foods and nutrients in reported diets versus perceived ideal diets of yukon indian people

Foods and Nutrients in Reported Diets versus Perceived Ideal Diets ofYukon Indian People

ELEANOR E. WEIN Canadian Circumpolar Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E2

ABSTRACT A common belief among northern aboriginal people is that they would enjoy better health if their diet contained a greater proportion of indigenous foods.The accuracy of this belief was examined among 121 adults of threeYukon First Nations, living in remote and urban communities, by comparing mean nutrient levels in a fall season 24-hour recall of actual food consumption with those in a quantitative one day's description of their perceived ideal diet for health.The latter was obtained immediately following the 24-hour recall using a similar interviewing technique. Graduated three-dimensional food models were used to estimate portion sizes. Compared to the actual diet, the perceived ideal diet mentioned traditional foods about twice as often and provided, on average, 245 more kcal and higher levels of most nutrients (p < .05), although the percentage of energy from fat was the same.The perceived ideal diet met health recommendations for more nutrients than the actual diet; nevertheless, for both men and women, calcium remained below the recommendation, while folate remained below the recommendation for men. Energy from fat (34%) was higher than recommended. Implications of results are discussed for nutrition education in aboriginal communities.

INTRODUCTION

Traditional foods (food obtained directly from the land by hunting, fishing, and gathering, such as wild game animals, birds, fish, berries, other plants) remain an important part of contemporary diets of aboriginal Canadians (Indians, Mktis, Inuit) in remote northern regions.'-5 Many households are still engaged in hunting, trapping, and fishing as a way of life, sometimes combined with casual wage employment. Procur- ing, preparing, and consuming traditional food is part of their cultural identity. Many indigenous foods are higher in nutrient value than the market foods used as substitutes when indigenous foods are not a~a i l ab le .~ .~ Furthermore, market

Address for correspondence: Eleanor E. Wein, Canadian Circumpolar Inst~tute, 3rd Floor, Old St. Stephen's College, University ofAlberta, Edmonton,AB, CanadaThG 2E2;Tel: (403) 492-1799; FAX (403) 492-1 153. O 1996 SOCIETY F O R NUTRITION EDUCATION

food is expensive, due to the cost of long-distance shipping. Many traditional foods are well liked and believed to be high in health value by young people as well as ad~lts .~,~- 'Tradi- tional foods, therefore, remain important to northern aboriginal people in terms of frequent use, cultural identity, nutrient value, relative cost, personal food preference, and perceived health value.

In 1991, within theYukonTerritory of Canada (adjacent to the major part of Alaska), aboriginal rights to fish and wildlife resources became a critical part of comprehensive land claim negotiations.While negotiating with the Canadian and Yukon governments,Yukon Indian leaders requested a study to determine the extent of use of traditional foods (i.e., wild game animals, birds, fish, berries, other wild plants) in contemporary diets. As a result of competition from non- native hunters and fishermen, harvest allocations of major fish and wildlife species were being negotiated for each First Nation (Indian band).These were to be based in part on consumption estimates;* however, no current personal food consumption (as opposed to harvest) studies were available. Fur- thermore, while planning this study with Yukon aboriginal leaders, they expressed orally the concern of their people that their current diet was not ideal for health, and that they not only preferred but also needed a larger proportion of traditional foods. Hence, one purpose of the study was to examine the perceived ideal diet for health; others were to provide (1) data on traditional food demand for use in negotiations and (2) information for developing nutrition education programs forYukon aboriginal communities.The objectives of this paper are (1) to examine the frequency of traditional foods in participants' perceived ideal and actual fall season diets, (2) to compare daily nutrients in these two diets to each other and to health recommendations, and (3) to discuss implications for nutrition education.

Three Yukon First Nations participated in this study, namely the Champagne-Aishihik of Haines Junction, the Vuntut Gwich'in of Old Crow, and the TeslinTlingit of Tes- lin. They represent three different language and cultural groups. Since each First Nation also has some members living in Whitehorse (an urban centre), a pooled sample of Whitehorse members of these bands served as the fourth study group.

Journal of Nutrition Education Volume 28 Number 4 July August 1996 203

Old Crow (67" N 139"W) is a remote northern village of 267 Gwich'in p e ~ p l e . ~ Traditionally, these people depended heavily upon the migratory porcupine caribou herd for food, as well as salmon, whitefish, small mammals, migratory birds, and berries.I0They still rely upon these foods t ~ d a ~ . ~ ~ ~ ' ~ T h e r e is no road to the village; all market foods are delivered by air and are very expensive.I3

In the southernyukon, Haines Junction (60" N 137'W), population 616,9 has mainly Southern Tutchone people, while Teslin (60" N 132" W), population 466,9 has mainly Tlingit people. Whitehorse (60' N 135' W), population 21,671,' has many aboriginal people of various First Nation membership, along with a non-native majority. Indigenous foods in the southernYukon include moose, mountain sheep, hare, Arctic ground squirrel, beaver, some caribou, salmon, lake trout, whitefish, and b e r r i e ~ . ' ~ , ' ~ , ' ~ Abundance varies with the area; Teslin is considered rich in natural food resources, while Whitehorse is considered poor.'h Since these communities are on the Alaska Highway, market food sup- plies are delivered by truck; hence, more variety is available at lower prices than in Old Crow."

METHODS

Sample. For each of the three participating First Nations, households were selected by stratified random sampling. Within each First Nation, two strata were identified based on location of residence. From each band list, 40 households in the band's traditional territory and 13 in Whitehorse were randomly selected. The Vuntut Gwich'in had relatively few households in Whitehorse, so those whom the interviewer was unable to contact were replaced with additional Cham- pagne-Aishihik households, the largest group in Whitehorse. Whitehorse members of the three bands were pooled into one group for data analysis purposes. Either the male or female head of the household was interviewed.

Data collection. Data were collected in the fall season (since this season strongly influences the overall yearly pattern) by one-on-one personal interviews. Aboriginal interviewers were selected by their bands and trained by the investigator. The investigator also accompanied each interviewer on her first 10 to 15 interviews to ensure standardized pro- cedures were followed and to gain insight into food customs. Interviews were conducted in English, the working language in all of these communities, except for one elder with whom an interpreter assisted.

Following a 24-hour recall of actual food consump- t i ~ n , ' ~ . ' ~ the respondent was asked to describe hidher perceived ideal diet for health.The question was introduced as fol1ows:"If there were an abundance of all foods, what would you like to eat to be strong and healthy, given your current way of life? Please describe first what you would eat for a day, and then the amounts of each item." Graduated three-dimensional food models, made according to Nutrition Canada speci-

f ication~, '~ were used to describe portion sizes in actual and perceived ideal diets. Additional comments were also requested.

Data analysis. Food items were coded by the investigator. Traditional foods were defined as wild game, birds, fish, berries, and other wild plants obtained directly from the land or water. Components of mixed market/traditional dishes were treated as separate food items. Market ingredients, such as lard for frying or macaroni or vegetables added to soup and stews, were included in calculating the total daily nutrient intakes, but not in calculating the percentage from traditional foods (i.e., from wild game, birds, fish, berries, and other wild plants alone). This strict definition of traditional foods was used because the percentage of nutrients from these foods was to be used as supporting evidence of demand in negotiating the number of animals and fish that each First Nation would be allowed to harvest in the future. Likewise, bannock (a type of biscuit made from flour, water, lard, and baking powder) was not included in calculating the percentage of nutrients from traditional foods since it is made from market ingredients. Frequencies of traditional and market foods in perceived ideal versus actual diets were examined. Daily nutrient intakes were computed by a program based on the Canadian Nutrient FileI9 and supplemented with other pub- lished sources, described in detail elsewhere.20 Mean energy and nutrients in ideal and actual diets were compared using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and paired t- tests and examined in relation to the Recommended Nutri- ent Intakes for Canadians (RNI)." Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS.'*

RESULTS

Sample. The sample of 121 adults represented 26% of all households within the combined membership of the three First Nations studied. The participation rate among those actually contacted by the interviewers was 79%. Demographic characteristics appeared to be similar among the communities; however, a greater proportion of Old Crow households had a hunter present, while Whitehorse participants appeared younger, had spent more years in school, and were more likely to be engaged in wage employment (Table 1).

Foods in the perceived ideal versus actual diet. Mar- ket foods appeared most often in both perceived ideal and actual fall season diets. O f the 20 most common foods, moose meat ranked fifth in frequency of mention in perceived ideal diets, and fifth in frequency of consumption in actual fall season diets (Table 2). Caribou and bannock appeared among the 20 most frequently mentioned foods in perceived ideal diets only. O n average, traditional foods (excluding bannock) appeared twice as often in perceived ideal as in actual fall season diets: moose meat, caribou meat, berries, and salmon were most frequent (Table 3).The weight

204 Wein/DIETS OFYUKON INDIAN PEOPLE

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of participants and their households (N = 121).

Characteristic

Haines Junction Old Crow

(n = 28) (n = 31)

Teslin

(n = 25)

Whitehorse

(n = 37)

Age in years

(mean * SD)

Sex

Male (%)

Female (%)

First Nation

membership (%)

Number of persons in

household (mean i SD)

Hunter/trapper/fisherman

in household (%)

Years in school, male

household head

(n = 92) (mean * SD)

Years in school, female

household head

(n = 103) (mean * SD)

Primary source of

household income (%)

Employment

Own business

Social assistance

39 32

61 68

100 Champagne- 100 Vuntut

Aishihik Gwich'in

36 35

64 65

I 0 0 Teslin 49 Champagne-Aishihik

Tlingit 22 Vuntut Gwich'in

30 Teslin Tlingit

(portion size) of traditional foods per eating occasion appeared to be similar in both diets."

Some market foods, such as potato, tomato, and lettuce, were also mentioned more often in perceived ideal than actual fall season diets (see Table 2), especially in White- horse."

Requested comments on the ideal diet. Twenty-two respondents (37%) commented that an ideal diet should contain more or mostly traditional foods, especially wild meat (Table 4). Nineteen percent mentioned the importance of variety, while another 19% expressed concern about "chemicals" (additives, coloring agents, preservatives, environmental contaminants) in f0ods.A few people indicated awareness of current recommendations to increase fruits, vegetables, and fibre and to decrease fat, sugar, and caffeine. Overall, participants' comments illustrated the importance of traditional foods toYukon Indian people and expressed concern about environmental threats to these resources.

Daily energy and nutrients. Mean daily energy and nutrients in perceived ideal diets exceeded those of the actual fall season diets (p < .O1 for most nutrients) (Table 5), although average energy from fat was the same for both. Mean levels of protein, phosphorus, iron, zinc, thiamin,

riboflavin niacin, and vitamins B6, B12, C, and D in perceived ideal diets exceeded the R N I for most age and sex groups. Perceived ideal diets also provided more energy from fat and less energy from carbohydrate than r ec~mmended .~ ' Dietary fibre was less than half of the 30 grams r e ~ o m m e n d e d . ~ ~ Per- ceived ideal diets failed to meet the R N I for calcium for men and women, as well as folate for men. Perceived ideal diets of older men provided 38% of energy from fat and 11 g of fibre, and mean values failed to meet the R N I for calcium, folate, and vitamin D." Perceived ideal diets of older women provided 32% of energy from fat, but mean values also failed to meet the R N I for calcium, folate, and vitamins A and D."

The high protein levels (see Table 5) reflect, in part, the frequent use of traditional meat, most of which is very lean (1-4% fat in moose and caribou).24 High polyunsaturated fat levels may reflect, in part, frequent use of salmon, which is beneficial due to its high omega-3 fatty acid content. Zinc, thiamin, and riboflavin were especially high in perceived ideal diets of Old Crow participants, reflecting frequent selection of caribou meat and oatmeal and use of dried skim milk in coffee and in mashed potatoes." Calcium, folate, and vitamin C and D levels in Whitehorse were high" and reflect more frequent selection of dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. These choices may be characteristic of a younger, more urban sample with access to more varied and cheaper market foods.

Journal of Nutrition EducationVolume 28 Number 4 July August 1996 205

Table 2. Twenty most frequent foods in perceived ideal diets and in actual fall season diets of Yukon Indian people (N = 121) --

Perceived Ideal Diet Actual Fall Season Diet

Food

Frequency

of Mention Food

Frequency

of Consumption

Sugar

Tea

Coffee

Butter

Moose meat

Evaporated milk

Lard

Bannocka

Caribou meat

Boiled potato

Hard (block) margarine

Soft (tub) margarine

2% fluid milk

Long-grain rice

Fresh tomato

Lettuce

Boiled carrots

60% whole wheat bread

Boiled eggs

Oatmeal porridge

Pancakes

Sugar

Coffee

Tea

Butter

Moose meat

Evaporated milk

Hard (block) margarine

Coffee whitener

White bread

Soft (tub) margarine

Boiled carrots

Boiled eggs

Macaroni

2% fluid milk

Onions

60% whole wheat bread

Long-grain rice

Lettuce

Mashed potatoes

White bread, toasted

Fresh tomato -- - -

'A type of blscu~t made from flour, lard, baking powder, and water, whlch may be baked, pan fr~ed, or deep fat fr~ed.

As a proportion of daily nutrient intake, traditional foods provided, on average, 26% of energy in perceived ideal versus 19% in actual fall season diets (see Table 5). For nutrients such as protein, iron, zinc, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin B12, traditional foods provided more than 50% of daily intake in both actual and perceived ideal diets.

DISCUSSION

Since participants were randomly selected, the groups were sufficiently large in relation to the population, and the response rate was good, the sample can be considered typical of the participating First Nations. Since the sample included rural and urban people of three cultural groups and four locations, the results can be considered typical of a broad range of Yukon Indian people.

A single 24-hour recall from a sufficiently large sample is considered adequate for comparing group mean nutrient intakes17J8 and for comparing food patterns.The problem of under-reporting in 24-hour recalls was assumed to occur equally in both actual fall season and perceived ideal diets. Awareness of the purpose of the study may have influenced response; however, there is no reason to believe that such awareness influenced one diet pattern more than the other.

The frequency of specific foods mentioned in perceived ideal diets reflected the cultural traditions of each First Nation and the resources available in their territory. Caribou meat, blueberries, cranberries, and Labrador tea were mentioned most often by the Vuntut Gwich'in. Moose meat occurred most often in Teslin Tlingit ideal diets, along with lake trout, chinook salmon, and various berries. Hare,Arctic ground squirrel, and sockeye salmon were unique to the Champagne-Aishihik ideal diet. Older people in Old Crow tended to describe a diet very similar to their actual diet.The limited variety and extremely high cost of market foods in Old Crow13 probably accounted for this, along with the limited variety of species characteristic of northern latitudes.25

A 1975 anthropological study in theYukon reported that a diet high in fresh meat and grease was still considered ideal, although most groups actually consumed a good deal of fish as well."'The high daily protein level and participants' comments confirm that people still view a large proportion of meat as desirable.The R N I states that there is currently no evidence to suggest that the high level of protein in the Canadian diet has any deleterious effect for the healthy indi- vidual, and recommends maintaining current protein consumption throughout adulthood, rather than lowering it.2' In light of the low daily energy intakes reported in this study, there appears to be no reason to advise any reduction in pro-

206 Wein/DIETS O F YUKON INDIAN PEOPLE

Table 3. Frequency per person per day of traditional foods in

perceived ideal versus actual fall season diets (N = 121).

Perceived Ideal Actual Fall Season

Moose 3.3 2.0

Caribou 1.9 1.2

Other mammalsa 0.3 0.0

Salmon 0.5 0.1

Other fishb 0.4 0.1

Birdsc 0.2 0.0

Berriesd 1.4 0.3

Other plantse 0.4 0.0

All traditional foods 8.4 3.7

alncluded hare, Arctic ground squirrel, mountain sheep, porcupine,

black bear, beaver.

blncluded whitefish, lake trout, halibut, and herring eggs.

=Included ducks, geese, grouse.

dlncluded blueberries, crowberries, high bush cranberries,

soapberries, wild red raspberries, bristly black currants.

*Included Labrador tea, wild onion, wild rice.

tein or lean meat consumption; rather, some of the calories from fat should be replaced by complex carbohydrates.

Actual nutrient intakes over four seasons have been examined elsewhere20 and compared to those of other northern Indians. Overall, it appears that, if there were an abundance of all foods,Yukon Indian people would choose diets lower in energy from fat and higher in vitamins A and C and iron than the present actual diets of other northern Indian g r o ~ p s . ~ ~ - ~ ~

The perceived ideal diet met more nutrient recommendations than the actual fall season diet, due in part to the larger volume of food it contained.This provides partial support for the belief that more traditional foods would increase nutrient quality of the diet. Other changes, such as lower fat, higher complex carbohydrate and fibre, and higher concen- trations of certain vitamins and minerals are also needed for a more healthful diet. In general, these results support find- ings from other studies of northern aboriginal food preferences and food health belief^.^.^.'

Implications for nutrition education in aboriginal communities. Nutrition education in Yukon aboriginal communities should build upon the belief that traditional foods contribute to health and emphasize the nutrient value of such foods as lean wild meat, salmon and other fish, and berries and other wild plants.This should, however, be pre- sented within the context of increasing the variety of foods for health.

More fruits and vegetables rich in provitamin A and folate should be promoted.Traditiona1 greens, such as Arctic dock, fireweed (theYukon emblem), and dandelion greens provide these nutrients, while carrots, rutabaga, and canned peaches are usually available at the store. More calcium and vitamin

D-containing foods should be promoted, including fish head soup, canned fish with edible bones, and low-fat dairy products. Lactose-treated milk or low-lactose products such as cheese and yogurt can be used by individuals sensitive to lactose. Foods high in fibre such as whole wheat breads and cereals, baked beans, and berries with seeds or skins (e.g., raspberries, crowberries) are also needed.

Since many older people equate a fat animal with a healthy animal, programs should emphasize that (1) with contemporary sedentary lifestyles, high fat intakes increase risk of chronic disease; (2) food should be prepared by methods that use little or no added fat, such as roasting over a fire, boiling, or stewing (as done in early times); and (3) moose and caribou fat should be limited, although salmon fat is beneficial for its omega-3 fatty acid content.

This study did not examine food safety issues involved in the selection, preservation, or preparation of traditional foods, or in the handling of market foods, and it did not examine the issue of chemical contaminants. However, more participants expressed concerns about "chemicals" in market foods than in traditional foods. Nutrition education should cover food safety and handling for traditional and market foods, as well as general principles of microbial contamination versus chemical accumulation. More understanding of the nature and role of food additives is also needed.

Table 4. Summary of comments regarding the perceived ideal daily

diet.

Number of Persons

Theme Mentioning (n = 59) a

Should eat more or mostly traditional food 14

Should eat more wild meat 8

Should eat a variety of traditional foods

(meat, fish, berries, and birds) 4

Should eat a variety of traditional and

garden or market foods 7

Should avoid chemicals (preservatives,

additives, colors, or unknown chemicals)

in market foods 9

Should avoid chemicals (additives,

environmental contaminants) in market

and traditional foods 2

Should emphasize fruits, vegetables,

and foods high in dietary fibre 6

Should drink milk 5

Should reduce fat intake 2

Should eat moderate quantities,

recognize one's satiety level 2

Should reduce sugar 1

Should reduce coffee 1

aln all, 59 persons of 121 gave comments when requested. The total

exceeds 59 since a few persons commented on more than one theme.

Journal o f Nutrition Education Volume 28 Number 4 July August 1996 207

Table 5. Nutrients (mean * SD) and percentage of nutrients (mean) from traditional foods in perceived ideal versus actual fall season diets (N = 121).

Daily Nutrients Percentage from Traditional Foods

Perceived Actual

Ideal Fall Season a Ideal Actual

Energy, kcal

M J

Protein, g

Fat, g

Saturated fatty acids, g

Monounsaturated fatty acids, g

Polyunsaturated fatty acids, g

Cholesterol, rng

Carbohydrate, g

Sugar, g Starch, g

Energy from protein (%)

Energy from fat (%)

Energy from carbohydrate (%)

Dietary fibre, g

Calcium, mg

Phosphorus, mg

Potassium, mg

Iron, mg

Zinc, mg

Vitamin A, RE 1228 * 1310 798 * 592 ** 29

Thiamin, rng 1.3 i 0.7 1.1 * 0.7 " 23

Riboflavin, mg 2.5 * 1.5 1.8 i 1.2 ** 56

Preformed niacin, mg 25 * 11 20 i 11 ** 62

Vitamin 86, mg 1.8 * 0.7 1.2 i 0.7 '* 44

Folate, mcg 193 * 146 117 i 94** 13

Vitamin 812, mcg 17 * 16 9 i 11** 96

Vitamin C, mg 165 * 172 79 * 118" 14

Vitamin D, IU 207 * 214 137 * 178 *' 31

aMANOVA showed a significant overall difference between perceived ideal and actual intakes; Wilks = 0.0002, p = ,000.

bWild game, birds, fish, berries, and other wild plants alone, excluding any market ingredients added in preparation.

=Mean vitamin 812 of traditional foods (n = 75 traditional food users on the recall day) exceeded mean of the total diet (n = 121).

*Significantly different, p < .05, paired t-test; "significantly different, p < .01, paired t-test.

Alternative ways of providing nutritious foods at reasonable cost to isolated communities, such as Old Crow, should be examined. Promotion of gardening, already a common prac- tice among First Nation people in Teslin, could encourage interest in leafy green vegetables and carrots. The long hours of daylight in northern latitudes can compensate in part for the short growing season, particularly if plants are protected in greenhouses or plastic frames early and late in the season.

More research is needed to determine how these recommendations might best be promoted among Yukon Indian people.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research was supported by a National Institute of Nutri- tion (of Canada) postdoctoral fellowship and a northern travel grant from the investigator's universrty. Interviewers were paid by a grant from Yukon Health. Health Canada provided accommodation. Sincere appreciation is extended to all of the participants, to interviewersVicki Josie, Rose Kushniruk, and Kim Smarch, and to the First Nations' chiefs, councils, and staff for their assistance. Lawrence Joe helped to organize the study. Dr. M.M.R. Freeman served as postdoctoral supervisor.

208 Wein/DIETS O F Y U K O N INDIAN PEOPLE

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foods and nutrients in reported diets versus perceived ideal diets of yukon indian people

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