foreign policy ali carroll, alex melanson, eric sweeney

Foreign PolicyForeign Policy

Ali Carroll, Alex Melanson, Eric Ali Carroll, Alex Melanson, Eric SweeneySweeney

The Great White Fleet:The Great White Fleet:The American Navy’s World The American Navy’s World

CruiseCruise

Strengthening the NavyStrengthening the Navy

From the beginning of his presidency, From the beginning of his presidency, Roosevelt articulated the country’s Roosevelt articulated the country’s responsibility in foreign affairsresponsibility in foreign affairs

First Annual Message (1901): “Whether we First Annual Message (1901): “Whether we desire it or not, we must henceforth desire it or not, we must henceforth recognize that we have international duties, recognize that we have international duties, … American people must either build and … American people must either build and maintain an adequate navy or else make up maintain an adequate navy or else make up their minds definitely to accept a secondary their minds definitely to accept a secondary position in international affairs.”position in international affairs.”


Roosevelt fought legislative resistance Roosevelt fought legislative resistance from congress as he wanted to build from congress as he wanted to build the navy during a time of peacethe navy during a time of peace

Roosevelt believed a stronger navy Roosevelt believed a stronger navy was needed:was needed: To protect America’s economic livelihood To protect America’s economic livelihood To project America’s technological and To project America’s technological and

martial prowess abroadmartial prowess abroad To establish America as an advanced To establish America as an advanced

peacekeeping force abroadpeacekeeping force abroad


To counter legislative resistance, To counter legislative resistance, Roosevelt staged a huge media event Roosevelt staged a huge media event – announcing in the summer of 1907 – announcing in the summer of 1907 that he would send 16 American that he would send 16 American battleships out in December 1907 to battleships out in December 1907 to tour the worldtour the world

Foreign Policy and the Foreign Policy and the Rhetorical ChallengeRhetorical Challenge

Presidents face the rhetorical challenge of Presidents face the rhetorical challenge of dealing with foreign policy during times of dealing with foreign policy during times of peacepeace How does a president call for standard How does a president call for standard

improvements in military capabilities without improvements in military capabilities without creating images of war in public’s creating images of war in public’s consciousness?consciousness?

How does a president promote improvement of How does a president promote improvement of military capabilities during a time of peace? military capabilities during a time of peace?

Roosevelt engaged the media to mythologize Roosevelt engaged the media to mythologize the world cruise, in order to conceal the the world cruise, in order to conceal the martial nature of the battleship fleetmartial nature of the battleship fleet

The Media and the MythThe Media and the Myth

Roosevelt provided the media with Roosevelt provided the media with three traditional themes:three traditional themes: A world demanding that America uphold A world demanding that America uphold

its international responsibilityits international responsibility The navy seamen who represented the The navy seamen who represented the

type of American to fulfill that type of American to fulfill that responsibilityresponsibility

The battleship fleet represented the The battleship fleet represented the culmination of American ingenuity and culmination of American ingenuity and determinationdetermination

The World in Need of a The World in Need of a SaviorSavior

The media’s (and Roosevelt’s) The media’s (and Roosevelt’s) constructed universe featured a world constructed universe featured a world comprised of simple cultures that comprised of simple cultures that respected American powerrespected American power

Focused on the nation’s supposed moral Focused on the nation’s supposed moral and martial duty as a responsible and martial duty as a responsible member of the global community, member of the global community, without addressing the issue of whether without addressing the issue of whether world peace was being threatened and world peace was being threatened and needed America to play a great partneeded America to play a great part

Declared that America had no enemies Declared that America had no enemies in the present universein the present universe

The Navy HeroThe Navy Hero Rather than focusing on the traditional Rather than focusing on the traditional

picture of a warrior, the press exhibited picture of a warrior, the press exhibited the sailors’ more benign, heroic traits – the sailors’ more benign, heroic traits – Willingness to workWillingness to work Superhuman enduranceSuperhuman endurance CivilityCivility

Roosevelt declared that “sea-man of our Roosevelt declared that “sea-man of our warships… are unsurpassed in daring, warships… are unsurpassed in daring, in resolution, in readiness, in thorough in resolution, in readiness, in thorough knowledge of their profession” (Second knowledge of their profession” (Second Annual Message, 1902). Annual Message, 1902).

The Navy HeroThe Navy Hero ““Fighting Bob” – a symbolic hero comprised of Fighting Bob” – a symbolic hero comprised of

characteristics from Rear Admiral Robley Evans characteristics from Rear Admiral Robley Evans and Rear Admiral Charles Sperry, two and Rear Admiral Charles Sperry, two commanders in the battleship fleetcommanders in the battleship fleet

The Battleship FleetThe Battleship Fleet

Instead of highlighting the destructive Instead of highlighting the destructive power of the fleet, the press praised the power of the fleet, the press praised the battleships as mythical symbols of American battleships as mythical symbols of American industrial power and cultural superiorityindustrial power and cultural superiority

Contextualized in an inactive fashion, Contextualized in an inactive fashion, likening the fleet to the insurance that the likening the fleet to the insurance that the average American purchased in preparation average American purchased in preparation for dangers in the distant futurefor dangers in the distant future

Romanticized by media, who transformed Romanticized by media, who transformed the battleships into rich cultural centersthe battleships into rich cultural centers

What Made Roosevelt What Made Roosevelt Successful?Successful?

He realized the power of the public He realized the power of the public influenceinfluence

He employed the mass media to get past He employed the mass media to get past Congress on the issue of building up the Congress on the issue of building up the navynavy

He promoted the idea that the world was He promoted the idea that the world was in need of a defender, and that the in need of a defender, and that the American navy could be that champion American navy could be that champion while the battleship would be the tool while the battleship would be the tool used to fulfill America’s dutyused to fulfill America’s duty

Roosevelt’s Rhetorical Roosevelt’s Rhetorical Influence Influence

Later presidents followed Later presidents followed Roosevelt’s example, using myths to Roosevelt’s example, using myths to redefine armed conflicts as redefine armed conflicts as peacekeeping missions in the quest peacekeeping missions in the quest for international stabilityfor international stability EisenhowerEisenhower G.W. BushG.W. Bush

Rhetorical Rhetorical CompactCompact

•When giving a speech, the When giving a speech, the President must remember that he President must remember that he is speaking to both the immediate is speaking to both the immediate audience and other rhetorical audience and other rhetorical players who will respond with players who will respond with public statements or actions of public statements or actions of their own their own •With issues of foreign policy, With issues of foreign policy, leaders form a leaders form a rhetorical rhetorical compact, compact, or or an effort to balance an effort to balance rhetorical objectives across rhetorical objectives across multiple audiences multiple audiences

To have compacts, there must be To have compacts, there must be baseline rules, but the speakers also baseline rules, but the speakers also must avoid falling into a pattern must avoid falling into a pattern They generally do things slowly, but once They generally do things slowly, but once

they have established an understanding they have established an understanding with others they can become creativewith others they can become creative

To get the rules, early they try to declare To get the rules, early they try to declare an identity an identity

To keep the compact, one may maintain To keep the compact, one may maintain policy, other rhetorical patternpolicy, other rhetorical pattern

Eisenhower & Eisenhower & KhrushchevKhrushchev

In the 1950’s, Americans were In the 1950’s, Americans were concerned with the missile gap with concerned with the missile gap with Russia and that we were behind in Russia and that we were behind in the Arms racethe Arms race

Eisenhower mentioned the gap early Eisenhower mentioned the gap early in his career and was then peppered in his career and was then peppered with questions concerning this for with questions concerning this for his time in officehis time in office


Due to internal pressure, Khrushchev’s Due to internal pressure, Khrushchev’s rhetoric was powerful and forceful, rhetoric was powerful and forceful, declaring Soviet power as “absolute and declaring Soviet power as “absolute and strong” strong”

Eisenhower had information that there Eisenhower had information that there was not in fact a gap and that America was was not in fact a gap and that America was actually more powerful than the Sovietsactually more powerful than the Soviets He chose not to mention this in public due to He chose not to mention this in public due to

his compact with Khrushchev and his foreign his compact with Khrushchev and his foreign policypolicy


In this compact, Eisenhower allowed for In this compact, Eisenhower allowed for Khrushchev’s rhetoric to involve the power Khrushchev’s rhetoric to involve the power of Russia even though it was falseof Russia even though it was false

Llewellyn Thompson was ambassador to Llewellyn Thompson was ambassador to Soviet Union, very influential in the Soviet Union, very influential in the Foreign policy issue – he helped the Foreign policy issue – he helped the president understand the issue president understand the issue Khrushchev’s fanatical rhetoric was from Khrushchev’s fanatical rhetoric was from

internal political pressureinternal political pressure Thompson saw Khrushchev’ style as a resolve to Thompson saw Khrushchev’ style as a resolve to

avoid future war, not aggressionavoid future war, not aggression


During the time, Cold War rhetoric was During the time, Cold War rhetoric was powerful in America and the Soviet powerful in America and the Soviet UnionUnion

Eisenhower’s war hero image enabled Eisenhower’s war hero image enabled him to have more credibility with nation him to have more credibility with nation defense, and so he could avoid this defense, and so he could avoid this rhetoric in his foreign policyrhetoric in his foreign policy Khrushchev lacked this reputation and made Khrushchev lacked this reputation and made

up for it in his speeches of power and up for it in his speeches of power and fanaticismfanaticism

KhrushchevKhrushchev

““We stick firmly to the Lenin precept—We stick firmly to the Lenin precept—don't be stubborn if you see you are don't be stubborn if you see you are wrong, but don't give in if you are wrong, but don't give in if you are right. About the capitalist states, it right. About the capitalist states, it doesn't depend on you whether or not doesn't depend on you whether or not we exist. If you don't like us, don't we exist. If you don't like us, don't accept our invitations, and don't invite accept our invitations, and don't invite us to come to see you. Whether you like us to come to see you. Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you!" bury you!"


Khrushchev’s “We will bury you” Khrushchev’s “We will bury you” speech this rhetoric was not to be speech this rhetoric was not to be taken seriously, but a way to taken seriously, but a way to appease his hard-line critics in the appease his hard-line critics in the USSRUSSR

He hoped that his rhetoric would He hoped that his rhetoric would force the US to see them as an force the US to see them as an equal, even though he played from a equal, even though he played from a point of militaristic inferiority point of militaristic inferiority


Regardless of his fanatical speeches, Regardless of his fanatical speeches, Khrushchev’s main goal was for Khrushchev’s main goal was for peace with Americapeace with America

He successfully substituted He successfully substituted militaristic rhetoric for an actual militaristic rhetoric for an actual militaristic defense policy militaristic defense policy

His rhetoric was powerful in establishing His rhetoric was powerful in establishing their power, while reducing military spending their power, while reducing military spending - troops reduced by 1.2 million- troops reduced by 1.2 million

““My secret weapon is my toungeMy secret weapon is my tounge

EisenhowerEisenhower

In foreign policy, both sides must In foreign policy, both sides must understand the immediate rhetorical understand the immediate rhetorical situation of the other. Thompson was situation of the other. Thompson was crucial during this period in letting crucial during this period in letting Eisenhower know the pressure put on Eisenhower know the pressure put on KhrushchevKhrushchev Eisenhower’s foreign policy was to remain Eisenhower’s foreign policy was to remain

quiet about this situationquiet about this situation In doing so, he avoided future risk of the In doing so, he avoided future risk of the

Soviets actually making more missiles Soviets actually making more missiles

Eisenhower’s State of the Eisenhower’s State of the UnionUnion

““But we must remember that these imposing But we must remember that these imposing armaments are purchased at great cost… armaments are purchased at great cost… Modern weapons are exceedingly expensive… Modern weapons are exceedingly expensive… We are buying certain bombers that cost their We are buying certain bombers that cost their weight in gold. These sums are tremendous, weight in gold. These sums are tremendous, even when compared with the marvelous even when compared with the marvelous resiliency and capacity of our economy. We resiliency and capacity of our economy. We must guard against our feverish building of must guard against our feverish building of vast armaments to meet glibly predicted vast armaments to meet glibly predicted moments of so-called maximum peril… I am moments of so-called maximum peril… I am equally sure that the nation will thus avoid equally sure that the nation will thus avoid useless expenditures which, in the name of useless expenditures which, in the name of security, might tend to undermine the security, might tend to undermine the economy and, therefore, the nations safety.”economy and, therefore, the nations safety.”

EisenhowerEisenhower ““In the councils of government, we must In the councils of government, we must

guard against the acquisition of unwarranted guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. The potential the military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist. We must never let the exists and will persist. We must never let the weight of this combination endanger our weight of this combination endanger our liberties or democratic processes. We should liberties or democratic processes. We should take nothing for granted. Only an alert and take nothing for granted. Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together.”and liberty may prosper together.”

The CompactThe Compact

By remaining quiet about the missile gap, By remaining quiet about the missile gap, Eisenhower slowed missile creation and may Eisenhower slowed missile creation and may have increased the safety of Americans have increased the safety of Americans

He had the ability to destroy the Soviet military He had the ability to destroy the Soviet military bravado and humiliate them but chose not tobravado and humiliate them but chose not to

In a conversation with Khrushchev, Eisenhower In a conversation with Khrushchev, Eisenhower offered his insight into the arms race:offered his insight into the arms race: ““You know, we really should come to some sort of You know, we really should come to some sort of

agreement in order to stop this fruitless, really agreement in order to stop this fruitless, really wasteful rivalry”wasteful rivalry”

The CompactThe Compact

If Eisenhower was not credited as If Eisenhower was not credited as being smart and strong in national being smart and strong in national security, would he have been able to security, would he have been able to keep this foreign policy?keep this foreign policy?

GOING PUBLIC, CRISIS AFTER GOING PUBLIC, CRISIS AFTER CRISIS:CRISIS: THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION AND THE PRESS FROM SEPTEMBER 11 AND THE PRESS FROM SEPTEMBER 11

TO SADDAMTO SADDAM

Sue Lockett John, David Domke, Sue Lockett John, David Domke, Kevin Coe, Erica S. GrahamKevin Coe, Erica S. Graham

Mass Media as a Political Mass Media as a Political ResourceResource

Extension of the September 11 Extension of the September 11 crisis:crisis: Internal “homeland security”Internal “homeland security” External “war on terror”External “war on terror”

Allowed President Bush to:Allowed President Bush to: Significantly shape U.S. news coverageSignificantly shape U.S. news coverage Help Republicans gain control of Help Republicans gain control of

CongressCongress Propel the U.S. toward war with IraqPropel the U.S. toward war with Iraq

2002 State of the Union 2002 State of the Union AddressAddress

President Bush emphasized two related President Bush emphasized two related goals:goals: Protection of Americans at homeProtection of Americans at home

“…“…do everything possible to protect our citizens do everything possible to protect our citizens and strengthen our nation against the ongoing and strengthen our nation against the ongoing threat of another attack.”threat of another attack.”

Preemptive strategy against terrorism Preemptive strategy against terrorism abroadabroad

“…“…prevent the terrorists and regimes who seek prevent the terrorists and regimes who seek chemical, biological, or nuclear weapons from chemical, biological, or nuclear weapons from threatening the United States and the world.”threatening the United States and the world.”

2002 State of the Union 2002 State of the Union AddressAddress

Two major goals of Two major goals of this speech:this speech: To define the To define the

parameters of U.S. parameters of U.S. public discourse public discourse about terrorismabout terrorism

To highlight To highlight matters upon which matters upon which the administration the administration could politically could politically capitalizecapitalize

Strategic Strategic CommunicationCommunication

The administration began to The administration began to communicate decisively so as to communicate decisively so as to foster public confidencefoster public confidence ““Either you are with us, or you are with Either you are with us, or you are with

the terrorists.”the terrorists.” Two major initiatives in 2002:Two major initiatives in 2002:

The Homeland Security ActThe Homeland Security Act War against Saddam Hussein and IraqWar against Saddam Hussein and Iraq

Strategic Strategic CommunicationCommunication

Three central themes:Three central themes: Frequently invoked the events of Frequently invoked the events of

September 11September 11 Emphasized the presence of external Emphasized the presence of external

threats that required U.S. governmental threats that required U.S. governmental actionaction

Emphasized a struggle against the “axis Emphasized a struggle against the “axis of evil”of evil”

News CoverageNews Coverage

The U.S. news media emphasized the The U.S. news media emphasized the administration as sources and administration as sources and highlighted the president’s themeshighlighted the president’s themes Most journalists were American citizens Most journalists were American citizens

who looked to the president for who looked to the president for leadership in times of crisisleadership in times of crisis

Most journalists rely upon government Most journalists rely upon government leaders to index the range of viewpoints leaders to index the range of viewpoints in news coverage – to set the parameters in news coverage – to set the parameters of debateof debate

Categories of DiscourseCategories of Discourse

Content analysis of three discursive Content analysis of three discursive categories:categories: Reference to September 11Reference to September 11

““September 11,” “the eventful day in September 11,” “the eventful day in September,” etc.September,” etc.

Presence of external threatsPresence of external threats ““Iraq,” “Saddam,” “terrorists,” etc.Iraq,” “Saddam,” “terrorists,” etc.

““Evil” discourseEvil” discourse ““Axis of evil,” “cold-blooded,” “wicked,” etc.Axis of evil,” “cold-blooded,” “wicked,” etc.

Presidential Discourse Presidential Discourse AnalysisAnalysis

Shift in focus from homeland security to IraqShift in focus from homeland security to Iraq Before September 12Before September 12

More than 75% of the president’s More than 75% of the president’s communications focused solely on homeland communications focused solely on homeland securitysecurity

After September 12After September 12 70% focused on homeland security and Iraq70% focused on homeland security and Iraq 30% focused on Iraq alone30% focused on Iraq alone

President Bush consistently emphasized the President Bush consistently emphasized the same three themes throughout this time same three themes throughout this time periodperiod

Linking 9/11 to IraqLinking 9/11 to Iraq

““Threat” discourseThreat” discourse ““The war on terror is more than just al The war on terror is more than just al

Qaeda. The war on terror is to deal with Qaeda. The war on terror is to deal with nations who have terrorized their own nations who have terrorized their own people and have the intention to terrorize people and have the intention to terrorize us…” (10/3/02)us…” (10/3/02)

““Evil” terminologyEvil” terminology ““Terror cells and outlaw regimes building Terror cells and outlaw regimes building

weapons of mass destruction are different weapons of mass destruction are different faces of the same evil.” (10/7/02)faces of the same evil.” (10/7/02)

ResultsResults

In a 2003 poll: 70% of Americans In a 2003 poll: 70% of Americans believed Saddam had a role in the 9/11 believed Saddam had a role in the 9/11 attacks, and 80% thought it likely that attacks, and 80% thought it likely that he helped al Qaedahe helped al Qaeda

Further implications:Further implications: Initial political advantage for the Initial political advantage for the

RepublicansRepublicans Misinformed publicMisinformed public Political discourse that pushed toward war Political discourse that pushed toward war

with Iraqwith Iraq

BibliographyBibliography Dorsey, L. G. (1997). Sailing into the "Wondrous Now": The Myth Dorsey, L. G. (1997). Sailing into the "Wondrous Now": The Myth

of the American Navy’s world cruise. of the American Navy’s world cruise. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Quarterly Journal of Speech, 8383, 447-465. , 447-465.

Eisenhower, D. D. Eisenhower, D. D. Farewell Radio and Television Address to the Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American PeopleAmerican People. Retrieved Nov 5, 2007, from . Retrieved Nov 5, 2007, from http://http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/mediaplay.php?idwww.presidency.ucsb.edu/mediaplay.php?id =12086&admin=34=12086&admin=34

Lockett, S., Domke, J. D., Coe, K., & Graham, E. S. (2007). Going Lockett, S., Domke, J. D., Coe, K., & Graham, E. S. (2007). Going public, crisis after crisis: The Bush administration and the press public, crisis after crisis: The Bush administration and the press from September 11 to Saddam, from September 11 to Saddam, Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 10Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 10, 195–, 195–220. 220.

Roosevelt, T. (1901). Roosevelt, T. (1901). First Annual MessageFirst Annual Message. Retrieved Nov 5, 2007, . Retrieved Nov 5, 2007, from from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29542&st=&sthttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29542&st=&st11==

Roosevelt, T. (1902). Roosevelt, T. (1902). Second Annual MessageSecond Annual Message. Retrieved Nov 5, . Retrieved Nov 5, 2007, from 2007, from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29543&st=&sthttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29543&st=&st11==

Scott, D. K. (2003). The Eisenhower/Khrushchev rhetorical Scott, D. K. (2003). The Eisenhower/Khrushchev rhetorical compact: Toward a model of cooperative public discourse. compact: Toward a model of cooperative public discourse. Southern Communication Journal, 68, Southern Communication Journal, 68, 287-306.287-306.

foreign policy ali carroll, alex melanson, eric sweeney

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