frank mintz, self management
TRANSCRIPT
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The Anarchis t EncYc lopaedia
Fol io 1 ' March 1985
rssN 0257-51 1
in Spain that measure should be
as low as possible" (Cambio 16t
15 October 1984). Th e same
sentiment could aPPear in PrJ-nt
in any country.
We have no wish to 9o on
like this an d we struggle fo r
the emancipation of the workers
by their own endeavours. But
this not ion has been an d st i l l
is obscured bY theoretical
sophistr ies and disguis i t ions,
no t to mention historical
rnisrepresentat ion andr f inal ly tby the absence of a shared and
clear vocabularY. Just as
every government proclaims
itself to be in favour of
freedom, an d interPrets an d
applies this in a suPremelY
contradictory fashion, so the
self-emanciPation of the
workers is also interPreted
in di f ferent waYs.
Three great arguments
predominate. Denia1 of th e
feasibi l i ty of the PeoPle's
ernancipation is the Pasture of
th e rul ing class, backed uP bY
!
SelfManagementFlankMintz
s ince th e 1960s th e term 'sel f -management ' has been used to descr ibe workers ' at tempts at
sel f -emanc ipat ion. In this essay Frank Mintz , author of 'Sel f -management in th e spanish
Revolut ion ' , t races th e his tory of th e idea, examimes it s var lous interpretat ions within
di f fer ing soc ia l - -economic sys tems and ideologi .es . He also looks br ief ly at th e soc ia l -economic
condl t ions in which sel f -management has been par t ia l l y and, on occas ion, ful Iy real ised'
Parents educate their chi ldren
in order that they ma Ylearn
how to 1ive. Society moulds
its cit izens so that theY ma y
be obedient and work, but it
does not train or prepare them
to administer the insti tutions
of society. The rul ing c lasses
rule in their ostn interests.
Hence th e recurrent scandals
i nvolv ing bribery an d
corruption, including countries
with a dernocratic tradition.
In the '1970s the Lockheed
affair uncovered a series of
ministerial br ibery cases
involving highly placed leaders
in nearly every one of.the bi.g
industrial nations. Th e French
State lurches from scandal to
scandal: an erstwhile President
of th e republic (a
right-winger) involved in
diamond smugglingr a fraud
involving several mil l ion
dol lars featuring the 'sni f fer
aircraft ' farce is covered uP
by th e incumbent social ist
president. In Gernany, th e
Flick corporation Provides a
good example of Parl iamentarY
bribery withinternational
rarnif ications. Those countries
al legedly under 'worleers'
governments do not have
anythi-ng very different to
offer. After nearlY 70 Years
of rnarxist-Ieninism th e
Bolshevik press (Pravda an d
Literaturnaya Gazeta) is
replete with exPoses of briberY
and embezzlenent bY comrnunist
leaders. In China neither Ma o
nor the current leaders have
been able to out Paid to
instances of exPloitation an d
bribery. Under every system
th e citizenry is on the outside
of crucial Poli t ical an d
economic dec is ion-mak ing,
bereft of an y real control.
Fo r that reason briberY an d
corruption wil l be with us fo r
a long time yet, and ar e even
presented as normal Practices:
"A certain measure of
corruption seems inevitable in
th e public l l fe of every
country, but i t is in al l of
ou r interests that here in pseudo- scienti f ic arcruments
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Frank Mintz
( nnate inequali ty of
intel l igence). Phi losophical
ones (from Plato's RePubl ic to
Nietzsche) an d historical ones
(the constancY of leadershiP.. .
f rom Jesus to Hi t ler). Denial
of the short-term caPabil l t ies
of th e workersin the absence
of trainlng an d tutelage bY a
superior caste is the Posi t ion
helcl by social ists an d marxist
leninists, who base thenselves
on scienti f ic arguments
(behaviourism an d social
condi t ioning), Phi losoPhical
ones (Marx, Lenin) and
historical ones (the revolut ion
in the USSR).
Th e final Position is the
l ibertarian on e which contends
that th e workers themselves ar e
equipped an d caPable of
directing an d reorganising
society: this theY base on
scient i f ic argumencs
(sociabi l i ty and the st imulus
of revolut ion), Phi losoPhical
considerat ions (the Persistance
of th e rePudiation of authoritY
frorn th e Greeks - Carpocrates,
Zeno - through La Boetie, uP to
ou r ow n d"Y) an d historical
evidence (the Paris Commune'
the Russian Revolut ion).
We line uP in th e last
a broad-based
in which we f ind
( l ike Jacques
marxj .s ts ( l ike
Pannekoek, an d to some extent,
Rosa Luxemburg)'
situationists
( l ike Vaneigem) an d indiv iduals
l ike Noarn ChomskY,Polish trade
unionists, alongside classical
anarchi st s ranging from
Proudhon, Bakunin, KroPotkin to
Abad de Santi l lan an d Bookchin'
The term currentlY accePted
as a descrlPtion of th e
workers' attenpts at
sel f-emanciPat ion is "sel f-
managementrt. PreviousJ-Y the
terms favoured were Bakuninism,
anarcho-communism, l ibertarian
communism, direct managemenE'
Since 1968 the term
sel f -nanagement has been th e
most convenient , a lbei t one
fuI l of ambigui t ies . I f we are
to clar i fY th e Problem, we need
Soc ia l Theory
to focus on three aspec ts :
a) th e his torY of th e not ion,
b) th e var ious imPl icat ions ,
and c) th e soc io-economrc
s tages of aPPl icat ion an d these
we shal l l -ook at br ief lY'
a) Though th e hurnble an d the
explo i ted have Persistent lY
revol-ted f rorn the tirne of
Spar tacus through to ou r own
day , it was dur ing th e French
revolut ion that th e theoret ical
groundwork was laid down. In
1792 th e bourgeois rePubl icans
denounced th etanarchis ts t of
Par is wh o wanted dePut ies and
workers al ike to receive th e
same ltage an d wh o said that
there were tw o c lassestthe
c lass of those wh o haveand
that of th e have-nots , th e
sansculot tes and th e
proper t ied.I And in th e
Mani fes to of th e Equals of th e
Babouv is t consPi rators , we
read:tGone at las t , th e
hatefu l dist inct ions between
r ich an d Poor r great and smal l ,
mas ters and servants r governors
an d governed.t In 1 794 Varlet
wrote:tFor anYone caPable of
reason, Government an d
Revolut ion are incomPat ib le.I
Revolut ionarY exPer ience and
revolut ionarY Pract ice dic tated
th e not lons which Proudhon and
Bakunin later elaborated uPont
adding to these the cons tant
revocabi l i tY of delegates bY
th e rank and f i le workers and
c i t i zens , and th e rotat ion of
of f ices so as to fores ta l l
imbalance or th e energence some
ne w rul ing cas te (this l tas
al readY ant ic iPated in
Ar istot le'5 Pol i t ics)'
and th e federat ion of
col lec t ives . Thus in '1864 th e
First Internat ional eguiPPed
itsel f wi th statutes - drawn uP
by KarI Marx under th e watchfu l
ey e of th e other delegates
with the watchword 'The
enanc iPat ion of th e workers
shal l be th e taskof th e
workers themselves-I In 1 865
Bakunin ant ic ipated a further
s tatute fo r a revolut ionarY
soc iety . .tanY organis ing
should Proceed from th e bottom
Se f -Managelnent
upwards, from the commune to
the central unit of the
country, to th e Stater along
federal l ines. '
b) To determine th e several
meanings of self-management, we
need to look at th e goal. ho w
it is to be achieved and th e
pract ical essays on this 'ts tr ic t ly speaking, talk of a
sel f-managerial or associat ive
social ism is a tautologY , for,
without self-management, there
is no social ism.r This
opinion, exPressed bY th e
Yugoslav Branko Horvat, is one
which ca n be shared bY all
social ists in that theY look
forward to th e disaPPearance of
th e State at some Point in
history. In greater detaiJ-,
social ism would then be : trthe \/
not ion of counc i l t
se l f -management and di rec t '
democracy : th e leav ing behind
of pr ivate ownership of th e
means of Produc t ion, as wel l as
of th e rul ing Pol i t icaI 1evel t
which might reproduce
capital ist relations in an even
worse form: th e notion of the
free disPosi t ion of onet slabour, with the social
relations that flow from this:
hence th e necessity of freedom
of inquirY, freedom of thought
and Lh e freedorn to argue'r l
(Predrag Vranick i ).
' lne advocates of
self-management ca n be broken
down into those who advocate
revolutionarY violence an d
paci f is ts. The former
compriserPart lYrthe anarchists
who take the line that the
revolutionarY organisation
should encourage th e workers,
basing itself on freelY
co-ordinated col lec t ives
without staking clairn to a
position of leadershiP; an d
they differ greatly in their
v iews from the
marxist- leninists. 'Unless we
ar e anarchists, we have to
accePt th e necessitY of the
State' which is to sa Y of
coercionr in th e Passage from
capi tal ism to social ism. Th e
form of coercion is determined
category t
communion
Christ ians
El lu1 )'
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persuasion
hippy-style
Cabet ian-s ty le
reminiscent
- the spread of
communes or
*L ^
The Anarchist Encyclopaedia
by the measure of development
of th e corresponding
revolutionary class, by special
c l rcumstances - such as, say,
the inheritance from a
protracted revolutionary \.rar -
and by the forms assumed by the
resistance from the bourgeoisie
and pet i te bourgeois ie. Thus
there exists absolutely no
contradiction in principle
between soviet democracy (which
is to say social is t democracy)
and th e principle of
dic tator ia l powers ves ted in
certain indiv iduals . r So wrote
Lenj -n in Apr i I 1918, some
months after th e creat ion of
the secret pol ice - by Lenin
himself . Paci f is ts ant ic ipate
that example an d the power of
Soc ia l Theory
exarnple, this or that
production company. whi.ch wil l
be more or less self-contained,
manages to hold out against or
to overcome that porrrer, that
success wil l have no result
other than the spawning of a
ner{ privi leged class of happy
cooperators amid the miserable
mass of proletarians. Thus, in
the current conditions of
social economy, cooperation
cannot del iver the ernancipation
of the labouring masses.
Nonetheless, i t has this
advantage - that, even today,
it famil iarises the workers
with coming together an d
organising themselves an d
administering their own affairs
for themselves. ' This lastpoint by Bakunin in 187 3 is
important, though it is true
that in the majori ty of cases
worker participation is a cover
for c lass col laborat ion and a
sweeE.ener for capi tal is t
exploi tat ion.
Innumerable examples could
be c i ted: the union-capi tal is t
co - management in West Germany,
the l imited cooperaE. r -on
confined to a few firms, th e
most extravagant being th e
penitentiaries of Terre Haute
and Leaven\^rorth in the USA,
where prisonersr counci ls
handle the budget along with
the gaolers l thus, supposedly,
the inmates
responsibi l i ty
are given
rehabil i tated. Another re d
herring is to depict th e
Catholic church as the pioneer
of self-management, as i f a
handful of ni l i tant proletarian
Catholics in the 19th century
could sweeten the reactionary
pi11. Since the 1960s the
Vatican has adopted a new
strategy. tn e Mondragon
cooperative in Spain, with i ts
10,000 members is custornari ly
cited as an instance of
Catholic achievement. However,
i t is no explanation fo r it isthe only example created in
Francoist Spai.n an d does not
explain how in February 1971 it
wa s possible for the members of
Fo1io 1
the cooperat lve to go on
str ike. 'o f course, the
str ikers did not down tools
t tagains tthemselves t t, so thei r
ac t ion must have been di rec ted
agains t the rnanagement , I noted
Oakeshot t in an anthology
edi ted by Vahek , f rom which th e
above paragraph is drawn.
Another face of sel f
management is the of f i c ia l
encouragement which i t can
receive under mi l i tary or
s ingle party . regimes . From
Yugos lav ia to Alger ia, Peru,
Chi1e, Rumania, etc . ,
self-management sprouts up as a
pi l lar of the regime, a useful
means of nobil ising the workers
behind the economy, or for th e
purpose of ensuring a fleetingpol i t ical harmony. This tact ic
also embraces the Israeli
kibbutizim which came to
represent 6Z of the total
population in th e 'l 930s only to
retreat by 1970 to 3.68
whenever the State had an
experienced army at i ts
disposal .
Whatever the origin of
self-managerial experiments ma y
be - recuperat ion, rel ig ion,
capi tal ism,
indiv idual is ts
pol i t ics,
banding
together, etc. - pract ice has
shown that the workers end up
feeling that they can and
should achieve more, because
they feel a sense of maturity,
they feel t ra ined and
heartened. The very idea of
self-management spe11s danger
for the ruling classes, despi tetheir experience in demagogy
and corrupti-on. And in the
marxist- Ieni.ni st countr ies,
each clash between the workers
an d their red bosses was
accompanied by memories of the
Paris Commune, an d of the
organJ-sat5.ona1 and creative
capabi l i t les of the workers.
c) Self-management wa s
realised partial ly and, on many
occasions, entirely, during theRussian revolut ion, especial ly
in the Ukrainei also during th e
Spanish civi l vrar and during
the months of May-June 1968 in
of
anarcho-Tolstoyan view, wi l l
lead on to a systen without
prj-vi.Ieges. Tolstoy at th e
beginning of the century,
indef ining rel ig ious fai th as
bel ief in a Value, in a society
which pursues an ongoing
peaceful struggle against
hierarchy and authori ty ,
managed to attract tens of
thousands of fol lowers an d
sympathisers. But Tsarist
repression an d then Bolshevik
repression disnantled th e
novement which was
characterised by everyday
struggle: refusal to pa y
any taxes, reject ion of al l
State schooling, condemnation
of work outsi.de of th e
countryside.
In concrete terms, th e termI self-management t
embraces
co-operatives and workerst
participation in the running of
their f irms. Fo r this reason
and for upwards of a century,
anarchists an d social ists have
general ly been opposed to such
experiments. 'Co-operat ion, in
the majori ty of instances, wi I Ibe crushed by the omnipotent
night of bi g capital ist and
large landed property: in the
fe w instances in which, for
an d
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Frank Mintz
France. ( Fo r further
information on these j.nstances,
see the other entries in th e
Encyclopedia.) But let us see
j. f self-management 1s always
feasible. Karl Marx imaglned
that historical evolut ion
passed Lhrough set stages, but
whenever he came to study theRussj.an case he changed his
mi-nd. In th e foreword to the
1882 Russian edi t ion of the
Communist Manifesto he wrote:tMight the Russian rural
communi ty - a formcertainly
far removed from primitive
common ownership of the land -
pass on directly to the higher
form of col lectlve ownership,
to the communj-st form, or wil l
i t have to go, instead, through
th e same process of
disintegratlon which
const l tutes the historical
development of the West?i His
ansr.rer was that the solution
might l ie in t iming the Russlan
revolution to coincide exactly
with the proletarian revolution
in the West.
Thus did Marx adopt the
stance of Bakunin from 187 3 wh o
analysed traditional col lective
ownership, the mir, thus: i t
boasts three advantages; t t . .a11
land belongs to the people",
the mir " . .distr ibutes the
land, on a temporary basis,
among the conmune memberstt, i t
enjoys "almost absolute
autonomytt and at the same timettcommunity self -management". ( 'l )
There are also t hree drawbacks:ttpatriarchy"
- the crushing ofth e individual by the mir,
and confidence in the tsar.
It is obvious that the
si tuat ionists ' personal ,
everyday self-management, with
its exotic overtones fal ls far
short of being espoused by many
who synpathise with collective
ownership. Just as i t is v i tal
that self-management should
emanate from among the workers
themselves if i t is to be able
to overthrow exploitation in
any lasting way, i t is doubtful
that self-management is
instantaneously a model
Soc ia l Theory
sat is fy ing book ish
prescr ipt ions. But sel- f -
management s t r ikes us as an
adequate formula in terms of an
ant i -capi tal is t model in th e
Third World or in th e
industr ial ised count r ies .
Several th inkers , Gonz ,
Bookchin, etc . , imagine thattoday 's workers aspi re f i rs t of
a l1 to do away with
wage-s lavery , with work, the
resul t of which wou ld be to
render soc ia l theor ies inval id.
Thls is only one par t of the
task, for leisure and personal
wel l -being lead 6n to creat ion
and to the per formance of
ac t ions . Several capi ta l i s t
f irms have shown that by
rear rangement , work can be made
attract ive (b y let t ing th e
worker put together the machine
in i ts ent i rety, by set t ing up
qual i ty cont ro l c i rc les, etc.)
The l ikel ihood is that soc ia l l y
indispensable tasks ma y assume
a di f ferent aspec t in a new
soc iety . Nowadays we have a
dual relat ionship with work, i t
dominates us but we dorninate
the prac t ice of i t . As one
counc i l l - i . s t anarchis t observed
back in 1920, "The ascendaney
which th e rnachine ha s over the
worker is immeasurable: i t
g ives him the tangib le feel ing
that the machine upon which he
spends the bulk of h is
ex is tence and to which he is
indissolubly bound, can and
should belong to h im. "
Consequent ly , as long as
machines are around, there wi l lbe the des i re fo r
sel f -management and as long as
exploi tat ion exists, so too
sel f -manage ment wi l l s t i r .
Towards the end of his l i fe
Marx embraced the hypothes is of
a soc iety wi th an agrar ian
col lect j .v is t t radi t lon moving
direct ly on to revolut ion. But
the major i . ty of marxists shy
away from this, especial ly
Anton Pannekoek i.n Workers I
Counci ls ; for him the peasants
have 'a separate mental i t y and
out look , remote from the ideas
and aims of the work ing c lass . r
SeIf-Management
So , even though th e Russian
revolution furnished th e
example of the workers' sovj.ets
(Russian for rcounci ls t), the
majority of th e population
could not rperform the task of
the monent ' . tA1so, to
forestal l the eventuali ty of
the working class 's tendenciesbeing overwhelmed by the trend
towards small proprietorship,
enanating from the countryside,
what was needed was a strong,
central ised goverrunent capabale
of countering those peasant
inc l inat ions. I From which is
deduced the notion that, Russia
being an agricultural country,
the revolution was impossible.
Another marxist, Rudolf
Bahro expresses the same
not ion, brutal ly . 'wi thout the
rule imposecl by the Bolsheviks,
Russia, today, would st i l l be a
peasants ' State which wou1d,
without much question, have
opted for the capi tal is t road. l
Hence the conclusj-on which many
counci l l is ts share, though they
do not dare to pu t it in
wri t ing: t the ant i -s tat is t and
anti-authoritarian ideology of
many lef t is t intel lectuals who
live in the West is
historical ly just i f ied in the
al ready industr ia l ised
countries, wherein the rnaterial
conditions fo r the withering-
away of the State are ripening.
As for those people who are
only in the throes of
industrial isation, they cannot
dispense \,t i th such an
instrument, and their State ca nonly be bureaucractic at the
outset ' (French edi t ion of
Seguire ni carnino).
The foundations of this
analysis are based j. n the
always negative rofe of the
peasantry and the always
positive one of the workers,
plus a phase of capi tal lsmrs
maturing. Asi.de from th e
historical instances c i ted
elsewhere which expose such an
attack as r id iculous, i t is
possible to comment briefly
upon the role of the working
class which, wi th i ts c lassical
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an d
The Anarchis t Encyc lopaedia Social Theory
forms), or wj . th a single party
in power (as in Yugoslavia an d
some other countrj_es ) , or
self-nanagement from below,
wi th counci l l is ts on the one
hand an d anarchists on the
other, in an alnost constant
an d automatic way, no tendency
as much as acknowledges th eexistence of the rest. Th e
council l ists Pannekoek an d
Mattick, an d the anarchists
Rocker and Besnard, ar e typical
of this mental bl indspot. OnIy
over the past 20 years or so,
fol lowing the exarnple se t by
the si tuat ionj -st3, has th e
occas ional attenpt
objec t iv i ty been made. It can
be emphas ised that, paci f is ts
or otherwise, th e advocates of
sel f -managernent are f ight lng to
break down th e fear of
author i ty , the delegat ion of
power , th e anxi .ety in the face
of change which Wilhelm Reich
in th e 1 930s and Stanley
Milgram in th e 1 970s exposed
with clar i ty .
Note (1 )
In Russ j -an and Serbo-Croat , th e
word samouprav leniye , used
col Ioguia l1y , neans r local
management t or Iautonomyt ,a
def ini t ion whi-ch f a1l_s f ar
shor t of th e meaning of
'se l f -management r . rn th e 1973
tex t of Bakuninrs it seems to
that hl s obstinnoe
sanouprav leniye can be
t ranslated as tcommuni ty
sel f -management . I
**
Bibl iographical sources used(in order of use)
Kropotkin: La Gran revolucion
1909.
Guerin, Daniel : La lut te de
classes sous la lere Republ ique,
Paris, 1945.
Guerin, Dani .el : Ni Dios, ni
Arno, 1972.
Vanek, Jaroslav: SeIf manaqe-
ment, Penguin, ' l975.
Vranichi, Pregrad: Marksizan
i social izam, Zagreb, 1979.Leninr La s tareas inmediatas
de1 poder soviet ico, 1918.
Bakunin. Estatismo y
anarquismo, 1873.
l 'o l io 1
Garino, tFactory workshops an d
counci lsr, i .n P.C. Masini rs
Anarchici e comunisti nel
movinento dei consiql i a
Torino, 1951
Other sources:
Arvon, Lrautoqest ion, Parls,
1980 (pro-capi tal is t).
Bancal , Proudhon, plural ismeet autoqest ion, Paris, 1970.
Bonnanno. Autoqestione ed
anarchismo (apologia fo r
anarchism), Catania, 1975.
Bourdet, La del ivrance de
Promethee. Pour une theorie
pol- i t ique de l rautoqest ion,
Paris, 1970.
Chauvey, Ltautoqest ion,
Paris, 1970 (in favour of
pol i t ical t rade unionism).
Chomsky, Radical Prior i t ies
Montreal , 1981
Dal lemagne Autoqest ion ou
dictature du proletariat ,
Paris 1976 (just i f icat ion of
Leni-nism).
Etat isme et autoqest ion.
Bi lan cri t ique du social isme
youqoslave, Paris, 1970 (a
French Trotskyist approach).
Meister, Social isme et
autogest ion- l rexperience
vouqoslave, Paris. 1964.rMouvement du 22 Marst, Ce
nrest gutun debut, cont j -nuous
le conbat, ParJ.s, 1968 (May-
June 1968 in Paris).
Pannekoek, Les Conseils
Ouvriers (the most complete
edi t ion, wi th texts translated
fron Engl ish and Dutch.
Ratgeb, De la qreve sauvaqe
a l rautoqest ion qeneral isee,
Paris, 1974 (si tuat ionistapproach ) .
Tito, Self -manaqement,
Belgrade,1983.
Noir et Rouge, Lrautoqest ion,
l rEtat et 1a revolut ion,
Paris, 1968.
Reviews apart from Comunidad
an d it s publi .shers:
Autoqestions, 54 Boulevard
Raspai l , 75006, paris , France.
Economics, analvsis and
workersr manaqement, p.O. Bo x
611, 11000, Belgrade,
Yugoslavia.
Revista ibero-americana de
exper ienced marxist
organisations, vras remarkably
passive against Hi t ler in the
Germany of th e 1930s, t imid in
the France of 1936, l imi ted in
the Chi le of 1973 against the
mil i tary - before and after th e
coup. As fo r th e necessary
development of capi tal ism,itis strikingly apparent that
Japan is th e economic
trai l-blazer which th e other
countries are aplng and that
before maturlty is achieved in
every country (the en d of the
telematic er a ) it is very
l ikely that we rnay be in the
year 2500.
Having said that, it is
nonetheless true that there is
a grey area where soclal is tideas do no t thrj .ve, as in
those countries under
tradi t ional rel ig ious rule and
where insurrect ion is an
unknown experience ( th e
Amazonian Indi.ans, certain
portions of th e Indian
sub-continent ) .
Historical analysis, then,
a sure means of
monitor ing th e ideological
evolut ion of the concept of
sel f manager ia l revolut ion, as
wel l as of th e level oftconsc ienc isat ionr of soc iety
and of soc ia l s t rata.
Two last observat ions to
c1ose. The f i rs t is that
al legat ion to th e effect that
th e anarchis ts are bourqeoi .s
( according to the
marxist- leninists) or t ied to
the bourgeois ieIpannekoek] ).
Through historical examples we
wil l also perceive the truth or
falsehood of such assertions,
bu t it is as well to point ou t
that from Lenin to Castro, fe w
narxist leaders have been
workers, whereas from Makhno to
Durruti , many anarchists have
been peasant or workers t
leaders.
Fina1ly, among th e great
tendencies into which self-nanagement is divi.ded: self-
management from above, with
participation under capital ism
(in an endless variety of
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Frank Mintz
autoqestion a accion comunal,
Atalena editores, Cochabamba 2,
Madrid 16, Espana.
Social isno I participacion,
Apartado 11701t Lina'11, Peru.
Th e Anarchist Encyclopaedia.
Monograph 2, February 198 6
TSSN 0267-61 41
Th e Anarchist Encyclopaedia
c/ o Cambridge Free Press
Unit 6
25 Gwydir Street
Cambridge eB1 2LG
Soc ia l Theory Self-Management
v