Following are some of the Sources of Medieval Indian History Tajur Masir - Hassan Nizami :This is the first historical narrative of which deals with the beginning of the Muslim rule in India. The author gives in detail the military exploits of Qutobuddin Aibek from 1192 to 1206. The author does not mention Aram Shah but describes the events of Iltutmish's regin up to 1217.

Tabquat i Narisi - Minhajus Siraj :Siraj produced an elaborate history of the Islamic world in twenty-three compact volumes or books. He starts with the account of the earlier prophets and aneestors of Mohammad.

Each of his subsequent books is devoted to the history of the caliphs and Muslim rulers of various countries and periods.

Works of Amir Kusrau :Amir Khusrau was the first and by far the most prominent representive of Indo-Muslim culture of early medieval India. His major works includeQiran us Sa'adain, Miftahed Futuh, Khazainul Futuh, Dewal Rani, Khisly Khani, Nuh Sipir and Tughluq Nama. Quiran us Sa'adaingives an eye-witness account of the meeting that took place in Oudh between Sultan Kaigubad and his father Bughra Kha, the governor of Bengal.

Dewal Rani Khizr KhanientitledAshiqa, narrates the romantic story of Khizr Khan, son of Alauddin Khilzi and Dewal Rani, the daughter of Rana Karan of Gujarat.Nuh Sipiris the poetic composition which deals with the region of Mubarak Shah Khilji, the successor of Alauddin Khilhji.

Tughluq Namawas composed byAmir Khusrauto commemorate the victory of Ghisuddin Tughluq over Khurram Khan (1320 AD), leading to the establishment of a new ruling dynasty.

Tarikh i Firoze Shahi - Ziauddin barani :This work preserves the history of the Delhi Sultanat for the period 1259 to 1352; it gives the histoy of nine rulers from Balban to Firoze Shah Tughluq. Barani's write up including the narrative of Firoze Tughluq, constitutes a standard a standard work of history, which establishes his reputation as premier historain of his age.

Fatawa I Jahandari-Barani:It is a complementary volume to the Tarikh i Firoze Shahi. In this book, the author recapitulates and futher elaborates the political philosophy of the sultnate on the basis of his earlier narrative.

Firoze Tughluq's Authobiography: Sultan Firoze Shan Tughluq has left a brochure of thirty two pages in autobiographical writing, calledFutuhat i Firoze Shahi:it give a brief summary of his military compaigns, some of which failed to produce the desired results.

Tarikh i Forize Shahi - Shams i Siraj Afif: The book is devoted exclusively to the reign of Firoze Tughluq and constitutes the most accurate and authentic contemporary account of his times. The book is unique in sense that it also describes the life and conditions of the people at large.

Tuzuk i Mubarak Shahi - Yahaya bin Ahmed SirhindiThis is the only contemporary source discovered so far on the history of the Sayyad dynasty(1414-51). The book begins with the rise of the Ghori dynasty and the conquest of the northern India by the turns.

Futuhus Salatin - Khwaja Abdullah Malik IsamiThis work was written in 1349-50, on the Turkish rule in India from the Ghaznavids to Muhmmad bin Tughluq.

Kitab ur Rehla -Ibn batuttaIbn batutta was an Arab traveler and adventure frm Morocoo. His book is a primary source of history of the region of Muhmmad bin Tughluq it throws ligh on the socio-political condition of his times.

Early Medieval India

The Delhi Sultanate

Beginning of Indo Islamic culture

The Sikh Gurus

Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms

The Mughals

The Marathas

Historiography :The study and method of writing history is called historiography. Medieval India History was predominantly court centric and generally took no note of the world beyond the royal durbar. The noble courtiers used to account the history e.g. Abul Fazl'sAkbarnamaEarly Turkish Rulers (1206-1290)

Qutbuddin Aibak1206 - 1210

Shamsuddin1210 - 1236

Raziya1236 - 1240

Ghiyasuddin Balban1266 - 1287

Emergence Of Provincial Kingdoms: During the period of confusion by the invasion of Tamurlane, an independent kingdom was founded by thewazirof the Tuglaq Emperor, Khwaja Jahan, who was given the title ofMalik-us-Sharq or Lord of the East, by his master. The capital of his kingdom was Jaunpur, a new city founded on the bank of the river Gomti by Firoz Tuglaq.

The rule of the Sharqi dynasty came to an end in 1476 when the Lodi emperor of Delhi, Bahlol Lodhi, reconquered it.Provincial Kingdoms During And After The Sultanate

KingdomCapitalFounder/Most Important Ruler

1. Shah Mir dynasty in KashmirKashmirShah Mirza or Sams-ud-din; Zainul Abidin

2. Sisodia dynasty in MewarChittorRana Hamir; Rana Kumbha

3. Rathore dynasty in MarwarJodhpurRao Chunda: Rao Jodha and Maldeva

4. Kachhawaha dynasty of Amber or AmerAjmerDullah Rao: Hammir Deva

5. Muzaffarshahi dynasty in GujartAnhilvada (later Ahmedabad)Zafar Khan or Muzzaffarshah: Ahmad Shah I, Mahmud

6. Sultanate of BengalGaudIIyas Shah: Ala-ud-din Shah

7. Suryavansi or Gajapati dynasty in OrrisaJajnagarKapilendra: Kapilendra

8. Khalji dynasty in MalwaManduDilawar Khan Ghori; Mahmud Khalji

9. Sharqi dynasty in JaunpurJaunpurMalik Sarwar; Ibrahim Shah Sharqi

10. Ahom dynasty in Kamrup and AssamCharaido (later Charqua)Sukapha; Suhungmung

11. Farukki dynasty in KhandeshBurhanpurMalik Raja Farukki; Malik Raja Farukki

12. Bahmani in KarnatakaGulbarga (later Bidar)Hasan Gangu Bahman Shah; Firuz Shah, Ahmad Shah I

13. Vijaynagar1. Sangam dynasty2. Suluva dynasty3. Tuluva dynasty4. Aravidu dynastyHastinavati or HampiPenugondaThirumala; Thirumala

Kashmir emergence

Gujarat and Malwa emergence

Rajasthan emergence

Orissa emergence

Vijay Nagar kingdom emergence

The Marathas (1649-1748):

At the beginning of the 17th century, most of the territory in the Maharashtra were under the position of Nizamshah of Ahmednagar and the Adilshah of Bijapur. They took the help of local, Marathi speaking people to run their administration. They recruited a large number of Maratha sardas and soldiers in their armies.

Shahji Bhonsle (1627-1680): The Bhonsle family of the Poona district acquired military and political advantage in the Ahmadnagar kingdom at the close of the 16th century. Shahji Bhonsle was married to Jija Bai. He sought fortune under the Sultan of Bijapur and had his Jagir at Poona.

Shivaji (1627-1680 A.D.):- Shivaji was the son of Shahji Bhonsle. When he was 14 years old, his father entrusted the administration of the Pune Jagir to him. Shivaji's responded to the aspiration of masses. Shivaji realised that he could establish a welfare state for the benefit of his subjects only by controlling the neighbouring forts and building new ones.

Shivaji showed his mettle at the young age of 18, when he overrun a number of hill forts near Poona- Rajgarh, Kondana and Torana during 1645-1647. Shivaji became his real career of conquest in 1656, when he conquered Javli from the Maratha Chief, Chandra Rao More. The Mughal invasion of Bijapur in 1657 saved Shivaji from the latter's reprisal.Shivaji visit to Agra: Shivaji reached Agra in 1666, and was admitted in the hall of public audience. The emperor gave him a cold reception by making him stand among the mansabdars. A humiliated and angry Shivaji walked out of the court. He, along with his son, was put under house arrest. However, they tricked their guards and managed to escape in a basket of sweets which was to be sent as a gift to the consolidating his position and reorganising his administration, Shivaji renewed his was against the Mughals and gradully recovered many of his forts.Important Events In Shivaji's Life

Birth : 1627 Conquest of Tornana: 1646 Conquest of Kondana fort : 1647 Shivaji kills Afzal Khan : 1659 Attack on Surat : 1664; 1670 Coronation: 1674

Shivaji Adminstration: Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. Shivaji system of administration was a largely borrowed from the administrative practice of the Deccan States. Although he designated eight ministers, sometimes called theAshtapradhanit was not in the nature of the Council of ministers, each minister being directly responsible to the ruler.

Military system: In Army administration, Shivaji prefer to give cash raise to the regular soldiers, though sometimes the Chief received revenue grants. The regular army consisting of about 30,000 to 40,000.

Shivaji laid the foundation of a strong state by curbing the power ofdeshmukhs. The Army was an effective instrument of his policies where rapidity of movement was the most important factor. The army dependent for its salaries to a considerable extent on the plunder of the neighbouring areas.

The Rise of Peshwas:-

Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720): He began his career as a small revenue official and was given the title ofSena Karte(maker of the Army) by Shahu 1708. He becamePeshwain 1730 and made the post of most important and powerful as well as hereditary. He played a crucial role in the final victory of Shahu over the Mughuls by winning over almost all the Marathas Sardas to the side of Shahu. He concluded an agreement with the Sayyid brothers (1719) by which the Mogul emperor recognised Shahu as the king of theSwarajya.

Baji Rao (1720-1740): Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath, became Pashwa at the yound age of 20. He was considered the greatest exponent ofgurrillatactic after Shivaji and Maratha Power reached zenith under him. Baji Rao I conquered Bassein and Salsette from the Portuguese (1733). He also defeated the Nizar-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded theTreaty of Durai Saraiby which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (1737). He led innumerable successful expeditions into North India to weaken the Mughal empire and to make the Marathas the supreme power in India. He said "Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves."

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61): Known asNana Saheb, he succeeded his father at the age of 20. After the death of Sahu (1749), the management of all state of affairs was left in his hands. In an agreement with the Mughul emperor, the Peshwa (1752) was to protect the Mughal empire from internal and external enemies in return for theChauth.

Third Battle of Panipat:Faught in 1761, the Maratha forces were routed by the forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Vishwas Rao, son of Nana Saheb, lost his life.The Mughals (1526-1540 and 1555-1857):

The Mughul era, which began with the Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi in theFirst Battle Of Panipat (1526)is a new beginning in the history of Muslim rule in India.

Unlike the Sultanate period when the state resembled a theatre of war, the Mughal rule is regarded as time when conentius issues of religion and politics were placed on the backburner and the splendour of monarchy took centrestage.

Babur (1526-1530) Facts

Humayun (1530-1556) Facts

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) Facts

Akbar (1556-1605) Facts

Jehangir (1605-1627) Facts

Shah Jahan (1627-1658) Facts

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) Facts

Later Mughuls Facts

Babur (1526-1530) Facts:Babur was the first Mughal Emperor of India. He was born in Ferghana (1483), Central Asia, in the princely family of mixed Mongol and Turkish blood. Failure to record his father's land caused him to turn reluctantly to South-East. After defeating Ibrahim Lodhi with the support of Punjab's Governor, Daulat Khan Lodhi, Babur turned his attention to the Rajput confederacy and defeated Mewar ruler Rana Sanga in theBattle Of Khanwain 1527. This victory secured Babur's position in the Delhi Agra region.

Babur's reign ended in 1530 and was succeeded by his son Humayun.Reaons of Babur's Indian Expeditions

There were various reasons for the Babur's Indian expedition The Ottomans defeated the Safavids and the Uzbegs controlled Transoxiana forcing Babur's Imperial impulses towards India Meagre income of Kabul Desire to emulate Timur Punjab was part of Timurid province and hence was considered a legal partrimony of Timurids

Babur's five famous expeditions :-1. First expedition: In 1519, he stormed Bajaur which fell after a spirited struggle in which Babur's artillery played a decisive part.

Babur quit India, leaving Bhira in the charge of Hindu beg; but the later was soon (1519) expelled by the natives.2. Second expedition: The same year, in September, Babur again marched through the Khyber, in order to subdue the Yusufzai and make Peshawar fort as a base for future operations in Hindustan. But he was recalled by disturbing news from Badakhshan.3. Third expedition: For the third time Babur marched in 1520, through Bajaur towards Bhira. Subduing the recalcitrant Afghan tribes on the way, he proceeded to Sialkot, which submitted without striking a blow.

After two unsuccessful efforts Babur finally acquired Khandahar, in 1522, through the treachery of its governor, Maulana Abdul Bagi. Shah Beg established himself in Sidh, and Kamran (Babur's second son) was put in charge of Kandhar.4. Fourth expedition: Thus, thoroughly secure at home, Babur for the fourth time invaded India, in 1524.Daulat Khan, Governor of the Punjab, was growing very powerful. Sultan Ibrahim had summoned him to Delhi. But Daulat Khan offered him by not appearing in person. To protect himself from Sultan's wrath, Dault Khan sent his son Dilawar khan, to invite Babur to dethrone Ibrahim Lodhi in favour of his uncle Alam Khan.(or Ala-ud-din)

Daulat Khan and his second son, Ghazi Khan, fled to the hills, only to return in the wake of Babur's withdrawal. They recaptured Sultanpur from Dilawar, and Dipalpur from Alam Khan. Ibrahim's attempt to subdeu Daulat Khan proved unsuccessful. But Babur's Lahor de-attachment inflicted a defeat upon him.

On account of this unsettled state, Alam Khan and once again sought Babur's aid to seat himself on the throne of Delhi. In return Babur was promised sovereignty over Lahore and the West Punjab .

Alam Khan returned to Delhi with his understanding. But the wily Daulat won him over. The two Khans accordinly marched on Delhi, only to be disgracefully routed by the Sultan.5. Fifth expedition: Babur now crossed the frontier for the last time (November, 1525), with the largest army he had ever led into the Hindustan. Humayun was with him with the contigent from Badakhshan. Crossing the Jhelum, the Lahore are also joined him. All told, his followers numbers not more than 12,000 of whom only 8000 were effectives.

However, Daulat Khan's forces melted away at Babur's mere approach. Babur has nothing more to do with him than upbraid him for his treacherous conduct. Death soon snatched away Daulat Khan altogether from the field.

On February 26, 1526, Humayun won his regions for the first time, against an advanced division of the Imperial forces. Ibrahim was coming from Delhi, and Babur from Sirhind and Ambala. On April 1, again Babur's men encountered a cavalry division of the Sultan and crossed it. From April, 12 to 19, one full week the two armies faced each other, with little action, near Panipat, the plane intended by nature to be the battle-fields.

Important Battles Fought By Babur

Battle Of Panipat (1526): He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. This was his fifth expedition in India in which he was successful. Battle of Khanwa (1527): He defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar Battle of Chanderi (1528): Barbur defeated Medini Rai. He was the first to entitle himself as the 'Padshah'. After the Kushanas, he was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian Empire. Battle of Ghaghra (1529): He fought against the Allied forces of Afghans in Bihar and Bengal. Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal faced crushing defeat.

Architectural development by Babur

He built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand.

Humayun (1530-1556) Facts:Humayun succeeded the Babur at the young age of 23. When he occupied the throne, he found himself surrounded by enemies on all sides. In the east were Mahmud Lodhi and other Afghans under share Khan. In the South was Sultan Bahadur Shah, and the ruler of Gujarat, and in the north-west, Kamran, the younger brother of Humayun.

Humayun's early expedition were against Kalinjar, Jaunpur and Chunar.

Humayun Expeditions:- Expectation of Kalinjar (1531): Humayun besieged the fourth of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. Humayun was forced to make peace and accept a huge indemnity from the Raja. Battle of Dauhariya (1532): Humayun defeated Mahmood Lodi, the Afghan of Bihar. Siege of Chunar (1532):Humayun besieged for fort of Chunar under Sher Shah, who offered nominal submission. It proved to be a mistake on the part of Humayun to accept it. Wars with Bahadur Shah (1535-1536):Bahadur Shah annexed Malwa in 1531, captured the fourth of Raisin and defeated the Chief of Chittor in 1533. Battle of Chausa (1539): Humayun's return to our was blocked by Sher Shah. Both armies delayed the attack and rains started. Leaving the Mughal encampment flooded. Humayun was defeated. Battle of Kanauj (1540): After reaching Agra, Humayun and his brother Kamran decided to fight Sher Shah but due to the differences between the brothers, Humayun for the Battle of Kanauj and lost. Humayun became a fugitive and Sher Shah became the ruler of Agra and Delhi.Architectural development by Humayun

He laid the foundation of the cityDin Panahat Delhi. Humayun's Tomb is called the prototype of Taj Mahal. It has a double dome of marble, while the central dome is octagonal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) Facts:Humayun was defeated by Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri and theBattle of Chausa(near Buxar in Bihar) in 1539. Following this defeat, he was driven into exile in Persia. He regained his kingdom in 1555 after the end of rule of Suri Dynasty.

Sher Shah was a great expansionist and wanted to expand his kingdom. In 1544, he invaded the fort of Kalinjar, which was ruled by Kirti Singh and laid a siege of the fort. During this siege, one of the cannons accidentally went off killing him on 26th of May 1535. His dead body was taken to Sasaram, where he had already built a mausoleum for himself, and was buried. Successors of Sher Shah were weak. The Suri dynasty's rule ended in 1545.

Sher Shah Administration:His administration was very sound. His central machinery of administration was based on the admission of Sultant period.1. Administrative units: For administrative convenience, Sher Shah divided his kingdom into 47 divisions calledSarkars.2. Central Administration:Sher Shah divided the government under several departments, each under the charge of a minister, who was assisted by other high officers. The Finance Minister was calledWazir. He personally supervised all the departments.3. Justice: Civil cases ofparganawas heard byAmirand criminal cases by aQazi. Sher Shah introduced the principle of local responsibility for the local crimes.4. Land revenue: Sher Shah had fixed the land revenue after getting the whole of the land measured through the agency of Raja Todar Mal. He got an accurate survey of all the agricultural land and fixed a definite revenue for each unit of land.5. Military reforms:Sher Shah effected many military reforms in order to save the country from foreign invasions and internal revolt. With the object of organising the Army, Sher Shah begin to pay the soldiers their salary in cash; maintained their respective roles; brandised the horses etc.6. Roads and Trade:Sher Shah made many roads to encourage trade, to provide comfort and convenience to the travellers, to facilitate the movement of troops from one place to another and to carry out the Administration systematically and properly. Of these four are the important roads:1. Grand Trunk Road, whch lays between Sunargaon in the East Bengal and Attock in the Nort-West boundary of India.2. a road from Agra to Burhanpur in the Deccan3. a road between Aga and Jodhpur and Chittor in Rajputana4. a road between Lahore and Multan. On either sides of road, shady trees were planted.7. Coins: Sher Shah also reformed coins and/many kinds of coins of pure gold and silver.Akbar (1556-1605) Facts:Though Humayun reconquered his empire, he was not destined to reap the fruits of his success. He fell from staircase of his library and died soon due to its effect.

The death of Humayun placed the responsibility of the kingdom over the younger shoulders of Akbar. Akbar was as under the protection of Bairam Khan(1556-60).

Akbar was crowned at Kalanaur at the age of 13 years. Bairam Khan, the tutor of the Prince, became theWakilof the kingdom with the title ofKhan-i-Khanaand rallied the Mughal forces.

Second Battle of Panipat: Akbar's earliest conflict was with Hemu, a general of Adil Shah. Hemu proceeded to Delhi with the Mugul Governor, Tardi Beg Khan, offered a feeble resistance and suffered defeat (1526). On receipt of the News of the all of the Agra and Delhi, Bairam Khan marched to meet Hemu. The two armies met at Panipat (fifth of November 1556). Hemu bought bravely but was defeated and Akbar reoccupied Delhi and Agra.Akbar's Political Compaigns

Akbar's earliest compaigns were against Durgawa of Garh-Katanga (Gond & Rajput principalties) followed by Chittor The two powerful forts of Rajasthan: Ranthambor and Chittor (gaurded by Jaimal) were captured by the Mughals. Akbar's Deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmednagar (defended by Chand Bibi). Ahmednagar soon resurrected itself under the leadership of Malik Amber. Akbar's last campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting in the annexation of Khandesh (1601). Akbar conquered Qandahar in 1595. Bhagwan Das (500 zat) amd Man Singh (7000 zat) enjoyed a privileged position in the Mughal court. Akbar faced a rebellion in Gujrat in 1572, which was crushed and following which he built theBuland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. Opened the fort of Aasirgadh with Gold keys.

Akbar's first victory in Rajasthan was won without bloodshed. In 1562, he made his first pilgrimage to the mausoleum of the Sufi Saint, Sheikh Moin-ud-Din Chishti, at Ajmer. On the way, he received Raja Bhar mal of Ajmer who made his submission without fighting.

Akbar conquered Gujarat (1572-1573) and Bengal (1574-1576). In 1591, Akbar sent four missions to the rulers of Khandesh, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda, calling upon them to recognize his suzerainty and pay him tribute. Khandesh ruler offered his submission. Ahmednagar was captured in 1600. By 1595, Akbar's armies had conquered Kashmir, Sindh, Orrisa, Central India and Qandhar.

Akbar's Nine Jewels or Nav-Ratnas

1. Abdul Rahim: A celebrated Hindi and the scholar: remembered for a collection of dohas, Rahim Satsai and translation of Babarnama into Turki; conferred the title of Khan-e-Khana by Akbar.2. Abdul Fazal: Known for Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.3. Birbal: Known for his humour and wits; original name Mahes Dass; died while fighting with the Yousuf-zai tribe in the north-west.4. Faizi: Credited with the translation of Lellawati into Persian.5. Hamim Human: A close friend of Akbar; Chief of Royal School or Pathasala.6. Raja Man Singh: A great Rajput general; helped the emperor in the Battle of Halidghati and in the battle against the Afghans.7. Shaikh Mubarak: A sufi; brain behind Akbar's Mahzar8. Tansen: Court singer of Akbar; known as sangeet samrat9. Todar Mal: Known for his expertise in land revenue matters; his revenue policy was adopted by Sher Shah and Akbar.

Architectural development by Akbar

Building built by Akbar are : Agra Fort (1565), Lahore Palace(1572), Fatehpur Sikri, Bulan Darwaza and Allahabad fort (1583) The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asia and various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles. It is also known asEpic Poem in Red Sandstone. Two unusual building at Fatehpur Sikri arePanch Mahal and Diwan-i-Khas Panch Mahalhas the plan ofBuddhist Vihara. The Jodhabai's Palace, Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas are Indian in theri plan. Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory) formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. It is built in the Iranian Style of half dome portal. He built theJahangiri Mahalin Agra fort according to Hindu design based onMan Mandir He also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which was later completed by Jahangir

Jehangir (1605-1627) Facts:Ain-E-Jahangiri is the collection of Jehangir 12 points on judicial probes. Jehangir was not without the imperial ambition of his father and early years of his reign 's are some important military successes. Bengal had never been reconciled to the vassakage of Delhi and the frequent change of governors gave the local Afghans opportunity to rebel. In 1612, Jehangir saw the need of earning the goodwill of the plans in order to disarm them against the Mughals. He therefore, followed a conciliatory policy.

Most military success of Changi and was his trimph over the Rajput's of Mewar. In 1613, Jehangir personally proceed to Ajmer to guide the expedition, the supreme commander of which was given to Prince Khurram. Though the Rajputs displayed dauntless heroism, the suffered heavy losses. That pretty that was signed between the Rana and the emperor (1615) recognised Jehangir as the suzerain of Mewar.

At the end of his reign, his son, Shah Jahan, rebelled against him. Another crucial event of his reign was that when he fell ill, his main queen Nur Jehan, took an active interest in the matters of state. Even the coils were issued jointly in the names of Jehangir and Nur Jehan. A skilled connoisseur of Persian art and paintings. Jehangir patronised the best painters of the period like Abul Hassan and Mansur who load uprecedented emphasis on scenic beauty, birds and beasts.Architectural development by Jehangir

Nur Jahan builtItimad-ud-Daula's(another name of Mirza Ghiyas Beg)Marble tombat Agra, which is noticable for the first use of peitra dura made up of semi-precious stones technique. He builtMoti Mahalin Lahore and his own Mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore) He also changed the plan of Akbar's Tomb at Sikandara. It is an unusual tomb as it is not surmounted by a dome and built ont he model of a Buddhist pagoda.

Shah Jahan (1627-1658) Facts:After putting an end of the short reign of his nephew, Dawar Bakshi, the son of Khusru, Shah Jahan found himself in undisputed possession of the throne in 1627 when he was at the age of 36. After he became emperor, he exhibited modernisation as a ruler. Married to Mumtaj/Anjumand Baanu Begum-1612.

He had to face two revolves, at Bundelkhand and Deccan. Jujhar singh, the son of Bir Singh Bundela, revolted inBundelkhand,difficult to region to the south of the Yamuna.

Share Jahan pursued the Mughal designs of the complete conquest of the Deccan. However, it could not be completed during shah Jahan. Shah Jahan's policy towards Central Asia was to secure a position of Qandhar which the Persians had re-occupied during the Jehangir's reign. He occupied Badakshan and Balk in 1646.

During his reign, the authority of the Emperor was not seriously challenged and there was no foreign invasion. In the history of Indian art, it was a golden age. In religion, Shah Jahan's intolerance destroyed the political solidarity of the Empire in Aurangzeb's reign. Administration as also economic conditions were deteriorating. Although the Imperial system blog imposing, there was a laxity in the central supervision and control. Foreign trade was prosperous, but it was profits were enjoyed by a small class.Architectural development by Shah Jehan

He was the most prolific and magnificant builder. Mosque buildings activity reached its climax inTaj Mahalat Agra. Ustad Isa was the master architect under whose guidance, the Taj Mahal was designed and constructed in Agra. It constructed took 22 years. He also built the Jama Masjid (sand stone) in Delhi. Many stone buildings were destroyed by him and replaced by marble. He laid the foundation of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the Red Fort and Taqt-i-Taus (Peacock Throne) Shah Jehan built Nahar-i-Faiz.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) Facts:Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. His Empire stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the South, and from the Hindukush in the West to Chittagong in the East. Within the Empire, he had to deal with a number of different problems, such as problems of the Marathas in the Deccan, the Jats, and Satnamis and Rajputs in north India, and that of Chip khans and Sikh in the north-west.

Aurangzeb's direct attention was concentrated on the affairs of north India. During 1681, the affairs of the South Central around the rise of the Marathas power under Shivaji. For about 25 years (1682-7007) he made desperate efforts to crush the Marathas, exhausting himself and his Empire in the process.Highlights of Aurangzeb's reign

The second coronation of Aurangzeb took place when he defeated Dara (1659). He took the title ofAlamgarin 1659. He was also called asZinda Pirthe living saint. In 1662,Mir Jumta,Aurangzeb's ablest general, led the expedition against Ahoms. He forbadeinscription of Kalmaon the coins. He ended the celebration ofNavrozFestival. Heforbade musicin the court. He endedJarokha Darsha, use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor. Aurangzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgir. Jaziya was reintroduced. However the Hindu mansabdars maintained their high proportion during his rule. The Mughul conquest reached a climax during his reign, as Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in 1686 and 1687 respectively.

Architectural development by Aurangzeb

Only buildings by Aurangzeb in the Red Fort is Moti Mahal Only monument associated with Aurangzeb isBibi Ka Makbarawhich is the tomb of his wifeRabbia-ud-Daurais Aurangabad. He also built the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore.

Following are the Later Mughuls:

Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712): Aurangzeb died in 1707. Pawar of succession started among rest of his three surviving sons - Muazzam, Azam and Khan Baksh. Muazzam defeated Azam and Khan baksh and ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur Shah. He pursued pacifist policy and was, therefore, also calledShah Bekhabar. He also assumed the title of Shah Alam I. He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shahu. He forced Ajit Singh to submit, but later recognised him as the Rana of Mewar.

Jahandar Shah (1712-13): Acended the throne with the aid of Zulfikhar Khan. His nephew, farrukhsiyar, dethroned him.

Farrukhsiyar (1713-19): of Ascended the throne with help of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan, who were Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectively. Farrukhsiyar was killed by the Sayyid brothers in 1719. Sikh leaderBanda Bahadurwas captured at Gurdaspur and executed.

Mohammad Shah (1719-48): During his reign,Nadir Shahprovided India and took away the peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond. He was a pleasure loving King and was nicknamedRangeela.During Muhammad Shah' reign, autonomous states of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh were established by Nizam-ul-mulk, Murshid Quli Khan and Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk respectively.

Ahmed Shah (1748-1754): During his reign Ahmed Shah Abdali (one of the best general of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi and the Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan.

Alamgir (1754-1759): During his reign, Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi. Later Delhi was also captured by Marathas.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806): During his reign, Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful in Delhi. TheBattle of Buxar(1764) was fought during his reign. During his reign Delhi was overpowered by the 1803.

Akbar Shah II (1806-37): During his reign, Lord Hasting ceased to accept the sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an equal status.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1862): The last Mughal king, who was confined by the British to the Red fort. During the revolt of 1857, he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebellions. He was deported to Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion.The story Of Kohinoor Diamond

After the battle of Panipat, Babur ordered his son Humayun to secure the treasures at Agra, which had been the capital of the Lodhi dynasty since 1502.

When Babur joined Humayun at Agra, Humayun presented him a magnificent diamond. It has always been a matter of some disputs, but it seems almost certain that his splendid gem wasKohinoor(mountain of light), making its first appearance in history. TheKohinoorwas given to Humayun by the family of theRajaofGwalior,whom he had given protection. Humayun later gave the diamond toShah Tahmaspof Persia. The Shah sent it as a present toNizam Shahin the Deccan. Somehow, the gem returned during the 17th century into the treasury of the Mughal emperor,Shah Jehan.When Nadir Shah plundered Delhi in 1739, he seized the diamond along with the other Moghul jewels and named itKoh-i-noor. The Kohinoor passed through several hands before finally resting in theTower of London, where it remains on display.

Guru Nanak: Nanak was born in a Khatri family at Talwandi in the Lahore district in 1469. He spent his life preaching the gospel of tolerance. In order to put an end to the religious conflicts, he laid stress on moral virtues.The Six Gurus

1Guru Nanak(1469-1539): First Guru of Sikhs, Founder of Sikhism

2Guru Angad(1504-1552): Compiled the biography of Guru Nanak Dev, known asJanam Sakhi; introduced Gurmukhi Script; 63 hymns of Guru Angad Dev included in Guru Granth Sikh.

3Guru Amar Das(1479-1574): He promoted inter-caste dining at his kitchen. Akbar granted villages to finance the scheme, out of which grew Amritsar

4Guru Guru Ram Das(1534-1581): Son-in-law of Guru Das; All subsequent Gurtis descended from Ram Das' family. The standard Sikh marriage ceremony known asAnand Karaj,four stanza hymn composed by Guru Ram Das.

5Guru Arjun Dev(1563-1606): Of Guru Run Task Died after torture in Mughal (Jhangir) detention for sheltering rebellious Mughal prince Khusrau, He constructed the famous Golden Temple at Amritsar and prepared a summary of Sikh teaching namedSukmani; compiled theGuru Granth Sahibin 1604; 2312 hymns from Guru Arjan Dev included in it.

6Guru Hargobind(1595-1644): Son Of Guru Arjun Dev; put on two swords-one signifying Miri (secular power) and other Piri (spiritual power); built the Akal Takht in 1608.

7Guru Har Rai(1630-1661): Son of Guru Hargobind. Supported Dara's claim in the wars of succession between Shah Jahan's sons

8Guru Harkishan(1656-1664): Of Guru Har Rai; Gurudwara Bangla Sahib in New Delhi was constructed in his memory.

9Guru Teg Bahadur(1621-1674): Son of Guru Harargobind; Gurudwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in New Delhi is where Guru body was cremated.

10Guru Govind Singh(1666-1700): Executed on Mughal order: Son of Guru Teg Bahadur; Babtized the Sikhs and createdKhalsa; instructed the Sikhs to keepfive Ks, compiled the 1428 pageDasam Granth Sahib

The arrival of Islam in India resulted in a unique combination of cultural tradition. This combination led to the growth of a composite religion in the country's top evidences of this contact can be seen in the religion, architecture, literature, music and painting.

Sufism: Sufism Li presents the spiritual and mystical and I mention of a slump. The term Sufi probably came from the Arabic word Sof(wool). This was perhaps due to the result of old ascetic practice of wearing only a coarse woollen garment.

This movement was first born in Iran well some of the religious scholars and liberal thinkers in the country released that there was little difference among the various beliefs, such asShiaand theSunnisects.Sufism

Sufism springs from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-wajud or unity of being. This doctrine was propounded by Ibn-ul-Arabi (1165-1240). One of the earliest Sufis was a women saint (8th AD) Rabia of Basra who laid great emphasis on love as bond between God and individual soul. The Sufi orders are widely divided into two: Ba-Shara, that is, those who followed Islamic law and Be-Shara, that is, those who were not bound by it. Of the Be-Shara movement, only two acquired signifcant influence: the Chishti and Suhrawardi Silsilas.

Architectural Landmarks Of The Sultanate Period

StructureLocationBuilder

Quwwat-ul-Islam MosqueDelhiQutub-ud-din Aibak

Adhai Din Ka JhonpraAjmerQutub-ud-din Aibak

Qutub MinarDelhiIltutmish (founded by Qutub-ud-din Aibak)

Tomb of HazartDelhiAla-ud-din Khilji

Nizamuddin AuliaAlai DarwajaDelhiAla-ud-din Khilji

Jamaat Khana MasjidDelhiAla-ud-din Khilji

Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din TughlaqDelhiMuhammad bin Tughlaq

Tughlaabad FortDelhiGhiyas-ud-din Tughlaq

Moth Ki MasjidDelhiPrime Minister of Sikandar Lodi

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

Introduction :The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain in 1192 by Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori inaugurated an era of Muslim rule in India. The sudden death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 and his failure to specify succession procedures pitted his three slaves Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibek against each other.

The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as the"Period of the Sultan Rulers". During this period, rulers belonging to five different dynasties- The Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodhis-ruled over India.

The Slave Dynasty

The Khiljis Dynasty

The Tughlaq Dynasty

The Sayyid Dynasty

The Lodhi Dynasty

Imp. Central Deptt/Officials

Administration of Sultanate

The Background of Delhi Sultanate First Muslim Invasion-Mohammad Bin Qasim's Invasion (712 AD) :Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded India in 712 AD and conquered Sindh which became the province of Omayyad Khilafat. First Turk Invasion-Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasion (998-1030 AD) :Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni led about 17 expeditions to India to enrich himself by taking away the wealth from India. In 1025 he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnath that lies on the coast in the extreme south of Kathiwar. The temple was destroyed in 1026 AD. Second Turk Invasion-Mohammad Ghori's Invasion (1175-1206 AD) :Mohammad Ghori invaded India and laid the foundation of the Muslim domination in India. He may be considered the founder of muslim rule in India. Reasons for the Sucess of Turks in India :1. Rajputs lacked unity and organisation;divided by rivalaries2. There was no central government3. Kingdoms were small and scattered4. Turks were better organised and took advantage of the lack of mutual cooperation among the Rajputs.Mohammad Ghori's conquests became the nucleus of a new political entity in India-the Delhi Sultnate. This period can be divided into 5 distint periods viz1. The Slave dynasty (1206-1290)2. The Khijli Dynasty (1290-1320)3. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)4. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)5. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

Also called Mumluk or Ghulam Dynasty

All the Muslim rules that ascended the throne of Delhi after the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 till 1290 were either themselves slaves or the descendants of these slave rulers. That is why the rulers belonging ot this dynasty are generally are known as the"Slave Rulers"or theMameluk Sultansand the dynasty is called the "Slave dynasty." Muhaammad Ghori had left Indian possessions in the care of his former slave, Qutub-ud-bin Aibek, who on the death of his master, severed his links with Ghazni and asserted his independence, becuase he use to give (harity.)Qutubuddin Aibek: 1206-1210

A Turkish slave by origin, he was purchased by Mohammad Ghori who later made him his Governor. After the death of Ghori, Aibek became the master of Hindustan and founded the Slave dynasty in 1206. For his generosity, he was given the title ofLakh Bakhsh(give of Lakhs.) He died in 1210 while playing Chaugan or Polo He constructed two mosques-Quwat-ul-Islamat Delhi andAdhai din ka Jhonpraat Ajmer. He also began the construction ofQutub Minar,in the honour of famus Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhityar Kaki. Aibek was great patron of learning and patronised writers likeHasan-un-Nizami,author of 'Taj-ul-Massir' andFakhruddin,author of 'Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shah'>> more infomation on this

Shamsuddin Iltutmish: 1211-1236

He was a slave of Qutubuddin Aibak and occupied the throne of Delhi in 1211 after deposingAram Bakhsh. He was a very capable ruler and is regarded as the 'real founder of the DelhiSultanate'. He made Delhi the capital in the place of Lahore. He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath ofChengiz Khan,the Mongol leader, by refuing shelter toKhwarizm Shah,whom Chengiz was chasing. He introduced the silver coin(tanka)and the copper coin(jital).He organised thelqta Systemand introduced reforms in civil administration and army, which was now centrally paid and recruited. He set up an official nobality of slaves known asChahalgani/Chlisa(group of 40) He completed the construction ofQutub Minarwhich was started by Aibeks He patronisedMinhaj-us-Siraj,author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.>> more infomation on this

Razia Sultan: 1236-1240

Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, the nobles placed Ruknuddin Firoj on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Ruknuddin and ascended the throne. She was the 'first and only Muslim lady who ever ruled India' She was popular among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and theologians. She further offended the nobles by her perference for an Abyssian slave Yakut. Soon after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi & Lahore openly revolted against her. There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinad.Altunia,governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainity of Razia. Razia accompained by Yakut marched against Altunia. However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi. In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana)>> more infomation on this

Bahram Shah: 1240-1242

After Razia, Iltutmish' third son Bahram Shah was put on throne by powerful turkish councilChalisa. He was considered only as de jure ruler, while Naib-e-mamlakat (the regent) was de facto ruler. Bahram Shah lost his life after failed attempt to assert his authority once on the throne.

Masud Shah: 1242:1246

He was son of Raknuddin but was disposed afterBalbanand Nasiruddin Mahamud' Mother,Malika-e-Jehan,conspired against him and established Nasiruddin Mahamud as the new Sultan.

Nasiruddin Mahamud: 1246-1266

He was the son of Iltutmish and was known as theDarvesi Kingas he was very pious and noble. He died in 1266.

Ghiyasuddin Balban: 1266-1287

Balban ascended the throne in 1266. He broke the power ofChalisaand resorted the prestige of the crown. That was his greatest contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate. To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies. He created a strong centralised army to deal with internal disturbances and to cheek Mongols who were posing a serious danger to Delhi Sultante. He established the military departmentDiwani-i-Arz The Persian court model influenced balban's conception of Kingship. He took up the title ofZil-i-Ilahi(Shadow of God) He destroyed Mewati Rajputa brigandage in thedoab,where forests were cut and forts built. In his last days he overlooked Sultanate affairs due to dealth of his eldest and most loving son,Muhammad,and rebellion by his closed and most loved slave,Tughril.Muhammad died fighting Mongolians in 1285 and Tughril was captured and beheaded.>> more infomation on this

Kaiqubad: 1287-1290

A grandon of Balban was established on the throne by Fakruddin, the Kotwal of Delhi who assumed high political authority during last days of Balban. But Kaiqubad was killed by the Khiliji family, which saw end of Slave dynasty and beginning of Khiliji dynasty at Delhi throne

The Khilji Dynasty

The Khiljis, wrongly believed to be Afghans, were actually Turks who had for a long time settled in the region of Afghanistan, called Khalji had adopted Afghan manners and customs. There for their coming to the thrown of Delhi is called "Khalji" revulusion. The Ghazani's and Ghori's invasions, and Mongol pressure from Central Asia had pushed them into India.

The termKhiljiwas their-designation, meaning in Turkic languages "swordsman". Although they had played a conspicuous role in the success of Turkic armies in India, they had always been locked down upon by the leading Turks, the dominant group during the Slave dynasty.

Jalauddin Khalji: 1290-1296 AD

Jalaluddin Kjilji founded Khilji dynasty He followed mild and generous policies This generous policy of the Sultan affected his foreign policy as well. In 1290, he invaded the fort of Ranthambhor. In 1294, Ala-ud-din nephew of Jalal-ud-din, invaded Ramchandra, the ruler of Devagiri in the south. Ramchandra was defeated and Ala-ud-din returneed with an immense booty.

Alauddin Khalji: 1296-1316 AD

He was a nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji. Alauddin Khilji killed him and succeeded the throne in 1296. He was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who seperated religion from politics. He proclaimed 'Kingship knows no Kinship'. Alauddin's Imperialism :Alauddin annexed Gujarat (1298), Ranthambhor (1301), Mewar (1303), Malwa (1305), Jalor (1311). In Deccan, Aluddin's army led by Malik Kafur defeated Ram Chandra, Pratap Rudradeva, Vir ballal III and Vir Pandya. The most important experiment undertaken by the Alauddin was the attempt to control the markets. Alauddin sought to control the prices of all commodities, from foodgrains to horse, and from cattle and slaves to costly imported cloth.Economic Reforms (1304)

Introduction of Dagh or branding of horses andChehra Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands Creation of new department vizDiwan-i-Mustakhrajto enquire into the revenue arears and to collect them Establishment of separate markets for foodgrains cloth, horses, fruits etc

Administrative Reforms Ordinances

Reorganised the Spy system Prohibition on use of wine in Delhi Nobles should not intermarry without his permission. Confiscated the properties of Nobles classes.

Military Reforms

Introduced the first permanent standing army of India Abolition ofIqtasof royal troppers and the payment of their salaries in crash. Regular muster of the army.

Shihabuddin Omar: 1316 AD

Mubarak Khan: 1316-1320 AD

After the death of Kafur (1316), Mubarak Khan was freed from prison and was appointed as regent for Shiab-ud-din. He captured the throne at the first opportunity he got, but could rule only for 4 years as he sank into debauchry and could not give up his dissipated lifestyle. He awarded his lover Hassan authority over the army and place guards, and the latter soon obtained full control over the Sultan's palace. Hassan was given the tittle Khusarau Khan by the Sultan and within months Khasrau killed Mubarak Khan and assumed the title of Nasir-ud-din in mid 1320.

Khusro Khan: 1320 AD

Khusrau Khan was killed by Ghazni Khan, governor of Dipalpur when he tried to oppose a rebellion by Ghazni Malik and his son Fakhr-ud-din Jaima. This marked the ned of the Khalji dynasty and the rise of Tughlaq dynasty at the throne of Delhi.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)

The Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq1320-24 AD

Muhammad Tughlaq1324-51 AD

Firoz Shah Tughlaq1351-88 AD

Mohammad Khan1388 AD

Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq Shah II1388 AD

Abu Baqr1389-90 AD

Nasiruddin Muhammad1390-94 AD

Humayun1394-95 AD

Nasiruddin Mahmud1395-1412 AD

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD)

Khusrau Khan, the last king of the Khilji dynasty was killed by Ghazni Malik, and Ghazni Malik ascended the throne assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. He died in an accident and his sone Jauna (Ulugh Khan) succeeded him under the title Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.>> more infomation on this

Mohammad-bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD)

Prince Jauna, Son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1325 He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had 5 ambitious projects for which he has became particulary debatable.1. Taxation in the Doab (1326)2. Transfer of Capital (1327)3. Introduction of Token Currency (1329)4. Proposed Khurasan Expedition (1329)5. Qarachil Expedition (1330) His five projects have led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in checking the revolts1335-- Mudurai became independent (Jalaluddin Ahsan Shah)

1336-- Foundation of Vijayanagar (Harihar & Bukka), Warrangal became independent (Kanhaiya)

1341-47-- Revolts of Sada Amirs & Foundation of Bahamani in 1347 (Hasan Gangu)

He died in Thatta while campaigning in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkish slave.>> more infomation on this

Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1351-1388 AD)

He was a cousin of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. After his death the nobles and the theologians of the court selected Firoz Shah as the next Sultan. Established ofDiwan-i-Khairat(department for poor and needy people) andDiwan-l-Bundagan(department of slaves) MakingIqtadarisystem hereditary. Construction of canals for irrigation from1. Yamuna to the city of Hissar2. From the Sutlej to the Ghaggar3. From the Ghaggar to Firuzabad4. From Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana. Establishment of four new towns, Firuzabad, Fatebabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.>> more infomation on this

After Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1388-1414 AD)

The Tughlaq dynasty would not survive much after Firoz Shah's death. The Malwa, Gujarat and Sharqi (Jaunpur) Kingdoms broke away from the Sultanate. Timur Invasion : (1398-99)Timur, a Turk, invaded India in 1398 during the reign ofMuhammad Shah Tughlaq, the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty. His army mercilessely sacked and plundered Dellhi. Timur returned to Central Asia, leaving a nominee to rule to Punjab which ended the Tughlaq dynasty.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-50 AD)Khizr-Khan, a lieutenant of Timur, was a Sayyid and so his dynasty is called Sayyid Dynasty. Khizr Khan ruled till 1421, but his whole reign was marked by utter chaos and disorder. He was succeeded, after his death, by his sonMubarak Shah(1421-1434). During his reign thesubedarsof Punjab, bhatinda and Doab broke out in revolt and the whole of his period was spent in trying to supress them. He died in 1434 and was succeeded by his son Mohammad Shat (1434-1443). During his reign, the ruler of Malwa invaded Delhi, which was however, saved by the valiant Subedar of Lahore,Bahlol LodhiSayyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan1414-21 AD

Mubarak Shah1421-33 AD

Muhammad Shah1421-43 AD

Alauddin Alam Shah1443-51 AD

Points for Sayyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan (1414-1421):Timur's nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new Sultan and the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and surroundings districts.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434):He succeeded Khizr at the throne after his successful expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was killed by the nobles in his own court.

Muhammad Shah (1434-1443):The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but could not survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to rule a meagre area of around 30 miles and rest of the Sultnate was ruled by the nobles.

Alam Shah (1443-1451):The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and himself retired. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few surrounding areas.

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) Lodhi or Pathans Sultans

Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi was one of the Afghan sardars who established himself in Punjab afer invasion of Timur He founded the Lodhi dynasty. He founded the rule of the Lodhi dynasty by usurping the throne from the last of the Sayyid rulers. He was a strong and brave ruler. He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering territories around Delhi and after continuous war for 26 years, he succeeded in extending his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc. He was a kind and generous ruler. He was always prepared to help his subjects. Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning. He died in 1488.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD)

Sikandar Lodhi was the son of Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Bihar and Western Bengal. He shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. Sikandar was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi Temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed. He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced theGaz-i-Sikandari(Sikandar's yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields. He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance. In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26 AD)

He was the last king of Lodhi dynasty and the last Sultan of Delhi He was the son of Sikandar Lodhi The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom-loving people but it was because of its fissiparous and individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened. Moreover, Ibrahim Lodhi asserted the absolute power of the Sultan. At last Daulat Kan Lodhi, the governor of Punab invited Babur to poverthrow Ibrahim Lodhi, Babur accepted the offer and inflicated a crushing defeat on Ibrahim Lodhi in thefirst battle of Panipatin 1526. No Sultan of India except Sultan Ibrahim had been killed on the battle field.

Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultnate:The main causes were :-1. Deposite and military type of government which did not have the confidence of the people2. Degeneration of Delhi Sultans (esp. the wild projects of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Incompetence of Firoz Tughlaq)3. War of succession as there was no fixed law of it4. Greed and incompetency of nobles5. Defective military organisation6. Vastness of empire and poor means of communication7. Finanical instability8. Number of slaves increased to 1,80,000 in Firoz Tughlaq's time which was a burden on the treasury9. Invasion of Timur10. Important Central Department, Officials11. Important Central Departments

DepartmentFunction

Diwan-i-Risalat (Foreign Minister)Department of appeals

Diwan-i-ArizMilitary department

Diwan-i-BandaganDepartment of slaves

Diwan-i-Qaza-i-MamalikDepartment of justice

Diwan-i-IsthiaqDepartment of pensions

Diwan-i-MustakhrajDepartment of arrears

Diwan-i-KhairatDepartment of charity

Diwan-i-KohiDepartment of agriculture

Diwan-i-InshaDepartment of correspondence

12.

Important Central Officials

WazirThe cheif Minister of the State-in Charge of revenue and finances, controlled by other department.

Ariz-i-MamlikHead of Military department

QaziLegal Officer(dispensed civil law based on Muslim law Shariat)

Wakil-i-darController of the royal house hold.

Barid-i-mumalikHead of the state news agency

Amir-i-majlisOfficer-in-charge of royal feasts, conference and festivals.

Majlis-i-amCouncil of friends and officers consulted on important affairs of the state.

Dahir-i-mumalikHead of the royal correspondence.

Sadr-us-sudurDealt with the religious matters and endowments.

Sadr-i-jahanOfficers-in-charge of religious and charitable endowment.

Amir-i-dadPublic prosecutors

Naib wazirDeputy Minister

Mushrif-i-mumalikAccountant general

Amir-i-hazibOfficer-in-charge of the royal court

Kazi-i-mumalikChief Justice

Kazi-ul-kazatHead of the Central Judicial department

General Administration of Sultanate

Political Theory of State : The Turkish Sultans in India declared themselvesLieutenant of the faithfuli.e. of the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad and included his name in Khutba, it did not mean that the Caliph became the legal ruler. The Caliph had only a moral position Political, legal and military authorities were vested in the Sultan. He was responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice. No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus, military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne. With the exceptions Alauddin Khalji and Mubarak Shah Khalji, all other sultans styled themselves as duputies of Caliph with the title such asNasir-i-amir ur Momin-assistant of the leader of the faithful or Yamin ul Khalifa i.e. the right hand man of Caliph. When the Turks conquered the country, they divided it into a number of tacts called Iqtas, which were assigned among the leading Turkish nobles. The holders of the office were calledMuqtiorWalis. It was these tracts, which later Caliph province or Subah. Below the province were the Shiqs and below them theParagana.We are told that the villages were grouped into units of 100 or 84 traditionally calledChaurasi.The Paragana were headed byAmil.Central Government : The sultanate of Delhi was a police state, whose strength or weakness depended exclusively on the military powers and personality of its depostic sultan. The sultan was assisted in the discharge of his function by a number of dignitaries. To begin with the sultans of the slave dynasty constituted four ministers at the top level. When the sultnate was well-established, two more departmen heads were raised to the status of central ministers, vizsadrus-sadurand thediwan-i-qaza The Commander of the royal army, next after the sultan, the crown prince, and the six or seven dignitaries constituted the nucleus of the council of advisers, calledmajilis-i-am of majilis-i-khas, which comprised the most trusted and the highest officers of the state. Thewazir, also styled asvakilwas the prime minister and his department was called thediwan-i-wizarat.He was the head of the finance department and usually held overall charge of the entire administrative set up. The head of the army establishment or the ministry of defence was thediwan-i-arz.He was responsible for the organization and the maintenance of the royal army and excercised disciplinary control over it. The department of correspondence and records of the royal court was calleddiwan-i-insha;it was held under the charge of a central minister, variously known as thedabir-i-mamlik, dabir-i-khasoramir munshi Thediwan-i-risalatconsistuted the fourth pillar of the imperial administration of the sultnate. Under the period of slave dynasty, the head of the department wassadar-us-sadur,who was primarily a minister for ecclesiastical affairs. Barid-i-mamlik(intelligence and information);Vakil-i-barbak(royal household);Amir-i-majlis(celebrations & meetings);Amir-i-Shikar(royal hunts);Kotwals(Qazi of metropolis) etc were other important officials of the time.Early Medieval India (650-1206 AD)North India and the Decan :In the post Harsha period, three great centres of powers emerged in North India and Deccan: Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas.Gurjara-PratiharasThe Gurjara-Pratiharas were the early Rajputs who began theri rule from Gujarat and south western Rajasthan. Later they ruled from Kanauj.Nagabhata Iwas the first great ruler of the dynasty. He defeated the Muslim forces of Arab. Bhoja I (AD 836-885) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title ofAdivaraha,which has been incorporated as a legend on some of his coins.PalasThe Pala dynasty came into power in Bengal in about the middle of the eighth century AD. The founder of this dynasty was Gopala I who was elected as the king by the people.DharampalaandDevapalawere the most famous rulers of this dynasty. They extended and consolidated the Pala empire. The Palas ruled over Bihar, Bengal and part of Orissa and Assam with mny ups and down in their learning and religions. Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramshila, which became second only to Nalanda in fame as a centre for higher learning. During Devapals's reign, the king of Suvarnadvipa(South East Asia), Balaputradeva, built a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to endow the income of five villages for the maintenance of the monastery.RashtrakutasThe Rashtrakutas called themselves descendants of Satyaki. The founder of the Rashtrakuta power wasDantivarmaorDantidurgawho was a contemporary of Chalukya King Pulakeshin II. Dantidurga occupied all territories between the Godavari and the Vima.Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krishnaraja (768-772). Krishnaraja was responsible for the construction of theKailash Temple of Ellorawhich stands as an excellent specimen of the Rastrakuta art and architecture.Points to Remember

The Rashtrakutas kept on the best of terms with the Arabs of Sindh and enriched their subjects by encouraging commerce They encouraged Hinduism and Digambara Jainism Their capital was at Manyakheta The king Amonghavarsha I himself authored a part of Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada poem. Rashtrakutas were the followers of Jainism.

The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty wasAmoghavarsha.Asa warrior, he was, however no match with his father Govinda II, but he succeeded in defeating the East-Chalukya kings. It was Amoghavarsha who had successfully arrested the progress of the Gurjara King Bhoja I towards South India. The Cholas

The Pandyas

Royal Families of Deccan

Emergence of Rajputs

Arab Conquest of Sindh

Attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni

Attacks of Mahammed Ghori

Vardhanas and Their Capitals

Major Literary Works in Early Medieval Period

Temples Constructed by Rashtrakutas

TemplesPlaceConstructed By

VijalaycholeshwarNaratmataiVijayalaya

BalsubramaniyamKannanurAditaya I

NageshwarKuminakanamAditaya I

KornagnainSriniwasnallurVartak I

MoverkaitePadukottaiBhutivikram Kesiri

TiruvaleswaramBrahmadeshaRaj Raj I

UttarkailashTiruvadiRaj Raj I

RajrajeshwarTanjoreRajendra I

GangaikondcholaGangai KondacholapuramRajendra I

AiravateshwarDarsunamRaj Raj II

KamhaveshwarTirumaranamKallotunga III

Tripartite StruggleThe most important event of post-Harsha Period was tripartite struggle among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutus and Palas for the supremacy of the north. This struggle started during the reign of Vatsaraja-Pratihara. He ascended the throne in 778 AD. In order to give practicle shape to his imperialist designs, Vatsaraja attacked Dharmpala, the Pala King of Bengal, and carried away his state umbrella. The majore causes for the continuous struggle between the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakuta, known in history as tripartite struggle, are as follows:- To get control over Gujarat and Malwa, the regions very important for foreign trade due to their nearness to the coast. To acquire supremacy over kanauj, a symbol of prestige in Indian politics. To get control over the vast resources of the Gangetic valley. Desire to impress the pretty kingdoms with the sense of their might. Lust for war booty, a prominent source for maintaining huge armyKashmirKashmir was ruled by three dynasties- the Karkota, Utpala and Loharas. Lalitaditya was the most famous ruler of Kashmir during this period.The Cholas

Cholas were the most civilised race of the south. It is believed that this dynasty was founded byKarikala.Chola empire was calledCholamandalam.It included in itself Trichnopoly, Tanjore and some districts of Mysore and Madras (Now Chennai). Kaveripattam was its capital. The real founder of the Chola dynasty of Tanjore wasVijayalaya,a feudatory of the Pallavas. His dynasty rose to its eminence and lasted for more than two centuries.Official LanguageTamil

CapitalsEarly Cholas:- Poompuhar,UrayurMedieval Cholas:-Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur, Gangaikonda,Cholapuram

GovernmentMonarchy

KingVijayalaya Chola - 848-871Rajendra Choal III-126-1279

Then Chola empire reached its zenith during the reigns ofRajaraja(985-1014) and his son,Rajendra I(1014-1041)Rajaraja's majore achievementswere :-1. conquering Madurai and capturing the Pandyan ruler2. invading northern part of Sri Lanka and making it a Chola province3. conquering Maldive islands4. emerging as a strong naval power by destroying the stongest naval power of the Chera kingdom.Rajendra I's majore achievementswere :-1. conquering several trans-Ganga kingdoms and assuming the title of Gangai Kondachola2. founding a new capital calledGangai Kondacholapuram3. conquering the whole of Ceylon or Sri Lanka4. Indianisation of several lands of the south-East Asia5. defeating the kings of Sumatra in a naval campaign and annexing a part of Sumarata kingdom to his kingdomKulottunga(1178-1210) was the last greatest Chola emperor. After him, the Chola empire collapsed and its place was taken by the Pandyas and Hoysalas.Epithet (Sub-title) of the Chola Rulers

Name of the KingEpither

Prantak IMadiraikond

Prantak IISundarchola

Rajaraja IMartanda Chola

Rajendra IVijayrajendra

VikramacholaTagayasamudra

KulothingaSangam Tavarta

Chola Administration :Of all the South Indian dynasties, the Cholas have left most detailed information on the working of the administration set up by them. At the head of the state stood the king. He was the pivot round which the machinery of the state moved. During the reigns of Rajaraja I and his son, royal orders could be proclaimed only after these had been confirmed by the chief secretary (Olainayakam) and another highly responsible officer known as the Perundaram.Nagaramwas an assembly of merchants. It belonged to localities where merchants and traders were important.Important Places Associated with Chola Rule

Anuradhapura:The Sri Lankan capital which was destroyed by Rajaraja I

Chidambaram:The place where Chola kings were coronated.

Gangaikondacholapuram:The city which was constructed by Rajendra I after his successful North India campaign.

Mumidcholamandalam:The name of the province which Rajaraja I carved out from the Sri Lankan territories

Nagapattanam:The place where Mahendra V, a Shailendra ruler, constructed a vihara.

Polannaruva:The Sri Lankan city annexed by Rajaraja.

Thanjavur or Tanjore:The Cholan capital where Rajaraja I constructed the Brihadeswara temple

Uttaramerur:The place where two tenth century inscriptions relating to Chola administration have been found.

Vellur:It was the place where Chola king Parantaka I defeated the combined army of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka.

The Chola craftsman excelled in bronze sculptures. The made images by the deities, especially of Nataraja, the dancing Siva, and saints by the cire perdu proThe PandyasWhen Hieun Tsang visited the Deccan, the Pandya country was under the Pallavas. Of course, Hieun Tsang did not visit the Pandya country, The Pandya king, Sundar Pandya, was originally a Jaina, Later on, he adopted Saivism and is said to have followed a policy of persecution of the Jainas.Official LanguageTamil

CapitalsKarkai Madurai

GovernmentMonarchy

Preceding StateKalabhras

Succeeding StateDelhi Sultnate

The Pandya kings were constantly at war with Pallavas, Cholas and Ceylon. In the eleventh and the twelfth centuries, the Pandyas were compelled to owe allegiance to the Cholas. It was in the thirteenth century that the Pandya kingdom acquired independence and became one of the important powers of the Deccan. In the same country, Marco Polo visited Pandya country twice: once in 1288 and again in 1292. In his account, Kayal, the capital of the Pandya Kingdom was a prosperous port and a beautiful city. With the fall of the Tamil power at the hands of Malik Kafur in 1310, the Pandya kingdom also came to an end.The Later Pandyas (1150-1350) entered their golden age under Maravman Sundara and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan, who expanded the empire into Telugu country, conquered Kalinga(Orrisa) and invaded and conquered Sri Lanka. They also had extensive trade links with Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the madurai Sultnate in the 16th Century.The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature before the Christian Era. They controlled the pearl fisheries among the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.Other Kingdoms of South

KingdomCapitalReal founder

Western/Later ChalukyasKalyani,KarnatakaTailap II

Kakatiyas (1110-1326)Warangal, Andhra PradeshProlaraja II

Yadavas (1187-1312)Devagiri,MaharashtraBhillam V

Hoyasalas (1173-1342)Dwarasamudra, KarnatakaVittigadev 'Vishnuvardhan'

Note: The temple of Hoyasaleshwara at Dwarasamudra (Modern Halebid) is the greatest achievement of Hoyasala art.Royal Families of DeccanEastern Chalukyas of Vengi: Pulakesin II's brother, Kubja Vishnu Vardhan founded a new dynasty with its capital at the ancient city ofVengi.But soon its power was exhausted and in about 10th century they allied with the Cholas but the Chola king did not maintain the alliance and annexed the kingdom in 1076 AD.Western Chalukyas of Kalyani: The kingdom established by Taila II in 1973, after defeating Amoghavasha IV, the last Rashtrakuta ruler, claimd descent from the Chalukyas of Badami. The kingdom was extended uptil the southern part of Paramara kingdom of Malwa.Vikramaditya II Tribhuvanmalla(1076-1126) was the greatest ruler of this dynasty and is posed as the hero of Bilhana'sVikramanka-deva-Charita.He is founder ofVikram Samvat era.The Cheras: The ancient name of the Cheras is Keralas. Their Kingdom included the districts of Malabar, Travancore, Cochin etc. The Cheras had trade relations with Rome in the first century AD. The account of the Cheras of early times is found in the edicts of Ashoka, in which they have been called by the name ofKerala Putras.Sufficient historical material about the history of Keralas is not available.The Hoyasalas: Their kingdom lay mid-way between the kingdom of the Chalukyas on the North-West and that of the Cholas on south-east. They ruled over modern Mysore and Madras. Their capital wasDwarasamudra.The credit of bringing this dynasty into prominence goes toVishnu Vardhan.He improved political position of his kingdom by his conquests. TheChennakesava templebuilt by Vishnuvardhan at Belur in 1117 AD and theHoyasaleswar templebuilt in 1150 AD at Haleheid are examples of Hoyasala architecture. The last king of this dynasty was Vir Balla III, who was defeated by Malik Kafur, the cheif general of Alauddin Khilji, in 1311. He deposed him from the throne and thus this, dynasty came to its end.The Yadavas: The Yadavas were, at first, under the domination of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas, but at the downfall of the Chalukyas, they became independent and began to gain power. They ruled over the region that stretched from Nasik to Devagiri. Thus, Khandesh territory was under their sway. Their prominent rulers were Bhillama, Simhana Ramachandra etc.Bhillamawas the first important king of this dynasty. He reigned from 1187 to 1191 AD. He defeated the Hoyasalas and made Devagiri his capital. The most prominent king of this dynasty wasSimhanawho vanished several dynasties, such as the Hoyasalas, the Andharas etc. The last king of this dynasty wasRamachandrawho dominated the whole of the region up to the river Narmada.The Kakatiyas: In the begining, the Kakatiyas were under the control of the Chalukyas dynasty and after their downfall they asserted their independent in the territories of Telangana and Warrangal, where they established their own kingdom. Some of the prominent and important kings of this dynasty wereParolaraja, Ganpati Pratap Rudra Deoetc. Ganpati defeated the Cholas, the Yadavas and several other rulers of various families. He was the most important king of Kakatiya dynasty. In his reign, the Kakatiya rule was at the height of its power and progress. Malik Kafur invaded their kingdom in 1309 AD.The Kadambas: This dynasty was founded by BrahmanMaysurasarmanin north Karnataka with his capital at Banavasi after defeating Satvahana. Maysursaraman was a champion of Vedic sacrifices and is reported to have performed 18Ashvamedhasacrifices. The kingdom was annexed to the Chalukaya kingdom by Pulkesin II.Emergence of RajputsIn northern India, the smaller states were ruled by people known as Rajputs. With the breakup of Pratihara empire, a number of Rajput states came into existence in north India. The period between 647 AD and 1192 AD i.e. 500 years is known as the Rajput period in the history of India.Origin :There is no agreement among modern scholars regarding the origins of Rajputs. According to one tradition, the Rajputs are the descendants of the ancient Kshatriyas belonging to either sun family (Suryavansha) or moon family (Chandravansha) mentioned in the Mahabharata.Rajputs Ruling Dynasties :The most important Rajputs dynasties were theGahadavalas of Kanauj,theParamaras of Malwa,and theChauhans of Ajmer.There were other smaller dynasties in different parts of the country, such as the Kalachuris in the are around modern Jabalpur, the Chandellas of Mahoha in Bundelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Tomars of Delhi etc. Chandradeva and Govindachandra were the famous rulers of the Ghadavala family. The Paramara ruler, was a great patron of art and literature. He himself was a great poet and scholar.Prithvijar ChauhanorRai Pithorawas the famous Chauhan ruler. He defeated Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain(1191). However, Ghori defeated him in the second battle of Tarain(1192).Dhangawas the most powerful king of the Chandella family.Rajputs Clans :The basis of Rajputs society was the clan. Every clan traced its descent from a common ancestor, real or imaginary. The clans generally dominated a compact territory. Sometimes, these settlements were based on units of 12 or 24 or 48 or 84 villages.The four Agnikula Rajputs Clans

i. The Parihara :Also known as Pratihara, based themselves in southern Rajasthan.ii. The Chauhans:Helped Pratihara against Arabs, based in eastern Rajasthan.iii. The Solankis :Also called Chalukayas of Gujarat, based in Kathiwara.iv. The Pawars of Parmars :Established their control in Malwa with their capital at Dhar near Indore.

Rajputs Society :The Feudal order was strongly established among the Rajputs. The Rajputs rulers divided the Kingdoms among landed units calledJagirsand distributed them among faithful nobles. The Rajputs were Hindus and were known asKshatriyas,beign a warrior class. They celebrated the major Hindu festivals and invoked goddess like Durga or Bhavani for strength and valour. Rajputs women were respected in society but did not enjoy the same position as men.Rajputs Art and Architecture :The fort structure reached perfection under the Rajputs. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and the forts of Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are fine specimens of Rajputs architecture. Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, the Vimla Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi were built by Solankis of Gujarat.Rajputs Paintings :The Rajputs paintings are divided into theRajput School of Artand thePahari School of Art.The Rajasthani School flourished in Mewar, Bikanar, Jaipur, Jodhpur adn Jaisalmer and specialized in depicting scenes fromKrishna Lila, Nayika Veda and Ritu Charita.The Pahari School was patronized by the rulers of Himalayan states especially in the regions of Basoli, Mandi, Jammu, Kangra and Garhwal.Arab Conquest of SindhIn 712 AD, AI Hajjaj, the Governor of Basra, led an expedition against Sindh's ruler Dahir, under his nephew and son-in-law, Muhammad-bin-Qasim. This expedition put Sindh under the Arabs. The cause of this expedition was neither the desire for territorial expansion nor religious. The king of Ceylon had sent some gifts to the king of Turkey which were looted at Debal in Sindh by the pirates. The ruler of Sindh, Dahir, refused to compensate the loss by showing his ignorance to the incident. This emerged AI Hajjaj and he attacked Sindh. However, the Arabs failed to build a permanent empire in India. Several factors were responsible for this.1. Imprisonment of Muhammad bin Qasim by the new Khalifa2. New Khalifa's indifferent attitude towards desert Sindh province3. Diversion of Arab attention due to fight over Khilafat or Caliphate4. Bravery and Heroism of Indian ruler5. Long distance between Baghdad and Sindh.Impact of Arab Rule in Sindh

Conversion of Sindh population to Islam, albeit on a very limited and temporary scale Laying the foundation of Islam in India Introduction of formal slavery system in India Promotion to Arab trade. New Arab settlements on sea-coast.

Attacks of Muhmud of GhazniMahmud of Ghazni raided India for the first time in AD 1000 for her wealth. He wanted to make Ghazni, a principality of Afghanistan, into a region wielding formidable power in the politics of Central Asia. In a short period of 25 years, he made 17 raids. He destroyed many temple e.g. Somnath temple in Gujarat (1025 AD) as they were ddepositories of vast quantitites of wealth. Muhmud did not make any systematic effort to capture India. However, he may be seen as the founder of Turkish rule in India to th extent that his expeditions opened India to conquest from the north-west.

Dynasties (Regions)King/Kings

Hindu Shahi (Kabul and Punjab)Jayapala, Anandapal

Lohar (Kashmir)Rani Didda, Sangam Raj

Tomar (Delhi)Angapal

Pratihara (Kannauj)Rajyapala

Paramara (Malwa)Sindhuraj

Chaulkya (Gujarat)Chamundaran, Durlabharaj

Chandellas (Bundelkhand)Vidyadhara

Kalachuri (Tripuri)Kokkal II, Gangeyadeva

Pala (Bengal)Mahipala

Chalukyas of Kalyani (Maharashtra)Jaisimha II

Significance of Muhmud Ghazni's Invasion

Exposition of India's military weakness. Exposition of India's political disunity. Weakening of the economic condition of India as Mahmud carried huge wealth out of the country. Great setback to Indian art and sculpture owing to destruction of idols and templses. Opening of India to foreign attacks. Opportunity to Islam to set its foothold in India Growing of the feeling of hatred and fear among the Hindus towards the Muslims. Arrivals of Muslim saints, called theSufis,providing impetus to greater Hindu-Muslim interaction.

Attacks of Muhammed GhoriThe second attack from north-west was made by theMuhammed Ghoriat the end of 12th century, for which India was not prepared. He attacked from Gomal Pass in 1182, and conquered Sindh. In 1182, he conquered Lahore and soon after, an attack was commenced on the Rajputs kingdoms controlling the Ganges plain. Prithviraj Chauhan led the Rajputs against Muhammed Ghori at theFirst battle of Tarain in 1191and the Rajputs became victorious. At theSecond battle of Tarain in 1191at the same place, Prithviraj was defeated by the kingdom of Delhi fell to Ghori. Muhammad Ghori defeated and killed Jayachandra, the king of Kanauj, in the Battle of Chadawar. Before his assassination in 1206, Turks had conuered the Ganga-Yamuna doab and its neighbouring areas, and Bihar and Bengal wwere also overrun. This started a new era in Indian history.

Raids of Muhmammad Ghori

Ist Raid1175 ADOver Multan and Uchha

IInd Raid1178 ADOver Abu and Anilwar

IIIrd Raid1179 ADOver Punjab (Peshawar)

IVth Raid1185 ADOver Sialkot

Vth Raid1186 ADDefeated Malik Khusoro of Lahore and captured Punjab

VIth Raid1191 ADIst Battle of Tarain

VIIth Raid1192 ADIInd Battle of Tarain

VIIIth Raid1194 ADAgainst Kannauj, defeated Jaichand

IXth Raid1205,1206 ADAgainst Khokkar (A tribe of Punjab)

Vardhanas and their Capitals

Vardhanas and their Capitals

Name of StateLocationCapital

MaithrakasGujaratVallabhi

YashodhramaMalwaMondasar

MukharisKanaujKanauj

GurjarasJodhpurJodhpur

GurajarasNandipurNaandoda

Samantha guptasMagadhaPatalipura

GowdasBengalRangmati

LichavisNepalKathmandu

VarmasKamarupaPragjothishyapura

ManasOrrisaPadmakoti

HunsPunjabSialkot

VakatakasVidharbaParverapura

KadambasGoaPanaji

KadambasHanagalHanagal

NolambasHemavatiHemavati

GangasKalingaKalinga City

TrikutasAparanthaAnirudapura

ShilaharasKonkanBalipattana

KalabrasKodumbalurKodambalur

SatyaputrasKonganaduKongunadu

Vishnu KundisVinukondaVinukonda

SolankisVengiVenipura

AnandsGunturKundapur

BrihadphalyanasMashipotamMashipotam

IkshwakusNagarjunakondaNagarjunakonda

CholasUraiyurUraiyur

PallavasKanchiKanchi

PandyasMaduraiMadurai

GangesTalkadKuvalala

AlupasUdyavaraUdyavara

AlupasBarakurBarakur

CherasKondangallurKondangallur

Major Literary Works in Early Medieval Period

Major Literary Works in Early Medieval Period

Subject AreaName of AuthorName of WorkRemarks

PoetryJaidevaBharaviBharatrihariDamodar GuptaMaghaGita GovindaKiratarjuniyamRavana VadhaKuttanimataSishupala VadhaJaideva was the court poet of Lakshman Sena of Bengal.

DramaRajasekharaBhavabhutiBal RamayanaKarpurmanjariMahavir CharitaMalati MadhavRajasekhara was the court poet of Mehendrapal, the Pratihara rulerBhavabhuti wrote in Prakrit.

Historical WorkKalhanaJayanikHemchandaRajataranginiPrithviraj VijayKumarpalcharitaVeni Sanhara is full of heroic tales.Rajatarangini narrates the history of Kashmir.

BiographyBilhanaChand BardoiBallalaSomadevaVikramankdevacharitaPrithviraj RasoBhoja PrabandhuIt is the biography of Chalukya kingIt deals with the exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan.It throws light on the life of King Bhoja.

StoriesSomadevaKathasarita Sagar HitopadeshaHitopadesha is a collection of short stories based on Panchatantra.

Medicine and ScienceBaghbhattaChakrapani DuttaBhaskaracharyaSaridhariAstanghridayAyurvedaSiddhanta SiromaniTarisati---

GrammerJayadityaBharatrihariCommentary on Panini's Mahabhasya---

Revolt of 1857: The causes of revolt:1. Political Causes:1. Growing suspicion among native rulers over Lord Dalhousie's policies of "Doctrine of Lapse" and Annexation of the Territories of Native Rulers2. Annexation of Avadh on the ground of "misgovernance"3. Disposing of Nawab Wazid Ali Shah, athe reigning ruler of Avadh4. Lord canning's announcement to that Mughals would lose the title of King and be mere Princess5. Disbanding of the Pindaris and irregular soliders who constitued a large section among the army ranks2. Administrative and economic causes:1. Inefficient administrative machinery of the company2. Rampant corruption3. Racialism in civil and military administration4. Deprivation of the traditional ruling classes of their luxury due to the establishment of the company's suzerainty over the Indian states;5. Introduction of new and revenue system which snatched the land from cultivator and gave it to the moneylender or traitor6. De-industrialisation of the country3. Military causes :1. Dispenser of Indian sepoys with alien rule2. Compulsion of the sepoys to serve at the cantonments3. Withdrawal of free postage facility to sepoys following the enactment of Post Office Act of 18544. Debarring the foreign service allowance orbattafor sepoys serving in Sindh and Punjab5. Racial discrimination.4. Social and Religious causes :1. Social discrimination of the British against Indians2. Spread of Christianity through missionaries3. Enactment of the Religious Dis-abilities act 1850, which enabled a convert to inherit his ancestral property4. Antagonism of the traditional Indian society into to the law prohibitingsati,child marriage and female infanticide.5. The Immediate cause: - Greased Cartridges:The government introduced a new Enfield rifle the Army. It's cartridges had a greased paper cover which had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle. It was believed that increase was composed of beef and pig fat. The Hindu as well as Muslim sepoys was enraged because the use of greased cartridges was against their religion and they feared that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religion and convert to Christianity. The time to rebel has come.

Causes for the failure of Revolt:

By July 1858, the revolt was completely suppressed. Following factors may be the reason for the failure of revolt: Lack of coordination and central leadership. The revolt was supposed to have started on May 31, 1857 as decided by Nana Saheb and his colleagues. But the Merrut incidence led to early breaking of the revolt Lack of forward looking program. Indian leaders lacked resources and experience as compared to British. Lack of support and martial races of the North British power have remained intact in the eastern, western and southern parts of India from where the forces were sent to suppress the revolt Tacit support of certain sections of Indian public. Limited territorial and base. Many native Indian states, influenced by the example of powerful Hyderabad, did not join the revolt. Sikh soldiers of the Punjab area remained loyal to the British throughout. The aging Bahadur Shah was neither a brave general not an astute leader of people.Impacts of the Revolt :The impacts of the 1857 revolt may be summarised as In August 1850, the British Parliament passed an act for Better Government of India, 1858, which put an end to the rule of the Company. The control of the British government in India was transfered to the British Crown. A minister of British government, called the Secretary of State, was made responsible for the Government of India. The British Governor general of India was now also given the title of Viceroy, who was also the representative of the Monarch. Marked the end of British imperialism and Princely states were assured against annexation. Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn. Marked the end of Peshwaship and the Mughal rule. After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divide and rule. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of white soldiers in the army. Total expense of the suppression of the Revolt was borne by the Indians.

Revolt in Western India

A Brief Survey of the Major Centres of the Revolt of 1857

CentreLeadersBritish Officials who suppressed the RevoltFate of the Leader

DelhiBahadur Shah, General Bakht Khan of Bareilly regimentNicholson, Lt Wiloughby, Lt HudsonBahadur Shah deported to Rangoon, Bakht Khan died in battlefied.

LucknowBefum Hazrat Mahal of AvadhColin CampbellEscaped to Nepal

KanputNana Saheb, Tantia Tope, AzimullahColin Campbell, Henry Havelock, Henry LawrenceNana Saheb escapted to Nepal, Tantia tope was hanged, Azimullah died of illness.

JhansiLakshmibaiHugh RoseDied in battlefield.

ArrahKunwar SinghWilliam Tyler and Eyredied of wound sustained in the fight

Revolts in Western India:

Bhai Rising in 1817-1819:The Bhils, an aboriginal tribe of Western Ghats with their strongholds in Khandesh, revolted against their new master, the English East India Company, fearing agrarian hardships under the new regime. The British crushed the revolt. However, the Bhils encouraged by the British reverses in the Burmese war again revolted under the leadership of Sewaram in 1825 signifying the popular character of the discontent.

Koli Rising:-The Kolis, the neighbours of the Bhils, also resented the imposition of British rule, dismantlement of their forests and the new order of administration and caused widespread employment. The Kolis rose in rebellion in 1829, in 1839 and once again during 1844-1848.

Cutch Rebellion:In 1819, a British force defeated and deposed Rao Bharmal in favour of his infact son. The actual administration of Cutch was undertaken by Council of Regency under the superintendence of the British Resident.

Waghera Rising:Besides the resentment against the foreign rule, the exactions of the Gaekward of Baroda supported by the British Government compelled the Waghera chief to take up arms. The Wagheras carried on inroads with British territory during 1818-1819. A peace treaty was concluded in November 1820.

Ramosi Rising:The Ramosis, the hill tribes in the Western Chats, resented British rule and the British pattern of administration. In 1822, under Chittur Singh, they revolted and plundered the country around Satara. There were revolts again during 1825-1826 and the area remained disturbed till 1829. The disturbance erupted again i