralization, responsiveness, consultation, political diversity, accountability, transparency, checks and balances, the list is endless. However, as earlier stated, I will focus on the four [4] areas, as requested in the question am addressing, which has limited the area of attention.

The first action and practice to be taken by Zambia is to implement the “rule of law”. Muna Ndulo states, “ the rule of law has become a central focus of domestic and international effort to promote good governance [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 1]. This means that any country that does not practice and put in action the rule of law is not a democratic State. The rule of law should cover the election practices and appointments of those who make and execute policy as well as fairness in the manner policy is applied. These views are supported by many authors [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 1].

When one addresses the rule of law, this means that the use of State power, through rules of law make sure it will establish the economic and social system agreed upon by the citizens through a people driven Constitution [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p1]. This will imply a government operating under a Constitution has no more power than is granted to the leaders by the Constitution. All their activities and power are checked strictly by the Constitution [ Muna Ndulo, 2010, p3]. This will call for the governments which are organized around institutions, not individuals in the name of the President or Prime Minister, the institutions will engage in the delivery of goods and services which are quality while ensuring government accountability for every action and practice done by government [ Muna Ndulo, 2010, p4].

The second action and practice to be effected in Zambia will be decentralization. Decentralization does not mean creation of districts, entails transferring power from the centre to districts outside the national capital. Decentralization demands for greater self determination of the rural poor [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 79]. Yet, the issue of the devolution of power is one that many African countries give lip service while failing to address the matter in reality [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 79]. Decentralization will become a reality if African countries with its leaders reduce the concentration of power at the centre and allow citizens to fully participate in their governance. It’s a known factor that decentralization has the challenge of distributional equity and macro economics as most authors have observed [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 83]. The subject of decentralization has proved to be a challenge in Zambia for fifty [50] years now, due to lack of political will.

The third action and practice to be put in place is one revolving around the human right, liberty and equity. The human rights, liberty and equity should be given to all individual not

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the political parties [Johari JC, 2012, p 134]. All citizens regardless of their political party affiliation, should enjoy freely their moral rights, legal rights, civil rights and political rights. Citizens must enjoy their human rights, liberty and equity without any single interference from the State [Johari JC, 2012, p 141]. Individual human rights should not interfere with the rights of other citizens. This means where my rights end, other individual’s rights begin. Liberty and human rights does not mean there is no restrictions and limitations. The rule of law and the existence of other law enforcement institutions make it possible to restrain and limit the powers of all individuals against others [ Johari JC, 2012, p 144].

The fourth [4] and final action and practice to be effected is the principle of separation of powers, checks and balances. Where there is democracy and good governance, the three arms of government operate in an independent and separate circumstance. The Executive, the Judiciary and the Legislature are purely separate and provide checks and balances against each other. This makes the system to be a recipe for good governance and democratization [Johari JC, 2012, p 279]. Zambia and all other African countries have not moved an inch to wards this goal. One of the known author, Montesquieu, wrote, “when the legislature and the executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty, because apprehension may arise, let the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, and execute them in a tyrannical manner” [Johari JC, 2012, p 280]. The separation of powers among the other three arm of government, creates an environment that enables each arm of the government to check and balance the other, without any of the three becoming more powerful than the other [Johari JC, 2012, p 279].

As I conclude, it is very important that I state that there is connection between a people driven constitution and social, economic development of a country. For example, democratization and good governance results in a stable government, which creates an environment where genuine investors are attracted and results in the growth of the economy and worth. Further, its also true to state that where there is good governance, wasteful in unnecessary and unproductive by elections in the name of democracy are put aside. Democracy can also turn politics into genuine service than an official opportunity of plunder of national resources.

Given a chance to implement these four [4] recommendations, the nation as a whole will see sound change in the social, economic and political arena of its citizens.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Muna Ndulo, [2010], Democratic Reform In Africa, It Impact On Governance and Poverty Alleviation, Ohio University Press, Athens, USA, p 1-281.

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