MINI REVIEW ARTICLEpublished: 23 September 2014doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01083

Focused attention, open monitoring and loving kindnessmeditation: effects on attention, conflict monitoring, andcreativity A reviewDominique P. Lippelt, Bernhard Hommel and Lorenza S. Colzato*Cognitive Psychology Unit, Institute for Psychological Research and Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands

Edited by:Barbara Tomasino, University ofUdine, Italy

Reviewed by:Antonino Raffone, Sapienza Universityof Rome, ItalyDarya Zabelina, NorthwesternUniversity, USA

*Correspondence:Lorenza S. Colzato, CognitivePsychology Unit, Institute forPsychological Research and LeidenInstitute for Brain and Cognition,Leiden University Wassenaarseweg52, 2333 AK Leiden, Netherlandse-mail: colzato@fsw.leidenuniv.nl

Meditation is becoming increasingly popular as a topic for scientific research and theorieson meditation are becoming ever more specific. We distinguish between what is calledfocused Attention meditation, open Monitoring meditation, and loving kindness (orcompassion) meditation. Research suggests that these meditations have differential,dissociable effects on a wide range of cognitive (control) processes, such as attentionalselection, conflict monitoring, divergent, and convergent thinking. Although research onexactly how the various meditations operate on these processes is still missing, differentkinds of meditations are associated with different neural structures and different patterns ofelectroencephalographic activity. In this review we discuss recent findings on meditationand suggest how the different meditations may affect cognitive processes, and we givesuggestions for directions of future research.

Keywords: open monitoring, focused attention, attention, ACC, conflict monitoring, vipassana

INTRODUCTIONEven though numerous studies have shown meditation to havesignificant effects on various affective and cognitive processes,many still view meditation as a technique primarily intendedfor relaxation and stress reduction. While meditation does seemto reduce stress and to induce a relaxing state of mind, it canalso have significant effects on how people perceive and processthe world around them and alter the way they regulate atten-tion and emotion. Lutz et al. (2008) proposed that the kind ofeffect meditation has is likely to differ according to the kind ofmeditation that is practiced. Currently the most researched typesof meditation include focused attention meditation (FAM), openmonitoring meditation (OMM), and loving-kindness meditation(LKM). Unfortunately, however, the methodological diversityacross the available studies with regard to sample characteris-tics, tasks used, and experimental design (within vs. betweengroup; with vs. without control condition) renders the compar-ison between them difficult. This review is primarily focused onFAM and OMM studies1 and on how these two (proto-)types ofmeditation are associated with different neural underpinnings anddifferential effects on attentional control, conflict monitoring, andcreativity.

MEDITATION TYPESUsually, FAM is the starting point for any novice meditator(Lutz et al., 2008; Vago and Silbersweig, 2012). During FAM the

1It is important to note that even though this mini review is based on thetheoretical framework of distinguishing FAM and OMM, another one includesthe distinction between concentrative meditations, practices that regulate orcontrol attention/awareness, and meditation practices which instead do not explic-itly target attentional/effortful control (Chiesa and Malinowski, 2011; see also

practitioner is required to focus attention on a chosen objector event, such as breathing or a candle flame. To maintainthis focus, the practitioner has to constantly monitor the con-centration on the chosen event so to avoid mind wandering(Tops et al., 2014). Once practitioners become familiar with theFAM technique and can easily sustain their attentional focuson an object for a considerable amount of time, they oftenprogress to OMM. During OMM the focus of the meditationbecomes the monitoring of awareness itself (Lutz et al., 2008;Vago and Silbersweig, 2012). In contrast to FAM, there is noobject or event in the internal or external environment thatthe meditator has to focus on. The aim is rather to stay inthe monitoring state, remaining attentive to any experience thatmight arise, without selecting, judging, or focusing on any par-ticular object. To start, however, the meditator will focus ona chosen object, as in FAM, but will subsequently graduallyreduce this focus, while emphasizing the activity of monitoringof awareness.

Loving-kindness meditation incorporates elements of bothFAM and OMM (Vago and Silbersweig, 2012). Meditators focuson developing love and compassion first for themselves and thengradually extend this love to ever more unlikeable others (e.g.,from self to a friend, to someone one does not know, to all livingbeings one dislikes). Any negative associations that might ariseare supposed to be replaced by positive ones such as pro-social orempathic concern.

Chiesa, 2012 for a recent review on the difficulty of defining Mindfulness). More-over, Travis and Shear (2010) have pointed out a third meditation categorybesides FAM and OMM: the automatic self-transcending which trascends FAMand OMM through the absence of both (a) focus and (b) individual control oreffort.

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Lippelt et al. Different meditations affect cognition

MEDITATION TYPES, ATTENTIONAL SCOPE, ANDENDOGENOUS ATTENTIONWhereas some meditation techniques require the practitionersto focus their attention on only a certain object or event, othertechniques allow any internal or external experiences or sensa-tions to enter awareness. Different meditation techniques mighttherefore bias the practitioner to either a narrow or broad spot-light of attention. This distinction is thought to be most evidentwith regard to FAM and OMM. FAM induces a narrow attentionalfocus due to the highly concentrative nature of the meditation,whereas OMM induces a broader attentional focus by allow-ing and acknowledging any experiences that might arise duringmeditation.

In a seminal study, Slagter et al. (2007) investigated the effectsof 3 months of intensive Vipassana meditation (an OMM-likemeditation) training on the allocation of attention over timeas indexed by the attentional-blink (AB) deficit, thought toresult from competition between two target stimuli (T1 and T2)for limited attentional resources. After the training, becauseof the acquisition of a broader attentional scope, participantsshowed a smaller AB deficit as an indication of being able todistribute their brain-resource allocation to both T1 and T2.The reduced AB size was accompanied by a smaller T1-elicitedP3b, a brain-potential thought to index attentional resourceallocation.

A more recent study comparing meditators (trained inmindfulness-based stress-reduction) to non-meditators foundthat meditators show evidence of more accurate and efficientvisual attention (Hodgins and Adair, 2010). Meditators monitoredevents more accurately in a concentration task and showed lessinterference from invalid cues in a visual selective attention task.Furthermore, meditators showed improved flexible visual atten-tion by identifying a greater number of alternative perspectivesin multiple perspectives images. Another study compared OMMand FAM meditators on a sustained attention task (Valentine andSweet, 1999): OMM meditators outperformed FAM meditatorswhen the target stimulus was unexpected. This might indicate thatthe OMM meditators had a wider attentional scope, even thoughthe two meditator groups did not differ in performance when thestimulus was expected.

Electrophysiological evidence for meditation-induced improve-ments in attention comes from a recent study in which Vipassanameditators performed an auditory oddball task before and aftermeditation (in one session) and random thinking (in anothersession; Delgado-Pastor et al., 2013). The meditation session wascomposed by three parts. First, an initial part of self-regulation ofattention focused on sensations from air entering and leaving thebody at the nostrils. Second, a central part of focusing attention onsensations from all parts of the body while maintaining the non-reactivity and acceptance attitude. Last, a final brief part aimed ongenerating feelings of compassion and unconditional love to allliving beings. Meditators showed greater P3b amplitudes to targettones after meditation than either before meditation or after theno-meditation session, an effect that is thought to reflect enhancedattentional engagement during the task.

Support for the assumption that FAM induces a narrow atten-tional focus comes from several studies that show that FAM

increases sustained attention (Carter et al., 2005; Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007). Neuroimaging evidence by Hasenkamp et al.(2012) suggests that FAM is associated with increased activity inthe right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), which has beenassociated withthe repetitive selection of relevant representationsor recurrent direction of attention to those items (DEsposito,2007, p. 765 ). Thus, in the context of meditation experience,dlPFC might be involved in repeatedly redirecting or sustainingattention to the object of focus. It would be interesting to investi-gate whether this pattern of activation is unique to FAM or whetherother kinds of meditation lead to similar increases in activity in thedlPFC. If the dlPFC is indeed involved in the repetitive redirectionof attention to the same object of focus, then it should not be asactive during OMM during which attention is more flexible andcontinuously shifted to different objects. Alternatively, however, ifduring OMM the meditator achieves a state of awareness where(only) awareness itself is the object of focus, the dlPFC might againplay a role in maintaining this focus. Similarly, it would be inter-esting to examine how LKM modulates attentional processes andthe activation of the dlPFC.

In a follow-up study, Hasenkamp and Barsalou (2012) foundthat, during rest, the right dlPFC connectivity to the right insulawas improved in experienced meditators compared to novices.The authors suggest that improved connectivity with the rightinsula might reflect enhanced interoceptive attention to internalbodily states. In a support of this idea, a recent study reportsthat mindfulness training predicted greater activity in posteriorinsula regions during interoceptive attention to respiratory sensa-tion (Farb et al., 2013). Various studies have shown theta activityto be increased during meditation, primarily OMM-like medita-tions (e.g., Baijal and Srinivasan, 2010; Cahn et al., 2010; Tsai et al.,2013; for review see Travis and Shear, 2010). This increase in thetaactivity, usually mid-frontal, has been suggested to be involvedin sustaining internalized attention. As such, similar increases intheta activity would be expected for LKM during which attentionis also internalized, but not during FAM where attention is explic-itly focused on an external object, even though typically the objectof meditation in FAM, at least for beginners, is the breath, whichis internal.

Additionally, active mindfulness meditation (versus rest) wasassociated with increased functional connectivity between the dor-sal attention network, the Default Mode Network and the rightprefrontal cortex (Froeliger et al., 2012). Thus, meditation prac-tice seems to enhance connectivity within and between attentionalnetworks and a number of broadly distributed other brain regionssubserving attention, self-referential, and emotional processes.

MEDITATION TYPES AND CONFLICT MONITORINGA fundamental skill acquired through meditation is the ability tomonitor the attentional focus in order to redirect it in the case ofconflicting thoughts or external events. Not surprisingly, severalstudies have already shown improvements in conflict monitoringafter meditation. Tang et al. (2007) investigated whether a train-ing technique based on meditational practices called integrativebody-mind training (IBMT; most similar to OMM) could improveperformance on an attentional network task (ANT; Fan et al.,2002). The ANT was developed to keep track of three different

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measures, namely orientation, alerting, and conflict resolution.While IBMT had no effect on orienting and alerting scores, it didimprove conflict resolution. In a similar study FAM and OMMwere compared on an emotional variant of the ANT. Both typesof meditation improved conflict resolution compared to a relax-ation control group (Ainsworth et al., 2013). Surprisingly, therewas no difference between the two meditation types, even though,mindfulness disposition at baseline (i.e., trait mindfulness) wasalso associated with improved conflict resolution.

Further evidence for improvements in conflict monitoringcome from a study investigating the effect of 6-week long FAMtrainig (versus relaxation training and a waiting-list group) ona discrimination task intended to investigate the relationshipbetween attentional load and emotional processing (Menezeset al., 2013). Participants had to respond to whether or not theorientation of two lines presented to either side of an emotion-ally distracting picture was the same. Importantly, those whounderwent a meditation or relaxation training commited fewererrors than the waiting list control group. Furthermore, errorrates were lowest in the meditation group, higest in the wait-ing list group, while the relaxation group scored in between.With regard to emotional regulation meditators showed less emo-tional interference than the other two groups when attentionalload was low, and only meditators showed a relationship betweenthe amount of weekly practice and reductions in emotionalinterference.

In a study of Xue et al. (2011), meditation-nave participantswere randomly assigned to either an 11 h IBMT course or a relax-ation training. Compared to the relaxation training, the IBMTgroup showed higher network efficiency and degree of connec-tivity of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). As the ACC isinvolved in processes such as self-regulation, detecting interfer-ence and errors, and overcoming impasses (e.g., Botvinick et al.,2004), improvements in ACC functioning might well be the neuralmechanism by which IBMT improves conflict resolution. In aninteresting study of Hasenkamp et al. (2012), experienced medita-tors engaged in FAM inside an fMRI scanner and pushed a buttonwhenever they started to mind-wander. The moment of aware-ness of mind-wandering was associated with increased activityin the dorsal ACC. Thus, as the mind starts to wander duringmeditation, the ACC might detect this error and feed it backto executive control networks (Botvinick et al., 1999; Carter andvan Veen, 2007), so that attention can be refocused. Variousother studies have also shown improvements in ACC function-ing after meditation (Lazar et al., 2000; Baerentsen et al., 2001;Tang et al., 2009, 2010). Hlzel et al. (2007) compared experi-enced and novice meditators during a concentrative meditation(akin to FAM) and found that the experienced meditators showedgreater activity in the rostral ACC during meditation than thenovices, even though the two groups did not differ on an arith-metic control task. Similar results were obtained in another studycomparing novices and experienced meditators (Baron Short et al.,2007) by showing more activity in the ACC during FAM comparedto a control task. The activity in the ACC was more consistentand sustained for experienced meditators. Related to that, Bud-dhist monks exhibited more activity in the ACC during FAMthan during OMM (Manna et al., 2010). This suggests that the

effects of meditation on the ACC and conflict monitoring donot seem to be limited to temporary state effects but carry overinto daily life as a more stable trait. Future large scale lon-gitudinal studies should to be conducted to address this issueand to disentangle short-term and long-term effects on conflictmonitoring.

Improved conflict monitoring does not necessarily entailincreased brain activity. Kozasa et al. (2012) compared meditatorsand non-meditators on a Stroop task in which semantic asso-ciations of words have to be suppressed to retrieve the colorof the word. While behavioral performance was not signifi-cantly different for the two groups, compared to meditators, thenon-meditators showed more activity in brain regions related toattention and motor control during incongruent trials. Given thatthe aim of many meditation techniques is to monitor the automaticarise of distractible sensations, such skill may become effortless byrepeated meditation, therefore leading to less brain activity duringthe Stroop task. LKM has been shown to improve conflict resolu-tion, as well, when LKM and a control group were compared ona Stroop task. The LKM group was faster in responding to bothcongruent and incongruent trials, and the difference between con-gruent and incongruent trials (the congruency effect) was smalleras well (Hunsinger et al., 2013). As LKM incorporates elements ofboth FAM and OMM, it would be interesting to investigate howthe effect size associated with LKM may be positioned in betweenFAM and OMM.

Recently, meditators and non-meditators were compared withregard to measures of cortical silent period and short intra cor-tical inhibition over the motor cortex before and after a 60 minlong meditation (for the meditators) or cartoon (for the non-meditators), respectively, measuring GABAB receptor-mediatedinhibitory neurotransmission and GABAA receptor-mediatedinhibitory neurotransmission (Guglietti et al., 2013). Given thatdeficits related to cortical silent periods in the motor cortex hadbeen previously associated with psychiatric illness and emotionalderegulation, the activity over the motor cortex was measured. Nodifferences were found between meditators and non-meditatorsbefore the meditation/cartoon. However, after meditation therewas a significant increase in GABAB activity in the meditatorgroup. The authors suggest that improved cortical inhibition ofthe motor cortex, through meditation, helps reduce perceptions ofenvironmental threat and negative affect through top down mod-ulation of excitatory neural activity (Guglietti et al., 2013, p. 400).Future research might investigate whether similar GABA relatedmechanisms underlie the suppression of distracting stimuli dur-ing meditation and how different types of meditation might havedistinguishable effects on these processes.

MEDITATION TYPES AND CREATIVITYThe scientific evidence regarding the connection between medita-tion and creativity is inconsistent. While some studies support astrong positive impact of meditation practice on creativity (Orme-Johnson and Granieri, 1977; Orme-Johnson et al., 1977), othersfound only a weak association or no effect at all (Cowger, 1974;Domino, 1977). Recently, Zabelina et al. (2011) found that ashort-term effect of mindfulness manipulation (basically OMM)facilitated creative elaboration at high levels of neuroticism. As

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pointed out by Colzato et al. (2012), these inconsistencies mightreflect a failure to distinguish between different and dissociableprocesses underlying creativity, such as convergent and divergentthinking (Guilford, 1950). Accordingly, Colzato et al. (2012) com-pared the impact of FAM and OMM on convergent thinking (aprocess of identifying one correct answer to a well-defined prob-lem) and divergent thinking (a process aiming at generating manynew ideas) in meditation practitioners. Indeed, the two types ofmeditation affected the two types of thinking in opposite ways:while convergent thinking tended to improve after FAM, diver-gent thinking was significantly enhanced after OMM. Colzatoet al. (2012) suggest that FAM and OMM induce two different,to some degree opposite cognitive-control states that supportstate-compatible thinking styles, such as convergent and divergentthinking, respectively. In contrast to convergent thinking, diver-gent thinking benefits from a control state that promotes quickjumps from one thought to another by reducing the top-downcontrol of cognitive processingas achieved by OMM.

CONCLUSIONResearch on meditation is still in its infancy but our understand-ing of the underlying functional and neural mechanisms is steadilyincreasing. However, a serious shortcoming in the current litera-ture is the lack of studies that systematically distinguish betweenand compare different kinds of meditation on various cognitive,affective or executive control tasksa criticism that applies toneuroscientific studies in particular. Further progress will requirea better understanding of the functional aims of particular medi-tation techniques and their strategies to achieve them. It will alsobe important to more systematically assess short- and long-termeffects of meditation, as well as the (not yet understood) impactof meditation experience (as present in practitioners but notnovices). For instance, several approaches (like Buddhism) favora particular sequence of acquiring meditation skills (from FAM toOMM) but evidence that this sequence actually matters is lacking.Moreover, the neural mechanisms underlying meditation effectsare not well understood. It might be interesting that the three mainresearch topics we have covered in the present review (attentionalcontrol, performance monitoring, and creativity or thinking style)imply the operation of extended neural networks, which mightsuggest that meditation operates on neural communication, per-haps by impacting neurotransmitter systems. Finally, it may beinteresting to consider individual differences more systematically.If meditation really affects interactions between functional andneural networks, it makes sense to assume that the net effect ofmeditation of performance depends on the pre-experimental per-formance level of the individualbe it in terms of compensation(so that worse performers benefit more) or predisposition (so thatsome are more sensitive to meditation interventions).

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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conductedin the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construedas a potential conflict of interest.

Received: 15 July 2014; accepted: 08 September 2014; published online: 23 September2014.Citation: Lippelt DP, Hommel B and Colzato LS (2014) Focused attention, open mon-itoring and loving kindness meditation: effects on attention, conflict monitoring, andcreativity A review. Front. Psychol. 5:1083. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01083This article was submitted to Cognition, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology.Copyright 2014 Lippelt, Hommel and Colzato. This is an open-access article dis-tributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Theuse, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the originalauthor(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited,in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction ispermitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Focused attention, open monitoring and loving kindness meditation: effects on attention, conflict monitoring, and creativity A reviewIntroductionMeditation typesMeditation types, attentional scope, and endogenous attentionMeditation types and conflict monitoringMeditation types and creativityConclusionReferences